Limited Effects Limited Effects TheoryTheoryof Mass of Mass CommunicationCommunication

Source:Source:Baran & Davis (2003). Baran & Davis (2003). Mass Mass communication theorycommunication theory. Belmont CA: . Belmont CA: Thomson. Chapter 6.Thomson. Chapter 6.: Longman. : Longman.

Severin & Tankard (1997) . Severin & Tankard (1997) . Mass Mass communication theoriescommunication theories. Chapter 9. NY. Chapter 9. NY

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IntroductionIntroduction Paradigm shiftParadigm shift Paradigm shift in mass communication TheoryParadigm shift in mass communication Theory The two step flow of information & influenceThe two step flow of information & influence Lazarsfeld ModelLazarsfeld Model Limited effects theoryLimited effects theory Attitude Change TheoriesAttitude Change Theories Hovland ModelHovland Model Communication Research programCommunication Research program Selective processes Selective processes Hovland-Lazarsfeld LegacyHovland-Lazarsfeld Legacy

IntroductionIntroduction

Effects of World War II saw the rise of the Effects of World War II saw the rise of the other mass communication theories, in other mass communication theories, in particular the effects on the mass particular the effects on the mass communication. communication.

The outcome of the theories of The outcome of the theories of propaganda gives rise to the other propaganda gives rise to the other moderate view of the ‘power’ of mass moderate view of the ‘power’ of mass media.media.

The media were no longer feared as The media were no longer feared as instruments of political oppression and instruments of political oppression and manipulation but instead view a force manipulation but instead view a force wich has potential social good. wich has potential social good.

The media’s power over the public was The media’s power over the public was seen limited (defying the Magic Bullet seen limited (defying the Magic Bullet Theory). So limited that no government Theory). So limited that no government regulations were deemed necessary to regulations were deemed necessary to prevent media manipulation.prevent media manipulation.

The public was viewed as independent The public was viewed as independent and intelligent & could resistant and intelligent & could resistant persuasion & extremist manipulation. persuasion & extremist manipulation.

There was a belief that most people were There was a belief that most people were influenced by other factors rather than influenced by other factors rather than by the media and that the role of by the media and that the role of opinion leadersopinion leaders were responsible for were responsible for guiding and stabilizing politics.guiding and stabilizing politics.

It was also believe that a very small It was also believe that a very small minority of people psychologically were minority of people psychologically were vulnerable to direct manipulation be vulnerable to direct manipulation be the media.the media.

Media were conceptualized (viewed) as Media were conceptualized (viewed) as relatively powerless in shaping public relatively powerless in shaping public opinion as compare to other influences opinion as compare to other influences like ‘individuals’ or ‘group memberships’.like ‘individuals’ or ‘group memberships’.

How and why did such radical How and why did such radical transformation of thinking in media transformation of thinking in media theory takes place in a very short period theory takes place in a very short period of time? of time?

This change of thinking apparently was This change of thinking apparently was the result of continuous research by the result of continuous research by Paul Lazarsfeld (Prinston University & Paul Lazarsfeld (Prinston University & later moved to Colombia University) who later moved to Colombia University) who developed the use of sophisticated developed the use of sophisticated surveys surveys to measure media influence to measure media influence on how people’s thought and act.on how people’s thought and act.

These surveys provided convincing These surveys provided convincing evidence that media rarely are powerful evidence that media rarely are powerful and has direct influence on individuals. and has direct influence on individuals.

The effects were limited in scope. The effects were limited in scope. Media can only influence few Media can only influence few people in their thoughts and people in their thoughts and actions which was referred to as actions which was referred to as limited effects perspective.limited effects perspective.

That is the idea that the media That is the idea that the media have limited effects on have limited effects on individualsindividuals

Only a small minority of the people had Only a small minority of the people had psychological traits that made them psychological traits that made them vulnerable to direct manipulation by media. vulnerable to direct manipulation by media.

In fact, media were thought relatively In fact, media were thought relatively powerless in shaping public opinion.powerless in shaping public opinion.

How is that, such radical transformation of How is that, such radical transformation of media theory takes place in a short period of media theory takes place in a short period of time? time?

Paradigm Shift Paradigm Shift

There is a shift in paradigm (believing, There is a shift in paradigm (believing, thinking) and this led by Paul Lazarsfeld, thinking) and this led by Paul Lazarsfeld, Hovland & others, who did a lot of Hovland & others, who did a lot of research on media influence & how research on media influence & how people thought and acted.people thought and acted.

The result shows that media rarely had The result shows that media rarely had any direct influence on individuals. The any direct influence on individuals. The media lack the power to media lack the power to instantlyinstantly convert an average peopleconvert an average people

The effect s were limited, The effect s were limited, effecting few people or on effecting few people or on trivial (less important) trivial (less important) influence. influence.

These findings were was later These findings were was later referred to as the referred to as the limited effects limited effects perspectivesperspectives..

In times of war & national crisis we In times of war & national crisis we turn to media as a means of making turn to media as a means of making sense of what is going on & trying to sense of what is going on & trying to anticipate what might happen in the anticipate what might happen in the future.future.

The more we depend on the media to The more we depend on the media to do this, the more we effectively placed do this, the more we effectively placed our faith in the media to guide us & the our faith in the media to guide us & the more likely the media will influence our more likely the media will influence our lives. For this the Lasswell’s lives. For this the Lasswell’s propaganda theory works.propaganda theory works.

In times the ‘power’ lies in ourselves In times the ‘power’ lies in ourselves in the way we choose to allow media to in the way we choose to allow media to effect our lives.effect our lives.

This is the essence of the limited effect This is the essence of the limited effect perspectives. perspectives.

Paradigm Shift Paradigm Shift

There is a There is a paradigm shiftparadigm shift from war times to from war times to peace time. i.e. There is a transformation of peace time. i.e. There is a transformation of thinking from one perspectives to the other.thinking from one perspectives to the other.

During the war years, Lazarsfeld (Colombia During the war years, Lazarsfeld (Colombia U.) & Hovland (Yale U.) were drawn into U.) & Hovland (Yale U.) were drawn into media studies to understand the power of media studies to understand the power of propaganda & the threat it posed. They propaganda & the threat it posed. They hope that if the media is so powerful it hope that if the media is so powerful it might be controlled & use for the good. might be controlled & use for the good.

But they found out that the media were But they found out that the media were not as powerful as what was initially not as powerful as what was initially thought to be. Media influence over thought to be. Media influence over public opinion were less important than public opinion were less important than other factors such as social status & other factors such as social status & education.education.

During the 1950’s, new paradigm in During the 1950’s, new paradigm in communication began to take shape & communication began to take shape & remain strong in 1960’s & 1970’s . New remain strong in 1960’s & 1970’s . New methods of research were employed methods of research were employed namely survey & interview (as part of the namely survey & interview (as part of the empirical evidence)empirical evidence)

The Two-Step Flow of The Two-Step Flow of Information & Information & InfluenceInfluence Lazarsfeld believed that theories must be Lazarsfeld believed that theories must be

supported by empirical data i.e. he used supported by empirical data i.e. he used inductiveinductive approach to theory approach to theory construction, that is research should began construction, that is research should began with empirical observations & not based on with empirical observations & not based on speculations.speculations.

He did two major studies on election He did two major studies on election campaigns (1940) Erie, Ohio (known as campaigns (1940) Erie, Ohio (known as Ohio study) & in (1943) in Decatur, Illinois. Ohio study) & in (1943) in Decatur, Illinois.

The Ohio study he used 3000/43,000 The Ohio study he used 3000/43,000 residents with 600 follow up residents with 600 follow up interviewed.interviewed.

In, Illinois he used 700 interviewed.In, Illinois he used 700 interviewed.

Observations were done within 6 Observations were done within 6 months period.months period.

His observations, that voters were His observations, that voters were divided into three categories as follows:divided into three categories as follows:

Early deciders, Waverers, Early deciders, Waverers, Converts & Crystallizes.Converts & Crystallizes.

1. Early Deciders1. Early Deciders i.e those who i.e those who choose the candidate in May & choose the candidate in May & never change during the entire never change during the entire campaign. campaign.

2. 2. The WaverersThe Waverers – i.e. choose one – i.e. choose one candidate & later were undecided or candidate & later were undecided or switch to another.switch to another.

3. 3. The ConvertsThe Converts i.e. choose one i.e. choose one candidate but then voted the candidate but then voted the opponent.opponent.

4. 4. The CrystallizesThe Crystallizes i.e. those who had i.e. those who had not choose a candidate in May but not choose a candidate in May but made a choice in November.made a choice in November.

He used a long detailed questionnaires He used a long detailed questionnaires on mass media content (candidate on mass media content (candidate speeches)speeches)

His argument is that if propaganda is so His argument is that if propaganda is so powerful as mass society theory powerful as mass society theory predicted this research should allowed predicted this research should allowed him to pinpoint media influence. If the him to pinpoint media influence. If the mass society theory was valid, he should mass society theory was valid, he should have found that most voters either have found that most voters either ConvertsConverts or or WaverersWaverers..

The results:The results: What he found was that:What he found was that: 55 % Early deciders55 % Early deciders. Choose one . Choose one

candidate in May & never change.candidate in May & never change. 28 % Crystallizes28 % Crystallizes –made a –made a

predictable choice & stay with it.predictable choice & stay with it. 15% Waverers15% Waverers –choose one –choose one

candidate & later switchcandidate & later switch 8% Converts8% Converts –choose one but later –choose one but later

vote the opponent.vote the opponent.

He found little evidence that media He found little evidence that media played an important role in influencing played an important role in influencing the crystallizes & the weavers or the the crystallizes & the weavers or the converts.converts.

Instead the voters are more likely to say Instead the voters are more likely to say they are more likely influence from they are more likely influence from other other peoplepeople than media. Often the decision than media. Often the decision was that they decide to vote following the was that they decide to vote following the people closest to them. Not because of people closest to them. Not because of media contents.media contents.

The influence of mass media was only The influence of mass media was only to reinforce a to reinforce a vote choicevote choice they had they had already made.already made.

Media gives people more reasons for Media gives people more reasons for choosing a candidate of their choice.choosing a candidate of their choice.

For crystallizes media helped party For crystallizes media helped party loyalties.loyalties.

Very little evidence to suggest media Very little evidence to suggest media convert voters. The converts were in convert voters. The converts were in fact those people with divided loyalties.fact those people with divided loyalties.

They had They had group tiesgroup ties that pulled that pulled them to the opposite direction. them to the opposite direction.

Lazarsfeld found out that the Lazarsfeld found out that the early deciders were the same early deciders were the same people whose advice were being people whose advice were being sought after by other voters.sought after by other voters.

The early deciders were sophisticated The early deciders were sophisticated who held well-developed political views who held well-developed political views & use the media wisely & critically. They & use the media wisely & critically. They are capable of listening & evaluating are capable of listening & evaluating opposition speeches. They gained opposition speeches. They gained information that help them advice others information that help them advice others so that others would be more resistant to so that others would be more resistant to political campaign. political campaign.

They are the They are the gate-keepersgate-keepers. Screening . Screening information & passing on items that information & passing on items that would help others share their views.would help others share their views.

These people were known as These people were known as opinion leadersopinion leaders and those who and those who follow their advise were follow their advise were opinion opinion followersfollowers..

Lazarsfeld & Katz (1955) based Lazarsfeld & Katz (1955) based on their experienced research on their experienced research conceptualized that how people conceptualized that how people use the media to develop the of use the media to develop the of

Two-step flow theory Two-step flow theory

In this theory opinion leaders existed In this theory opinion leaders existed at all level of society and that the at all level of society and that the flow of their influence tended to be flow of their influence tended to be horizontal rather than vertical. horizontal rather than vertical.

Opinion leaders influenced people Opinion leaders influenced people like themselves rather than those like themselves rather than those above or below them in the social above or below them in the social order.order.

Opinion leaders differ from Opinion leaders differ from followers n term of personal followers n term of personal attributes, use the media more, attributes, use the media more, were socially active & share social were socially active & share social status. status.

Limitations of Limitations of Lazarsfeld’s ModelLazarsfeld’s Model 1. Survey cannot measure how 1. Survey cannot measure how

people actually use media on a people actually use media on a day-to-day basis. E.g. the more day-to-day basis. E.g. the more educated the person is the lesser educated the person is the lesser they are influence by the media. they are influence by the media. But the lesser the educated But the lesser the educated person is, the more the stronger person is, the more the stronger the linked to various media.the linked to various media.

2. Surveys are expansive to study 2. Surveys are expansive to study people’s use of the media people’s use of the media content.content.

3. Lazarsfeld procedures and 3. Lazarsfeld procedures and methodologies are conservative methodologies are conservative in assessing media’s power. It in assessing media’s power. It only measuring voting decisions.only measuring voting decisions.

4. Other research on Two-step 4. Other research on Two-step flow produced contradictory flow produced contradictory findings depending on (a) types of findings depending on (a) types of information being transmitted information being transmitted and (b) social conditions exist at and (b) social conditions exist at that particular time. These that particular time. These patterns are constantly changing. patterns are constantly changing.

..

5. Survey can be useful for 5. Survey can be useful for studying changes over time but are studying changes over time but are considered crude techniques. i.e. considered crude techniques. i.e. Lazarsfeld interview people once a Lazarsfeld interview people once a month – problem of recalling.month – problem of recalling.

6. Survey’s omit many other 6. Survey’s omit many other variables which could further variables which could further insights,insights,

7. The period is only true for the 7. The period is only true for the time allocated. Result would time allocated. Result would definitely differ if measurement definitely differ if measurement taken at different timing.taken at different timing.

The Main points of The Main points of Limited Effects TheoryLimited Effects Theory 1. Media rarely directly influence 1. Media rarely directly influence

individuals.individuals.Most people are sheltered from Most people are sheltered from

direct direct propaganda manipulation. propaganda manipulation. People did People did not not believe believe

everything what they hear everything what they hear or see in or see in the media. the media.

They turn to others (family, friends, They turn to others (family, friends, coworkerscoworkers& social groups) for & social groups) for

advice & advice & interpretations. interpretations.

2. There is a two-step flow of media 2. There is a two-step flow of media influence. influence.

Media will be only be influential Media will be only be influential if if the opinion leaders who guide the opinion leaders who guide others are influenced first. others are influenced first. Because opinion leaders are Because opinion leaders are sophisticated , critical, & not easily sophisticated , critical, & not easily manipulated by media content.manipulated by media content.

3. By the time most people 3. By the time most people becomes becomes adults, they have adults, they have developed strong developed strong held group held group commitments such as commitments such as political political party, religious affiliations party, religious affiliations that that

individual media messages individual media messages are are powerless to overcome.powerless to overcome.

These commitments cause people to These commitments cause people to reject certain messages. E.g. Voters reject certain messages. E.g. Voters of certain parties will only subscribe of certain parties will only subscribe to the party magazines etc. to the party magazines etc.

4. When media effects do occur, it 4. When media effects do occur, it will will be small and isolated.be small and isolated.

Small pocket will be Small pocket will be influenced. influenced.

What would be the What would be the Strength and weakness Strength and weakness of the Two-Step Flow of the Two-Step Flow TheoryTheory

Strength:Strength: 1.1. Focus on the environment in which Focus on the environment in which

effect can effect can and can’t occur.and can’t occur.

2. Stress importance of opinion leaders 2. Stress importance of opinion leaders in in formation of public opinion.formation of public opinion.

3. This theory is based on ‘inductive’ 3. This theory is based on ‘inductive’ rather rather than than deductive deductive

reasoning.reasoning.

4. Effectively challenges the 4. Effectively challenges the simplistic simplistic notions of direct notions of direct effects.effects.

Weaknesses:Weaknesses: 1.It is limited to its time (time 1.It is limited to its time (time

frame)frame) 2. Report only the voting behavior.2. Report only the voting behavior. 3. Downplay reinforcement as an 3. Downplay reinforcement as an

important media effect.important media effect. 4. Uses survey method. 4. Uses survey method. 5. Later research demonstrate a 5. Later research demonstrate a

multi flow effects. multi flow effects.

Part IIPart II

Two-Step Flow TheoryTwo-Step Flow Theory

SUMMARY (recapture)SUMMARY (recapture) TWO-STEP FLOW THEORYTWO-STEP FLOW THEORY

The idea that messages pass from the The idea that messages pass from the media through (inter-mediaries) such as media through (inter-mediaries) such as opinion leaders to opinion followers.opinion leaders to opinion followers.

GATE-KEEPERSGATE-KEEPERS

In two-step flow, people who screen In two-step flow, people who screen media messages & pass on those media messages & pass on those messages that help others share their messages that help others share their views.views.

OPINION LEADERS OPINION LEADERS

In two-step flow, those who pass on In two-step flow, those who pass on information to opinion followers.information to opinion followers.

OPINION FOLLOWERSOPINION FOLLOWERS

In two-step flow, those who receive In two-step flow, those who receive information from opinion leaders.information from opinion leaders.

MIDLE-RANGE THEORYMIDLE-RANGE THEORY

A theory composed of empirical A theory composed of empirical generalizations based on empirical fact.generalizations based on empirical fact.

INDUCTIVE INDUCTIVE

An approach to theory composed of An approach to theory composed of empirical generalizations based on empirical generalizations based on empirical facts.empirical facts.

Limitations in the Limitations in the Lazarsfeld’s ModelLazarsfeld’s Model 1. Survey cannot measure how people 1. Survey cannot measure how people

use media on day-to day basis.use media on day-to day basis.e.g. more educated people tend e.g. more educated people tend

to to underestimate media influence underestimate media influence onon their decisions whereas less their decisions whereas less

educated educated people might people might overestimate it.overestimate it.

2. Surveys are very expansive way to 2. Surveys are very expansive way to

study study specific media contents.specific media contents.

3. The research design & data analysis 3. The research design & data analysis procedures Lazarsfeld’s procedures Lazarsfeld’s

developed developed are very conservative.are very conservative.

4. Further research on two-step flow 4. Further research on two-step flow has has produced highly produced highly

contradictory contradictory findings.findings. These flow has been found to differ These flow has been found to differ

greatly according to the type of greatly according to the type of information being transmitted information being transmitted

& the & the social conditions that social conditions that exist.exist.

5.5. Surveys can be useful for Surveys can be useful for studying studying changes over time, changes over time, but are but are relatively crude relatively crude techniques.techniques.

6.6. Surveys omit many other Surveys omit many other potentially important variables.potentially important variables.

INDIRECT EFFECTS THEORYINDIRECT EFFECTS THEORYWhen media seemed to have an effect, When media seemed to have an effect, that effect is filtered through other that effect is filtered through other parts of the society e.g. through parts of the society e.g. through friends or other social groups.friends or other social groups.

The following are the most important The following are the most important findings on limited effect research findings on limited effect research between 1945-1960: between 1945-1960:

1. The media rarely directly influence 1. The media rarely directly influence They They turn to others (family, turn to others (family,

friends, friends, coworkers, social groups coworkers, social groups etc) for advice etc) for advice & interpretations.& interpretations.

2. There is two-step flow of media 2. There is two-step flow of media influence.influence.

Media will only be influential if he Media will only be influential if he opinion leaders who guide others opinion leaders who guide others

are are influence first. influence first.

3. By the time most people 3. By the time most people become become adults , they have adults , they have developed developed strong held values & strong held values & media are media are powerless to powerless to overcome.overcome.

When media effects do occur they When media effects do occur they will be small and isolated.will be small and isolated.

Part IIIPart III

Attitude Change Attitude Change TheoryTheory Initiated in the 20Initiated in the 20thth Century. Century. Second World War provided the Second World War provided the

‘laboratory’ development of the ‘laboratory’ development of the attitude change theory.attitude change theory.

US went to war and needed to be able US went to war and needed to be able to mount an effective counter to mount an effective counter offensive against the Nazi.offensive against the Nazi.

The war provided important motivation The war provided important motivation for researchers interested in attitude for researchers interested in attitude change research. change research.

Attitude Change Attitude Change TheoryTheory It was a simple convenience , It was a simple convenience ,

were the military saw soldiers in were the military saw soldiers in training, physiologists saw training, physiologists saw subjects available.subjects available.

The Work of HovlandThe Work of Hovland

He was to undertake experimental He was to undertake experimental evaluations of the effectiveness of evaluations of the effectiveness of various military programs. various military programs.

Testing on the military propaganda film Testing on the military propaganda film ‘Why we fight’ and to measure its ‘Why we fight’ and to measure its effectiveness (indoctrination goals) effectiveness (indoctrination goals) using the experimental design method.using the experimental design method.

The researcher hope that as the result The researcher hope that as the result of viewing the films there might find of viewing the films there might find shifts in peoples’ attitudes. shifts in peoples’ attitudes.

Hovland’s found that although the movies Hovland’s found that although the movies were successful in were successful in increasing increasing knowledgeknowledge, they are , they are not as effective not as effective in influencing attitudes & in influencing attitudes & motivations. motivations.

Film produced little change & that what Film produced little change & that what change did occur was influence by change did occur was influence by people’s individual differences. This people’s individual differences. This contradict with mass society theory.contradict with mass society theory.

The second finding was that as an outcome The second finding was that as an outcome of the theory they were able to direct the of the theory they were able to direct the trends of future attitude change theory. i.e. trends of future attitude change theory. i.e. while films were good in parting factual while films were good in parting factual information but certainly not effective in information but certainly not effective in changing attitudes. changing attitudes.

Thus using control experimental groups is Thus using control experimental groups is good method in changing people’s good method in changing people’s attitudes. attitudes.

In particular the In particular the naturenature and the and the organizationalorganizational of the appeal. of the appeal.

They also found out that They also found out that the the more highly people value more highly people value their membership in a group, their membership in a group, the more closely their the more closely their attitudes will conform to attitudes will conform to choose the group. choose the group.

They also found out that They also found out that individual’s status individual’s status (personality factors)(personality factors) has very has very little to do to be persuaded. E.g. little to do to be persuaded. E.g. more intelligent people are more more intelligent people are more likely to be persuaded if the likely to be persuaded if the message they receive is based on message they receive is based on solid and logical arguments. solid and logical arguments.

The reasons that why mass media is The reasons that why mass media is rarely direct because it is always rarely direct because it is always mediated By:mediated By:

(a) Individual differences (a) Individual differences

(b) Group membership or (b) Group membership or relationships.relationships.

The two factors serve as effective The two factors serve as effective barriers to media influence.barriers to media influence.

Persuasion research Persuasion research influencing mediainfluencing media In persuasion and attitude change In persuasion and attitude change

theory two factors are important:theory two factors are important:

1. 1. Reorganization of the individual Reorganization of the individual differences. (psychological differences. (psychological

make make up)up) (DeFleur 1970). (DeFleur 1970).

2. 2. Social categoriesSocial categoriesThat is the broad assumptions That is the broad assumptions

that that urban societies are collectively urban societies are collectively and and whose behavior can be whose behavior can be aggregated aggregated (or more or less (or more or less uniform).uniform).

People with similar backgrounds People with similar backgrounds (age, gender, income level, (age, gender, income level, religious affiliations etc) will have religious affiliations etc) will have similar patterns of media similar patterns of media exposure and similar reactions to exposure and similar reactions to that exposure. that exposure.

This generalizations derived This generalizations derived partly from Lazarfeld’s work.partly from Lazarfeld’s work.

Selective ProcessesSelective Processes

The change theory was adopted The change theory was adopted by influential scholars like by influential scholars like Lazarfeld, to Klaper to De Fleur Lazarfeld, to Klaper to De Fleur and was later developed into the and was later developed into the idea of idea of cognitive consistency. cognitive consistency.

Cognitive Dissonance Cognitive Dissonance TheoryTheory COGNITIVE CONSISTENCYCOGNITIVE CONSISTENCY

The idea that people consciously and The idea that people consciously and unconsciously work to preserve their unconsciously work to preserve their existing views and avoiding messages existing views and avoiding messages that challenged them.that challenged them.

Leon Festinger took up this idea and Leon Festinger took up this idea and developed in his theory of developed in his theory of Cognitive Cognitive Dissonance. Dissonance.

COGNITIVE DISSONANCECOGNITIVE DISSONANCEThe idea that information that is The idea that information that is inconsistent with a person’s already inconsistent with a person’s already held attitude created psychological held attitude created psychological discomfort or dissonance. discomfort or dissonance.

People generally work to keep their People generally work to keep their knowledge of themselves and their knowledge of themselves and their knowledge of the world somewhat knowledge of the world somewhat consistence.consistence.

If for some reasons a person If for some reasons a person knows several things that are not knows several things that are not psychologically consistent with psychologically consistent with another, he will, in variety of another, he will, in variety of ways, try to make them more ways, try to make them more consistence.consistence.

This process is known as This process is known as selective process.selective process.

SELECTIVE PROCESSSELECTIVE PROCESSExposure (attention), retention, and Exposure (attention), retention, and perception, physiological process perception, physiological process design to reduce dissonance.design to reduce dissonance.

This defense mechanisms that we This defense mechanisms that we use to protect ourselves (our egos) use to protect ourselves (our egos) from information that would from information that would threaten us. threaten us.

Klapper (1960) wrote by and large Klapper (1960) wrote by and large people tend to expose themselves to people tend to expose themselves to those mass communications that are in those mass communications that are in accord with their existing attitudes and accord with their existing attitudes and interest. Consciously or unconsciously interest. Consciously or unconsciously they avoid communications of the they avoid communications of the opposite. In the event that they are opposite. In the event that they are exposed to unsympathetic materials, exposed to unsympathetic materials, they often seem not to perceive it, OR they often seem not to perceive it, OR interpret to fit their existing views OR interpret to fit their existing views OR to forget about it.to forget about it.

Persuasion influenced Persuasion influenced on the study of media.on the study of media. Attitude Change Researchers Attitude Change Researchers

identify three forms of Selectivity:identify three forms of Selectivity: 1. Selective Exposure1. Selective Exposure 2. Selective Retention 2. Selective Retention 3. Selective Perception3. Selective Perception

Selective exposure Selective exposure

People tendency to expose People tendency to expose themselves to messages that are themselves to messages that are consistent with their preexisting consistent with their preexisting attitudes and belief.attitudes and belief.

E.g. In Lazarsfeld’s study of the E.g. In Lazarsfeld’s study of the voters, 2/3 of the voters managed to voters, 2/3 of the voters managed to see and hear more of their own side’s see and hear more of their own side’s propaganda than the opposite’s. propaganda than the opposite’s.

Selective RetentionSelective Retention

People end to remember best and People end to remember best and longest those messages that are longest those messages that are meaningful to them.meaningful to them.

Selective PerceptionSelective Perception

People will alter the meaning the People will alter the meaning the messages so they become messages so they become consistent wit preexisting consistent wit preexisting attitudes and beliefs.attitudes and beliefs.

It is a mental or psychological It is a mental or psychological image of the message so that the image of the message so that the meaning is in line the person’s meaning is in line the person’s belief and attitudes.belief and attitudes.

E.g. Allport & Poseman (1945) study of E.g. Allport & Poseman (1945) study of the rumors proved this point (the fight the rumors proved this point (the fight between a white & black American. between a white & black American. Originally the knife was in the hand of Originally the knife was in the hand of the white man, and because of the white man, and because of rumorsrumors spreads, it quickly changes to the black spreads, it quickly changes to the black man).man).

60 yrs. had passed by can the same 60 yrs. had passed by can the same scenario happened in 2005? What do you scenario happened in 2005? What do you think? think?

Applications of Applications of Attitude Change Attitude Change TheoryTheory STRENGTHS:STRENGTHS: 1. 1. It pays a deep attention to the It pays a deep attention to the

process in process in which messages can & which messages can & can’t can’t have effects.have effects.

2. 2. Provides insight into influence of Provides insight into influence of individual individual differences & group differences & group affiliation affiliation in shaping media influence.in shaping media influence.

3. 3. Attention to selective processes Attention to selective processes helps helps clarify how individuals clarify how individuals processes processes information information

WEAKNESSES:WEAKNESSES: 1. 1. Manipulation of the variables (e.g. Manipulation of the variables (e.g.

messages) messages) overestimate the power overestimate the power and and underestimate the media’s underestimate the media’s influence.influence.

2. 2. Focuses only on effects of media Focuses only on effects of media messages messages

3.3. Uses attitude change as only Uses attitude change as only measure of measure of effects ignoring other effects ignoring other subtle forms of subtle forms of media’s media’s influence.influence.

Limitations of Limitations of Persuasion ResearchPersuasion Research

1. 1. The experiments conducted in The experiments conducted in laboratory the results laboratory the results cannot cannot

be be generalized –because the time generalized –because the time conducted too conducted too short.short.

2. 2. Experiments suited only to Experiments suited only to measure measure immediate effects of specific immediate effects of specific media media content on small content on small homogeneous groups homogeneous groups of people.of people.

3. 3. Limitation of standardized Limitation of standardized instruments instruments (statistics).(statistics).

4.4. Experiments are crude Experiments are crude techniques for examining techniques for examining

the the influence of media over influence of media over time. time.

5. 5. Limitation of Limitation of experimentation experimentation design design

At the end of this lesson At the end of this lesson you should have acquired you should have acquired the following concepts:the following concepts: 1. Attitude Change Theory1. Attitude Change Theory

2. Festinger’s Cognitive Dissonance.2. Festinger’s Cognitive Dissonance.

3. 3. Selective processes – Selective Selective processes – Selective Exposure, Exposure, Selective Selective

Retention & Retention & Selective Perception.Selective Perception.

4. 4. Strength & weaknesses of the Strength & weaknesses of the Attitude Attitude Change Change Theory.Theory.

5. Limitations of the Persuasion 5. Limitations of the Persuasion Research (experiments)Research (experiments)