Limnology of desert ponds

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Authors Alcorn, Steven Ray, 1950-

Publisher The University of Arizona.

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LIMNOLOGY OF DESERT PONDS

by

Steven Ray Alcorn

A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the

DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE WITH A MAJOR IN FISHERY BIOLOGY

In the Graduate College

THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA

19 7 4

STATEMENT BY AUTHOR

This thesis has been submitted in partial fulfillment of re­quirements for an advanced, degree at The University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library.

Brief quotations from this thesis are allowable without special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgment of source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the head of the major department or the Dean of the Graduate College when in his judg­ment the proposed use of the material is in the interests of scholar­ship. In all other instances, however, permission must be obtained from the author.

SIGNED: 71 Jg/vwt? /3A

APPROVAL BY THESIS DIRECTOR

This thesis has been approved on the date shown below:

(BCu*. a .CHARLES D. ^tEBELL

Lecturer in Biological Sciences

G mkjL 3d /fpyf Date

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to express my appreciation to Mr. Charles D. Ziebell and

Dr. Jerry C. Tash for their valuable help and guidance over several

years. My thanks also go to Dr. Boyd E. Kynard and Dr. Elisabeth A.

Stull for their constructive criticism of the manuscript. David

Kennedy, Lynn Otte, Kevin Curry, and William Fee assisted with field

collections and their help is very much appreciated. Dr. Charles T.

Mason kindly identified the aquatic plants collected. My wife, Gail,

has earned special thanks for her help, both moral and financial, in

this project.

Mona Wong, Remy De Jong, D. M. Martin, and Norman Kahn were all

very cooperative and helpful in allowing me to use their ponds as study sites.

This project was supported by the Arizona Cooperative Fishery

Unit which is cooperatively maintained by The University of Arizona,

Arizona Game and Fish Department, and U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF T A B L E S ................................................. v

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS........................................... vi

A B S T R A C T ........................................................ vii

INTRODUCTION ................................................... 1

DESCRIPTION OF STUDY PONDS ..................................... 3

METHODS AND MATERIALS........................................... 5

RESULTS .......................................................... 7

Surface Water Temperatures ................................. 7Temperature Profiles ....................................... 7Dissolved Oxygen ........................................... 10Hydrogen Ion Concentration (pH)............................. 11Summer Diel Water Quality............ 11Quarterly Well Water Analysis ............................... 13Photic Depths ............................................... 13Water Levels ................................................ 17

DISCUSSION...................................................... 19

Factors Affecting Water Temperatures ....................... 20Factors Affecting Oxygen Concentrations ..................... 22Effects of Pond U s e .......................... 24Role of Submerged Aquatic Vegetation ....................... 24Water Quality in Relation to Fisheries..................... 26Pond Design Recommendations ................................. 28

CONCLUSIONS.......... 31

APPENDIX A: TEMPERATURE AND DISSOLVED OXYGEN DATA FOR TOINLAKES, WONG'S POND, CHALK RESERVOIR, KAHN'S POND, AND MISSILE SITE POND ....................... 32

APPENDIX B: DIEL TEMPERATURE AND OXYGEN DATA FOR TWINLAKES, WONG'S POND, CHALK RESERVOIR, ANDMISSILE SITE P O N D ................................. 38

LIST OF REFERENCES............................................. 43

Page

iv

LIST OF TABLES

1. Range of pond surface temperatures from October1972 to September 1973 9

2. Seasonal pH ranges from October 1972 to September1973 ......................... . ....................... 12

3. Diel pH readings of each pond taken in July 1973 . . . . 14

4. Well water chemical analysis ........................... 15

5. Monthly photic depths given as percent RelativeLight Intensity............................................16

6. Monthly maximum depths recorded in meters fromOctober 1972 to September 1973 18

Table Page

v

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

1. Monthly variation in surface water temperaturesfrom October 1972 to September 1973 ................ 8

2. Idealized cross section of the terraced pond bottom showing the recommended 2.5 meter levelsfor a pond supplied with runoff..................... 29

3. Idealized cross section of the pond bottom show­ing the recommended 2.5 meter depth for a pondsupplied by a p u m p ................................. 29

Figure Page

vi

ABSTRACT

The limnology of five types of ponds in Southern Arizona was

studied from October 1972 to September 1973 to provide information for

fisheries. Temperature, oxygen, pH, and photic zone measurements were

made monthly. Diel studies of temperature, oxygen, and pH were con­

ducted in July.

Weather conditions caused thermal stratification to begin in

February and last through October in the deeper ponds. Complete

nightly summer circulation occurred in ponds less than 2.5 meters deep.

Shallow, turbid ponds experienced high surface temperatures and large

diel temperature fluctuations. Shaded ponds were no cooler than open

ponds.

Winter oxygen concentrations were above 5 mg/1 in all ponds.

Dissolved oxygen in ponds filled by wells was above 5 mg/1 year around.

Thermal stratification caused summer oxygen deficiencies below 2.5

meters in deep ponds supplied by runoff. Turbidity levels in one stock

tank reduced the photic zone and caused oxygen deficiencies below 0.5

meter.

Recommendations are that ponds filled with well water be con­

structed 2.5 meters deep with sloping slides. Ponds supplied by runoff

should be constructed at least 5.0 meters deep with 2.5 meter terraces

and sloping sides.

Most ponds were suitable for warm-water fish year around and

trout from November through April.

vii

INTRODUCTION

Most Americans enjoy a large amount of leisure time, and many

of these people are using this time to participate in outdoor activi­

ties such as fishing, hunting, and hiking. In Arizona, fishermen have

to travel great distances to lakes and rivers that are often crowded.

Building more lakes to relieve crowded conditions takes time and is

expensive. An alternative, suggested by the Arizona Game and Fish De­

partment, is to use small ponds for fishing. The Arizona landscape is

interspersed with many ponds used by ranchers as stock tanks and irri­

gation reservoirs. These small ponds may have the potential for aqua­

culture and sport fishing.

Unfortunately, little information is available on the suitabil­

ity of these ponds for fish. Data are available on pond fisheries in

Alabama and Oklahoma, but it does not appear to be applicable to

Arizona because the limnological characteristics of Arizona's ponds are

markedly different.

Limnological information for small ponds is needed to utilize

them in a fisheries capacity. The broad objective of my research was

to evaluate the limnological characteristics of several different types

of ponds in Southern Arizona. Specific objectives include investiga­

tions of the following:

1. Annual physio-chemical water quality patterns

2. Summer diel physio-chemical water quality patterns

1

3. Well water quality

4. Pond morphometry

This information will serve as a guideline for constructing new ponds

for fisheries and also for establishing a fishery in a previously con

structed pond.

DESCRIPTION OF STUDY PONDS

Twin Lakes is located 7.5 km southwest of the junction of US

80/89 and State Route 77, longitude 110 531 latitude 32 301, at an ele­

vation of 950 meters. The pond is used exclusively for recreation by

approximately 70 families from the real estate development north of the

pond. The surface area is 6.4 hectares, the largest pond studied. The

maximum depth is 2.0 meters and the mean depth is 1.0 meter. This pond

has a very gradual slope with shallow area less than 0.25 meter deep,

extending 10 to 15 meters from shore. Ihe predominant aquatic macro­

phyte, Najas flexilis, is present from May to December at all depths.

The pond is supplied with water from a well 196 meters deep.

Chalk Reservoir is 9.7 km southwest of the junction of US 80/89

and State Route 77, longitude 110 57* latitude 32 31*, at an elevation

of 1000 meters. It is a stock tank dependent on rainfall and watershed

runoff for its water supply. The surface area ranged from 0.1 hectare

to 0.02 hectare, and the maximum depth ranged from 3.0 meters to 0.9

meter during the study. There were no aquatic macrophytes present.

Wong's Pond is located on the Wong Ranch, 1 km south of the

Avra Valley Road and Trico Road junction, longitude 111 18* latitudeo

32 23', at an elevation of 606 meters. It is used for recreation by

the owners and their guests. The surface area is 0.85 hectare, and

maximum depth ranges from 2.0 to 2.4 meters. The mean depth is 1.5

meters. The slope is very steep to one meter with a more gradual slope

3

4to 2.0 meters. The predominant aquatic macrophyte, Potamogeton pectin-

atus. is present from May through late November at all depths. The

water supply for this pond is a well 200 meters deep.

Missile Site Pond is in the foothills of the Santa Rita Moun­

tains, 11.6 km south of the 1-10 and State Route 83 junction, longitude

110 451 latitude 31 55*, at an elevation of 1200 meters. It is a stock

tank dependent on rainfall and watershed runoff for its water supply.

The maximum depth ranged from 4.0 meters to 5.5 meters, and the mean

depth is 2.0 meters. It has a surface area of 0.76 hectare. The bot­

tom slopes gradually to one meter except at the dam, where the bottom

slopes steeply to four meters. The predominant aquatic macrophyte,

Potamogeton pectinatus, is present from May to November at depths above

2.0 meters.

Kahn’s Pond is located near Tanque Verde Road approximately

10 km from the Speedway/Vilmot intersection in Tucson, at an elevation

of 870 meters. This pond is an old concrete lined swimming pool and

is now used as an irrigation storage pond. The maximum depth is 3.0

meters and the surface area is 0.03 hectare. This pond is surrounded

by cottonwood, salt cedar, and mesquite trees, some 10 meters tall.

The pond was added to the study in May 1973 and consequently was sampled only five months.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Sampling began on October 7, 1972, and was terminated September

16, 1973. All samples were collected at monthly intervals, except the

well water which was sampled on a quarterly basis. Five ponds were se­

lected to represent the major types found in Southern Arizona. Samples

were collected between 10:00 a.m. and 2:00 p.m. on successive days.

Water quality profiles were taken at the deepest part of each pond after

preliminary random sampling showed the water was essentially homogene­

ous.

Temperature, oxygen, and pH data were collected at each meter

beginning 5 cm below the surface and descending to a level 5 cm above

the bottom. Temperature and oxygen data were collected with a YSI

model 54 portable meter, and pH measurements were made with a Beckman

model 1009 portable meter. Water samples for the pH measurements were

collected with a Kemmerer water sampler.

The photic zone was determined with an O.R.E. model 504 sub­

marine photometer. Measurements were recorded as percent Relative

Light Intensity (RLl).

Each pond, except Kahn’s Pond, was sampled over a 24-hour

period during the month of July. Temperature and oxygen data were

taken every two hours and pH data every four hours. Sampling began

just prior to sunset and terminated at sunset of the following day.

5

6

Water samples from wells at Twin Lakes, Wong's Pond, and Kahn's

Pond were collected in polyethylene bottles. All samples were refrig­

erated, and analysis for total alkalinity and orthophosphate was con­

ducted within 24 hours. Total alkalinity was determined using a

potentiometric method (American Public Health Association 1965) and a

Beckman pH meter. Orthophosphate was analyzed by the ammonium

molybdate-stannous chloride method (American Public Health Association

1965), with a Bausch and Lomb Spectronic 20 spectrophotometer, Hach re­

agents, and a Hach Spectronic 20 phosphate curve.

Water levels were measured monthly in Chalk Reservoir and Mis­

sile Site Pond with a sounding line. The water levels of Twin Lakes

and Wong's Pond were relatively constant because water was replenished

from wells.

RESULTS

Each study pond was limnologically different because of its lo­

cation, elevation, and use. Therefore, to present thorough results,

water quality variables were illustrated with examples from all the

ponds.

Surface Water Temperatures

The annual surface water temperatures for the study ponds are

presented in Figure 1. All ponds exhibited a cooling period that be­

gan in September and continued through December, when the lowest tem­

peratures were recorded. The water temperatures slowly began to rise

in January and this trend continued through February. The temperature

rise accelerated from March through July, with maximums recorded in

July and August.

The range of surface temperatures is shown in Table 1. Over-o oall, surface temperatures ranged from 5 to 10 C in December and Jan-

o o ouary, 10 to 20 C from February to April, and were above 20 C from May

to October.

Temperature Profiles

Water temperatures were uniform throughout the water column

from November through January (Appendix A, Tables 7-11). By February

this homogeneity had disappeared. Surface temperatures had increasedoas much as 8 C, while at one meter and below, the increase was less

7

TEMPERATURE, °C

MISSILE SITE

N D J F , M A M U

• 32

TWIN LAKES

0 N A M J J

CHALK RESERVOIR

A M0 N

Figure 1. Monthly variation in surface water temperatures from October 1972 to September 1973.

oo

9

Table 1. Range of pond surface temperatures from October 1972 to September 1973.

Sept. - Dec. Jan. - March April - Aug.

Twin Lakes

Chalk Reservoir

Wong1s Pond

Missile Site

O O24 C - 7 C

o o25 C - 6 C

o o25 C - 9 C

o o23 C - 6 C

10°C - 13°C

8°C - 11°C

10°C - 13°C

7°C - 13°C

15°C - 29°C

20°C - 30°C

18°C - 28°C

16°C - 27°C

23°C - 27°CKahn1s Pond

10

than 4 C. A thermocline was evident in each pond. In March, surface

water temperatures declined and some mixing occurred. The thermoclines

in Twin Lakes and Chalk Reservoir disappeared, but they remained in

Wong's Pond and Missile Site Pond (Appendix A). Surface water tempera­

tures increased in April, and the thermoclines were reestablished in

Twin Lakes and Chalk Reservoir. Water temperatures were uniformly warm

in all ponds during August with little temperature variation by depth.

The previously described thermal patterns were similar for all

ponds except Missile Site Pond. There, the thermocline was established

in February and remained through the end of the study. At various times

during the summer, this pond became truly stratified (Table 11, Appendix

A) with an epilimnion, metalimnion, and hypolimnion.

Dissolved Oxygen

Winter oxygen concentrations were above 7.0 mg/1 and very nearly

uniform throughout the water column of each pond. In February, oxygen

concentrations began to vary with depth and from March to July the

range was 0.0 mg/1 to 20+ mg/1. The range of oxygen concentrations dif­

fered from pond to pond, but in general concentrations were above 4.5

mg/1 throughout the year (Tables 7-10).

The oxygen concentrations in Missile Site Pond differed from

the other study ponds (Table 11). The dissolved oxygen remained above

4.5 mg/1 from the surface to 4 meters until May, but was below 4.5 mg/1

near the bottom as early as February. Oxygen concentrations declined

steadily until finally in June, there was less than 1.0 mg/1 of oxygen

below 2.5 meters. In contrast, the June oxygen concentrations in Twin

11

Lakes increased from 10.6 mg/1 at the surface to 12.0 mg/1 near the

bottom.

Hydrogen Ion Concentration (pH)

The pH range for all ponds during the study was 6.7 to 10.1

(Table 2). The two ponds supplied with well water, Twin Lakes and

Wong’s Pond, had yearly ranges of 8.1 to 10.0. The ponds supplied by

runoff had ranges of 6.7 to 10.1.

The pH values within each pond were relatively uniform during

the winter months. In the summer, the pH at both Missile Site and

Chalk Reservoir changed as deoxygenation occurred. The surface water

pH remained at 9.0 while the pH in the bottom waters declined to 6.7.

Summer Diel Water Quality

Maximum surface temperatures were recorded between 4 p.m. and

6 p.m. and minimum surface temperatures were recorded shortly after

sunrise at 6 a.m. (see Appendix B, Tables 12-15). Mixing occurred

nightly in each pond. Vertical thermal diversity disappeared by mid­

night, but reformed before noon of the following day.

Missile Site Pond turnover was limited to the top meter (Table

15). The first meter was mixed by midnight and the thermocline was re­formed by early afternoon.

The greatest range of oxygen concentrations recorded occurred

at Chalk Reservoir (Table 14). At 6 a.m., the surface oxygen concen­

tration was 0.8 mg/1 and, at noon, it was in excess of 20 mg/1. In

comparison, the 24 hour variation of oxygen concentrations of the other ponds was less than 5 mg/1 at any depth.

12

Table 2. Seasonal pH ranges from October 1972 to September 1973.

Oct. - Jan. Feb. - May June - Sept.

Twin Lakes 8.3 - 8.5 8.1 - 9.3 9.4 - 9.6

Chalk Reservoir 6.7 - 8.4 7.0 - 9.1 7.7 - 10.1

Wong's Pond 8.4 - 10.0 8.1 — 8.5 8.1 - 9.0

Missile Site Pond 6.9 - 9.2 7.2 - 9.6 6.7 - 9.0

Kahn1s Pond 7.2 - 8.6

13

The diel pH values of all ponds ranged from 7.0 to 10.2 (Table

3). At Twin Lakes and Wong's Pond, the pH values ranged from 8.3 to

10.2. At Chalk Reservoir and Missile Site Pond, the range was 7.0 to

10.1. Generally, pH values declined during the night and increased

during the day.

Quarterly Well Water Analysis

The lowest orthophosphate concentrations from each well were

recorded in the fall and winter, while the highest levels were recorded

in the summer (Table 4). The concentrations in the well water at Twin

Lakes ranged from 0.04 ppm to 0.11 ppm. The range at Wong'e Pond was

0.11 ppm to 0.19 ppm. At Kahn's Pond, the concentration of orthophos­

phate ranged from 0.06 ppm to 0.16 ppm.

The total alkalinity concentrations were generally greater than

100 ppm during the study (Table 4). The largest single change was a

reduction of 24 ppm in Wong's Pond from August to November. The high­

est concentration was also at Wong's Pond, with a range of 116 ppm to

150 ppm.

Photic Depths

Photic depths were variable at different seasons and different

ponds (Table 5). The deepest photic depth was recorded at Twin Lakes

in April, where a reading of 60% Relative Light Intensity (RLl) was re­

corded at the bottom (2.0 meters). Chalk Reservoir was the most turbid

of the ponds, where the greatest photic depth recorded was 1% RLI at

0.5 meters in March.

14

Table 3. Dial pH readings of each pond taken in July 1973.

TwinLakes

ChalkReservoir

Wong *s Pond

Missile Site Pond

Depthfm't u 1 2 0 1 0 1 2 0 1 2 3 4

8 p.m. 9.9 9.8 9.8 10.1 8.6 8.5 8.6 8.5 9.1 9.1 8.0 7.6 6.9

12 p.m. 9.8 9.7 9.7 9.2 9.0 8.6 8.7 8.6 9.1 9.1 8.4 7.2 6.8

4 a.m. 9.8 9.8 9.8 8.5 8.8 8.6 9.0 9.0 9.0 8.3 7.2

6 a.m. 8.8 8.8

8 a.m. 8.5 8.6 8.6 8.7 8.9 8.8 7.3 7.0

10 a.m. 9.3 9.4 9.2

12 a.m. 9.8 8.5 8.3 8.4 8.5 9.0 9.0 8.6 7.5 7.1

2 p.m. 10.2 10.1 9.7

4 p.m. 8.7 8.8 8.6

6 p.m. 10.2 10.2 9.8 9.0 9.0 7.9 7.7 7.0

8 p.m. 9.9 8.6 8.5 8.5 8.5

15

Table 4. Well water chemical analysis.

Winter Spring Summer Fall

TwinLakes

Totalalkalinity

Ortho­phosphate

80 ppm 104 ppm 106 ppm 98 ppm

.04 ppm .11 ppm .07 ppm .04 ppm

Wong * s Pond

Totalalkalinity

Ortho­phosphate

150 ppm 150 ppm 140 ppm 116 ppm

.11 ppm .19 ppm .19 ppm .14 ppm

Kahn *s Pond

Totalalkalinity

Ortho­

140 ppm 134 ppm

phosphate .16 ppm .06 ppm

.Table 5. Monthly photic depths given as percent Relative Light Intensity

Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb

Twin % RLI 5 1 1 5 14Lakes depth

(m) 0.7 1.6 1.5 0.6 2.0

Chalk 7. RLI 5 1 1 1 1Reservoir depth

(m) 0.1 0.5 0.25 0.25 0.3

Wong * s 7. RLI 5 2 10 2Pond depth

(m) 0.4 2.4 2.4 1.4

Missile 7. RLI 5 1 1 1 2Site depth

(m) 0.3 1.3 1.5 1.0 0.9

Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept

30 60 34 20 1 4 8

2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.5 2.0 2.0

2 1 1 1 1 1 1

0.5 0.15 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2

2 1 1 1 6 14 3

0.9 0.6 1.5 1.75 2.5 2.0 2.0

2 1 1 1 1 1

1.3 2.5 1.5 1.4 1.4 2.0

Kahn * s Pond

7. RLIdepth(m)

30 1

3.0 1.7

34 1

2.0 1.7

17Water Levels

The water levels of the study ponds were variable, dependent on

the water source at each pond. Twin Lakes and Wong's Pond, both sup­

plied with well water, had water level fluctuations of less than 0.5

meter over a 12-month period (Table 6). The runoff supplied ponds were

very different. Chalk Reservoir gradually lost over 2.0 meters of

water during the study, and Missile Site Pond lost 0.3 meter in the

winter; then in the spring the depth increased to 1.5 meters.

• Table 6. Monthly maximum depths recorded in meters from October 1972 to September 1973* • \

Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept

Twin Lakes 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.7 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.8

Chalk Reservoir 3.0 3.0 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.6 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

Wong’s Pond 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.8 2.5 2.5 2.0 2.0

Missile Site 4.3 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.8 5.5 5.5 5.0 4.0 4.5 4.0 4.0

Kahn's Pond 3.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0

DISCUSSION

The climatological conditions of Southern Arizona have a marked

effect on the limnology of ponds. Intense solar radiation is the major

source of heat and there are few cloudy days to reduce the incoming

solar radiation. The University of Arizona averages 18 cloudless, 24-

hour periods each month (Green and Sellers 1964) and receives as many

as 16 hours of sunlight during a summer day. These conditions result

in intense surface heating and high diel air temperatures (U.S. Depart­

ment of Commerce, Weather Bureau 1972). Monthly surface water tempera­

tures follow monthly mean air temperatures (McCombie 1959) and more

importantly, surface water temperatures closely follow diel air temper­

atures (Cole 1968). This heating causes thermal stratification to

begin as early as February and last until November. It also causes

water temperatures to rise above 30 C. Temperatures this high are

lethal to trout (Borell and Scheffer 1961, Dendy 1963) and are approach­

ing the lethal limit for some warm-rwater fish (Huet 1965; Emig 1966a,b).

Lack of precipitation during most of the year limits the water

supply of a pond filled by runoff and the evaporation rate reduces the

pond volume by approximately 2.3 meters per year (Green and Sellers

1964). This decrease affects the water temperature because less energy

is required to heat the pond as the volume decreases (Cole 1968).

These climatological factors, primarily the solar radiation in­

put, influence the thermal patterns of the ponds to the extent that the

19

20

limnological classifications of lakes by Hutchinson (1957) are not ap­

plicable to any of the ponds except Missile Site Pond which closely re­

sembled a warm monomictic lake. Cole (1968) reported that in the

southwestern United States, monomictic lakes often result from the dam­

ming of narrow canyons. Missile Site Pond is situated at the junction

of two narrow canyons.

There are many variables present which influence the limnology

of the ponds. Several of these factors are interrelated and must be

recognized to assess the pond limnologically.

Factors Affecting Water Temperatures

Weather conditions primarily affected circulation and caused

thermal stratification. Warm, sunny weather in February caused a ther-

mocline to develop in each pond (Tables 7-9), but cooler weather in

March reduced surface temperatures and the ponds were mixed again.

Thermoclines reformed in April.

Depth was instrumental in maintaining stratification in Missile

Site Pond which was three meters deeper than the other ponds. This

pond stratified in February but did not mix in March even though air

temperatures declined (Table 11). This suggested that the greater

depth prevented complete circulation.

Diel studies also indicated that depth had a major influence

on the thermal patterns of the ponds. Each of the three shallow ponds

developed a thermocline by mid-afternoon, but by early morning of the

following day, the thermoclines had disappeared and the ponds were com­

pletely mixed (Tables 12-14). The decline in water temperature was due

21to two factors: 1) back radiation at night, and 2) heat exchange with

the sediments. These two factors plus the shallow depths of the ponds

were responsible for the temporary nature of the thermoclines. The

deeper waters of Missile Site Pond reduced the effects of back radia­

tion and heat exchange with the sediments so that mixing was confined

to the first meter (Table 15).

Water depth also exerted control over the diel temperature

range of a pond. Chalk Reservoir was only 1.0 meter deep and shallowerOthan the other ponds. The 12 C fluctuation of the surface temperature

in a 24-hour period was greater than at any other pond (Table 14). The

energy required to heat this volume of water was much less than at any

other pond.

The extreme turbidity present in Chalk Reservoir increased the

heat absorption capacity of the surface waters. The surface tempera­

tures were warmer than the other ponds and became warm earlier. The

turbidity level was also partially responsible for the very large tern-Operature gradient recorded, a 10 C change from the surface to one meter

(Table 14).

Hutchinson (1957) reported that shading may reduce the daily

period of insolation, thus causing a reduction of solar heat income. Kahn's Pond was surrounded by tall trees, some more than 10 meters

tall. After correcting for altitude, the water temperatures at Kahn's

Pond were no cooler than the other ponds. Apparently, the solar radi­

ation received by this pond was sufficient to cause heating similar to

that of open ponds.

22Altitude has a strong influence on the thermal pattern of a

pond. An increase in altitude is the same as an increase in latitude

(Hutchinson 1957). In Arizona, the thermal lapse rate is 2.2 C per

305 meters elevation (Lowe 1964). Prior to pond construction it is

possible to mathematically determine the range of water temperatures

expected by using data from this study and correcting for the altitude

of the prospective pond site. This information is important in deter­

mining the type of fish to stock.

Factors Affecting Oxygen Concentration

The oxygen concentrations in the ponds are influenced by a com­

bination of factors: 1) rooted aquatic plants and phytoplankton pro­

duce oxygen by photosynthesis, 2) circulation mixes saturated surface

waters throughout the pond and 3) oxygen is reduced during plant res­

piration and bacterial decomposition of organic material.

Oxygen concentrations were above 5 mg/1 throughout the water

column in all ponds during the winter months primarily because of mix­

ing caused by cooling air temperatures (Cole 1968) and decreased oxygen

demand. Oxygen demand was low because most rooted aquatic plants had

already been decomposed.

In the ponds filled by wells, Twin Lakes and Wong's Pond, only

one monthly oxygen sample was below 4.5 mg/1. The thermoclines in

these ponds were not permanent. In ponds as shallow as these wind

could continually mix the entire water mass (Hutchinson 1957). These

ponds also had deep photic zones, usually reaching the bottom of each

pond. This allowed oxygen production by submerged plants throughout

23the water column. The organic decomposition in these ponds was minimal

because they were not used by cattle and did not receive much othervorganic material.

Deoxygenation of the bottom waters at Missile Site Pond and

- Chalk Reservoir began with the establishment of the thermocline.

Stratification and deoxygenation were permanent in Missile Site Pond

after February because the thermocline prevented circulation below two

meters. The photic zone at Missile Site Pond was never more than 2.5

meters, which was only half the depth of the pond. Chalk Reservoir was

even more extreme with a photic zone never deeper than 0.5 meter. Lit­

tle oxygen was produced near the bottom of these ponds because aquatic

plants were absent.

Cattle influenced the shallow photic zone in Chalk Reservoir.

They waded in the pond, stirred up the bottom, and made the water tur­

bid. This also released nutrients which helped cause algal blooms.

Cattle contributed fecal material to the pond which increased the oxy­

gen demand.

Missile Site Pond received organic material through flooding.

McConnell (1963, 1968) reported that Pena Blanca Lake received 350

metric tons of leaf litter and other organic material when flash floods

swept through normally dry washes emptying into the lake. Missile Site

Pond is located at the convergence of two washes. The material washed

into the pond decomposed and exerted an oxygen demand.

Oxygen concentrations in well water supplied ponds with deep

photic zones were above 5 mg/1 at all depths throughout the year.

24

Turbid, shallow ponds had oxygen concentrations above 5 mg/1 in surface

waters, but deoxygenation occurred below the photic zone primarily be­

cause aquatic plants were lacking. Deep stock tanks were oxygen defi­

cient below 2.5 meters because the permanent thermocline limited circu­

lation.

Effects of Pond Use

The limnology of a pond is directly affected by the way it is

used. Many ponds in Southern Arizona are used as stock tanks which,

like Chalk Reservoir, are characterized by extreme turbidity (Cole

1968). The effects of turbidity have been discussed previously.

Irrigation storage is another pond use common to this area.

The water in these ponds is held until needed, so water levels fluctu­

ate widely depending on the season. Kahn's Pond is 3.0 meters deep and

its water level fluctuates over a 1.5 meter range. Continually chang­

ing water levels of this magnitude could cause serious problems when

fish spawn. Spawning areas which had been submerged could be exposed

to the atmosphere, destroying any embryos present.

Role of Submerged Aquatic Vegetation

Submerged aquatic vegetation can be beneficial to ponds in sev­

eral ways. It was extremely important for oxygen production in Twin

Lakes and Wong's Pond. Both ponds had deep photic zones (indicating a

lack of phytoplankton) and the bulk of oxygen was produced by the sub­

merged aquatic macrophytes. Shapiro (1970) reported that the net flow

of phosphorous is into the sediments where there are already large

amounts of the nutrient (Miller and Tash 1967; Armstrong, Harris, and

Syers 1971). Rooted aquatics remove phosphorous and other nutrients

from the mud and, through decay, recycle them (Boyd 1971).

Submerged aquatic vegetation provides protective cover for

juvenile fish (Weaver 1971, Saiki 1973, Singer 1973). It is important

to the total food web by providing support and shelter for microorgan­

isms and contributing to the organic detritus pool (Cole 1968, xBoyd

1971).

Conversely, overabundant submerged vegetation could become a

problem. Plant respiration following intense photosynthesis utilizes

oxygen, possibly reducing the concentration to levels lethal to fish.

This may require very dense growths of vegetation, as there was no

detrimental respiration effect observed in any of the study ponds. A

dense growth of vegetation in combination with a planktonic bloom will

also lead to low oxygen levels through respiration (Roach and Wickliff

1934).

Aquatic macrophytes remove nutrients from the water, making

them unavailable to the phytoplankton (Bennett 1962, Dendy 1963, Boyd

1971). Some of these plants are able to store nutrients that are in

limited supply (Wilson 1972). The nutrients that are stored are not

recycled quickly because of the longer life span of the aquatic macro­

phytes (Boyd 1971). Lack of nutrients ultimately affects the well­

being of a fish population by limiting phytoplankton, a basic food for

zooplankton. Thus, the zooplankton do not flourish and fish are de­

prived of an important food source.

25

26

Dense aquatic vegetation may be harmful to a fish population by

providing too much protective cover for small fish, eliminating them

from the pressure of predation (Dendy 1963). This will interfere with

the carnivorous food chain (Swingle 1952) which may result in over­

population and stunting of the small fish. A fine line exists between

the beneficial and harmful aspects of submerged aquatic plants for

fish.

Submerged vegetation can also interfere with man’s use of the

pond by making swimming, boating, and fishing difficult.

Water Quality in Relation to Fisheries

Ponds in this area are best suited for warm-water fisheries.

The range of water temperatures (5 to 32 C) are tolerable year around

with a possible 10 to 12 month growing season (Hallock 1969, Weaver

1971).

Oxygen concentrations are generally above the minimum of 5 mg/1

recommended for warm-water fish by Doudoroff and Shumway (1967). Oxy­

gen will become limiting in the deeper ponds with the onset of the

thermocline in the spring. Depths below three meters will be devoid of

oxygen during the summer, forcing most species into shallow water.

During the summer months, the most critical period of the year, waters

which are not circulated will be uninhabitable for fish.

The low, early morning oxygen concentrations (0.8 mg/1) re­

corded in July in Chalk Reservoir, the shallow, turbid pond, are lethal

to most species of sport fish (McKee and Wolf 1963). Although oxygen

concentrations are sufficient to support fish life during most of a

24-hour period, the brief period of oxygen deficiency can cause fish

mortality. A pond with conditions similar to Chalk Reservoir is not

suitable for fish.

The pH range of pond waters (6.7 to 10.1) is within tolerable /

limits recommended by Bennett (1962) and Swingle (1961) and will not be

a limiting factor. The well waters are fairly well buffered as indi­

cated by alkalinity levels (80 ppm to 150 ppm) which helps to keep pH

ranges tolerable for fish.

Cold-water fish, such as trout, could be used to supplement

winter fishing. They could be stocked after the water cools in Novem­

ber, but they will only thrive through April because water temperatures

of the entire water column are greater than 20°C from May through

November, which is too high for trout (Bendy 1963, Borell and Scheffer

1961). Due to the short growing season, catchable sized fish will have

to be stocked. These trout will not reproduce (Dendy 1963) and will

have to be restocked for continued fishing.

Sunlight and nutrients are readily available to these ponds for

primary production. The well waters are adequately buffered and will

not limit productivity as Moyle (1946) indicated alkalinity levels above

40 ppm were sufficient.

Phosphorus must be in the orthophosphate form to be utilized

by plant cells (Armstrong et al. 1971; Brown, Porcella, and Toerien

1972). The range of orthophosphate concentrations in well water (0.04

to 0.19 ppm) is within the limits recommended by Moyle (1946). If the

orthophosphate level in the water is in short supply, there usually are

27

28large amounts present in the sediments (Armstrong et al. 1971). Once

in the sediments, reduction conditions favor release of phosphorus

back into the water (Brown et al. 1972).

Pond Design Recommendations

The bottom of a pond is important biologically. It is a feed­

ing area for many species, is used for spawning, and bottom ooze hold

nutrients vital to the needs of aquatic vegetation. All of these uses

may be lost if the circulation pattern does not include the bottom.

Ponds filled by runoff need to have sufficient depth and retain

ample water to compensate for high evaporation rates and droughts. The

bottoms of deep ponds, however, are not fully utilized because of lack

of circulation and oxygen depletion below 2.5 meters during the summer

The pond should be constructed to expose the bottom surface area to

circulation. This way oxygen concentrations on the bottom would be

adequate for plants, food organisms, and fish. One method would be to

terrace the pond with sloping sides as shown in Figure 2. Each level

would be 2.5 meters below the next, coinciding with the maximum depth

of daily summer circulation. This design allows for a total evapora­

tion loss of 2.5 meters, yet would maintain most of the bottom area ex­

posed to circulation. The deepest area can be a refuge for fish during

extreme drought. Thus, ponds filled by runoff should have a minimum

depth of 5.0 meters. If more depth is required, any number of terraces can be contructed.

29

2.5 m

Figure 2. Idealized cross section of the terraced pond bottom showing the recommended 2.5 meter levels for a pond supplied with runoff.

Figure 3. Idealized cross section of the pond bottom showing the recommended 2.5 meter depth for a pond supplied by a pump.

30Ponds filled with well water can be shallow because water lost

through evaporation can be replaced. Therefore, these ponds should be

a maximum of 2.5 meters deep with sloping sides (Figure 3) to keep the

bottom exposed to circulation year around. Sloping sides provide many

advantages over steep sides by furnishing spawning areas, feeding areas,

and resting areas for fish.

CONCLUSIONS

1. The limnological characteristics of ponds in the Tucson

Valley vary depending on the elevation, depth, turbidity, and water

source.

2. Water temperatures were within acceptable ranges for warm-

water fish year around and for trout between November and April.

3. Winter oxygen concentrations were above 5 mg/1 in all types

of ponds. Summer oxygen deficiencies occurred in the turbid pond and

below 2.5 meters in the clear ponds.

4. The pH levels were always within a tolerable range for

fish.

5. Ponds with extreme turbidity had reduced photic zones, high

surface water temperatures, and during summer, substandard oxygen con­

centrations.

6. Ponds less than 2.5 meters deep that are filled from wells

have the best potential for fisheries. Ponds dependent on intermittent

runoff have limited fishery potential.

31

APPENDIX A

TEMPERATURE AND DISSOLVED OXYGEN DATA FOR TWIN LAKES,

WONG'S POND, CHALK RESERVOIR, KAHN'S POND,

AND MISSILE SITE POND

32

33

Table 7. Temperature and dissolved oxygen data for Twin Lakes fromOctober 1972 to September 1973.

Depth (m)Temperature (°C)

Dissolved oxygen (mg/1)

0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3

October 21.0 20.1 20.0 6.2 6.7 6.4

November 12.1 12.0 12.0 9.0 9.0 8.5

December • 7.2 7.0 6.8 8.8 8.6 7.5

January 9.9 9.0 9.5 10.1 9.3 9.6

February 13.0 11.1 10.5 7.8 7.6 7.5

March 11.1 11.0 11.0 8.4 8.3 8.5

April 15.5 15.0 13.8 12.0 10.9 1 12.0

May 22.5 22.0 20.0 7.8 7.0 7.8

June 25.6 25.0 23.9 10.6 11.0 12.0

July 29.0 28.0 27.8 7.8 11.0 8.6

August 28.5 28.9 27.0 8.8 8.4 7.7

September 24.1 24.0 23.5 23.1 8.3 7.9 6.4 4.0

34

Table 8. Temperature and dissolved oxygen data for Wong's Pond fromOctober 1972 to September 1973.

Dissolved______ Temperature (°C)_____ ______oxygen Cmg/l)

Depth (m) 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3

7.5 6.9 4.8 4.2

7.6 7.6 7.6 5.7

October 25.0 21.9 21.2

November 13.8 13.8 13.7December 8.8 7.8 7.1January 10.1 10.1 10.5February 18.5 13.0 12.0March 14.0 12.5 12.5

April 18.0 15.0 14.5May 26.1 22.5 18.0

June 25.0 24.0 21.0

July 28.1 27.5 27.0

August 28.0 28.0 27.9

September 25.1 25.0 24.9

10.7 10.6 10.6 10.2

11.1 11.1 11.19.4 9.4 9.2

9.3 8.7 7.0

12.4 11.8 8.3

15.6 8.3 8.6 9.1 4.7

19.1 11.9 11.0 6.7 0.9

27.0 8.6 8.1 7.8 6.5

8.7 8.0 7.9

8.7 8.0 7.6

35

Table 9. Temperature and dissolved oxygen data for Chalk Reservoirfrom October 1972 to September 1973.

Depth (m)Temperature (°C)

Dissolved oxygen (mg/l)

0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3

October 25.0 19.5 19.0 18.9 10.3 4.2 1.8 0.2

November 9.0 8.1 8.0 7.8 7.7 7.5 7.5 7.3

December 6.0 5.1 5.0 10.1 9.6 9.8January 8.0 7.8 7.5 7.1 10.3 9.4 9.5 9.2February 11.2 9.6 9.0 8.9 8.9 8.2 7.9 7.5March 10.9 10.5 10.0 10.0 8.3 7.7 7.2 6.0

April 20.0 11.5 11.0 8.0 6.3 3.6

May 25.7 16.0 14.0 10.8 5.7 4.6

June 29.5 20.0 19.8 15.6 2.1 1.0

July 30.0 24.0 14.6 3.5

August 28.0 24.2 12.2 0.4

September 24.0 20.6 9.9 0.6

36

Table 10. Temperature and dissolved oxygen data for Kahn's Pond from May 1973 to September 1973.

Depth (m)Temperature (°C)

Dissolved oxygen (mg/1)

0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3

May 23.0 21.0 20.0 19.0 8.8 7.8 6.7 3.9

June 27.0 24.1 23.5 13.4 13.2 8.1

July 27.0 24.9 24.1 12.8 9.7 10.1

August 26.0 24.0 23.5 9.0 8.5 7.5

September 24.9 23.0 22.5 14.4 10.9 5.5

• Table 11. Temperature and 1973.

dissolved oxygen data for Missile Site Pond from October 1972 to September

Depth (m)Temperature (°C) Dissolved oxygen (mg/1)

0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5

October 20.4 19.5 18.9 18.8 18.5 8.2 7.4 2.9 1.0 1.2

November 11.1 11.0 11.0 11.0 11.0 8.0 8.1 8.1 8.1 7.6

December 6.0 5.2 5.0 4.9 10.8 10.4 10.5 10.4

January 6.9 6.1 6.0 6.0 5.9 9.8 9.7 9.6 9.5 9.0

February 12.0 10.5 9.0 8.8 8.8 8.8 14.0 10.8 8.0 6.1 3.5 1.5

March 13.0 11.0 10.0 9.2 8.0 7.9 11.8 11.4 9.4 8.6 3.2 1.5

April 16.5 14.2 13.0 12.2 12.0 10.9 12.8 12.4 11.0 9.0 5.3 1.1

May 21.0 20.0 17.6 15.0 13.0 11.0 10.0 9.3 9.6 2.8 0.6 0.2

June 24.0 23.4 20.0 17.2 15.0 9.8 9.4 1.8 0.5 0.4

July 25.0 25.0 23.5 19.5 18.0 17.5 7.2 6.6 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.1

August 26.8 25.0 23.5 21.0 20.0 7.1 5.7 0.3 0.0 0.0

September 23.5 22.5 21.9 21.2 21.0 7.1 6.6 4.9 2.4 0.0

w

APPENDIX B

DIED TEMPERATURE AND OXYGEN DATA FOR TWIN

LAKES, WONG'S POND, CHALK RESERVOIR,

AND MISSILE SITE POND

38

39

Table 12. Diel temperature and oxygen data for Twin Lakes taken July23-24, 1973.

Temperature C°C)Depth (m) 0 1 2

Dissolved oxygen (mg/1)

0 1 2

8 p.m.

10 p.m.

12 p.m.

2 a.m.

4 a.m.

6 a.m.

10 a.m.

12 a.m.

2 p.m.

4 p.m.

6 p.m.

28.1 27.5 25.5

26.5 26.5 25.0

25.4 25.3 24.0

25.2 25.1 23.5

24.0 23.5 23.0

24.0 22.0 21.5

26.0 25.4 24.9

27.1 26.5 25.5

28.7 27.1 25.5

30.0 28.0 26.0

29.1 28.0 26.0

12.8 10.2 8.2

11.4 10.6 1.0

11.1 11.2 3.0

9.0 9.1 1.3

9.5 9.1 1.0

8.3 8.0 2.7

11.9 12.3 1.0

12.4 13.2 1.5

13.8 20+ 9.6

14.4 18.6 2.6

14.0 18.0 2.0

40

Table 13. Diel temperature and July 18-19, 1973.

oxygen data for Wong's Pond taken

Depth (m)Temperature (°c)

Dissolved oxygen (mg/1)

0 1 2 0 1 2

6 p.m. 31.0 28.5 27.3 10.4 10.2 10.2

8 p.m. 30.0 28.3 27.0 10.2 9.9 9.8

10 p.m. 29.0 28.0 27.0 9.7 9.9 9.6

12 p.m. 28.0 28.0 27.0 10.0 9.6 7.9

4 a.m. 27.0 27.0 26.9 9.7 9.3 9.1

6 a.m. 26.9 26.9 26.9 9.2 9.0 7.5

8 a.m. 27.0 27.0 26.5 9.6 9.1 6.2

10 a.m. 28.1 27.9 27.7 10.4 10.0 7.7

12 a.m. 30.0 28.0 27.5 10.4 10.3 9.8

2 p.m. 31.5 28.5 28.0 10.6 11.0 10.2

4 p.m. 32.1 29.1 28.1 11.2 11.2 10.5

6 p.m. 31.5 29.0 28.9 11.5 11.6 10.8

41

Table 14. Die! temperature and oxygen data for Chalk Reservoir taken July 23-24, 1973.

Temperature (°C)Depth (m) 0 1

Dissolved oxygen (mg/1)0 1

8 p.m.

12 p.m.

6 a.m.

12 a.m.

27.5 21.0

22.0 21.0

18.4 17.6

30.5 21.0

17.1 1.0

3.9 1.5

0.8 0.3

20+ 1.5

8 p.m 28.0 21.8 19.9 1.4

. Table 15. Diel temperature and oxygen data for Missile Site Pond taken July 21-22, 1973.

Depth Cm)Temperature (°C) Dissolved oxygen (mg/1)

0 i 2 3 4 0 i 2 3 4

6 p.m. 29.1 25.5 23.0 20.4 19.5 9.1 7.8 0.8 0.4 0.4

8 p.m. 27.5 25.5 22.0 19.8 18.5 8.2 7.9 0.5 0.4 0.4

10 p.m. ' 26.0 25.0 22.0 20.0 18.8 7.6 7.2 1.0 0.5 0.3

12 p.m. 25.0 24.1 21.0 19.5 18.0 7.5 7.0 0.7 0.3 0.2

2 a.m. 24.0 24.0 21.2 19.9 18.0 7.3 6.9 0.7 0.2 0.2

4 a.m. 23.0 23.0 21.0 19.0 18.0 6.7 6.4 0.4 0.2 0.1

6 a.m. 23.0 22.5 21.0 19.1 17.8 5.8 5.7 0.3 0.1 0.0

8 a.m. 23.6 23.0 21.2 20.1 19.5 5.7 5.7 0.1 0.0 0.0

10 a.m. 25.0 24.1 22.0 20.0 19.0 6.6 6.2 0.4 0.2 0.1

12 a.m. 26.0 24.7 22.2 20.0 19.0 7.3 6.9 0.5 0.3 0.2

2 p.m. 27.0 25.0 23.0 20.0 19.0 7.7 7.3 0.7 0.4 0.3

4 p.m. 28.0 25.1 22.2 20.1 19.0 8.4 7.4 0.6 0.3 0.2

6 p.m. 26.9 26.0 23.0 20.1 19.0 8.7 7.6 0.7 0.3 0.3

4>to

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78 17 8