Liisa Husu * University of Helsinki * 2004 Academic women and gendered universities Recent research...

Liisa Husu * University of Helsinki *Liisa Husu * University of Helsinki * 2004 2004

AcademicAcademic women and women and gendered universitiesgendered universities

Recent research and policy Recent research and policy interventionsinterventions

Dr. Liisa Husu, University of Dr. Liisa Husu, University of HelsinkiHelsinki


If I could work in an equal world…If I could work in an equal world…

““It is in all kind of ways just in this kind of everyday life, It is in all kind of ways just in this kind of everyday life, after you have become conscious of this problem, that your after you have become conscious of this problem, that your gender is an obstacle, so after that it takes, at least for me gender is an obstacle, so after that it takes, at least for me it takes energy, because it is against my sense of justice. it takes energy, because it is against my sense of justice.

If I think, that if I could work in an equal world, I would work If I think, that if I could work in an equal world, I would work much more effectively. I would not need to worry about my much more effectively. I would not need to worry about my own … insulting my own sense of justice, because to my own … insulting my own sense of justice, because to my mind, it is one such kind of a large, large reserve, that this mind, it is one such kind of a large, large reserve, that this world loses --- that we are not allowed to be equal, we are world loses --- that we are not allowed to be equal, we are not allowed, we have to --- not allowed, we have to ---

so if we already now have shown that we are terribly so if we already now have shown that we are terribly competent and effective, what would we be then, when we competent and effective, what would we be then, when we did not need to did not need to fightfight and and use energyuse energy and and feel badfeel bad in that in that way. “way. “

Young researcher in natural sciencesYoung researcher in natural sciences


Why promote women in academia? Why promote women in academia?

Traditional perspective: “women’s issues”: Traditional perspective: “women’s issues”: women are the problem, or women have women are the problem, or women have problemsproblems

Change in conceptualising the issue: Change in conceptualising the issue: “gendered and gendering academia”: “gendered and gendering academia”: focus on academic and scientific focus on academic and scientific organisations, how they treat women and organisations, how they treat women and men & produce and reproduce gendered men & produce and reproduce gendered hierarchies hierarchies


Sandra Harding and Elizabeth McGregor Sandra Harding and Elizabeth McGregor

(World Science Report 1995):(World Science Report 1995): ““Such a conceptual shift from a Such a conceptual shift from a

deficiency model of girls and women deficiency model of girls and women to a deficiency model of science and to a deficiency model of science and science education is increasingly science education is increasingly widely regarded as crucial if women widely regarded as crucial if women are to receive equitable treatment in are to receive equitable treatment in sciences, and the sciences are to b e sciences, and the sciences are to b e able to take advantage of the able to take advantage of the potential women scientists and potential women scientists and technologists can offer.”technologists can offer.”


Human rights perspective: each individual should have Human rights perspective: each individual should have a right to realize his/her potential regardless of gender a right to realize his/her potential regardless of gender – inequality is a human rights violation– inequality is a human rights violation

Research system perspective: best talents should be Research system perspective: best talents should be recruited regardless of gender – equality equals qualityrecruited regardless of gender – equality equals quality

Societal perspective: investments for educating and Societal perspective: investments for educating and training women should not go wasted – inequality is an training women should not go wasted – inequality is an economical issue economical issue

Epistemological perspective: A more diverse academic Epistemological perspective: A more diverse academic community produces more multifaceted research and community produces more multifaceted research and asks different questions – equality produces better asks different questions – equality produces better science science


PROPORTION OF POPULATION WITH TERTIARY PROPORTION OF POPULATION WITH TERTIARY DEGREES AMONG WORKING AGE POPULATION (25 – DEGREES AMONG WORKING AGE POPULATION (25 –

64) BY GENDER IN EU-COUNTRIES IN 1999, % 64) BY GENDER IN EU-COUNTRIES IN 1999, % Source: Eurostat: Educational attainment levels in Europe in the 1990s Source: Eurostat: Educational attainment levels in Europe in the 1990s

EU15 B DK D GR E F IRL I L NL A P FIN S UK

All 21 27 27 23 17 20 21 22 10 18 23 11 10 31 29 27

M 22 26 26 28 19 22 21 23 10 22 25 12 8 28 27 29

W 19 27 27 18 15 19 21 22 9 15 20 10 11 34 30 25


PERCENTAGE OF WOMEN AMONG ACADEMIC STAFF WHO ARE GRADE A (FULL PROFESSOR) IN EU COUNTRIES IN 2000

Source: She Figures 2003

WOMEN, ALL GRADES WOMEN, GRADE A

PORTUGAL (1999) 39,6 19,3

FINLAND 39,1 19,0

FRANCE 32,3 16,2

SPAIN (1999) 32,2 15,1

ITALY (2001) 29,8 14,6

SWEDEN (2001) 28,3 13,8

UNITED KINGDOM 35,8 12,6

GREECE 25,6 11,3

DENMARK 28,0 8,3

GERMANY (2001) 27,0 7,7

BELGIUM (1999) 28,1 7,2

NETHERLANDS 27,7 6,3

AUSTRIA (1998) 25,5 6,2


Factors influencing the position of Factors influencing the position of women in academiawomen in academia

Gender system of the societyGender system of the society

University and research systemUniversity and research system


Gender systemGender system

History of women’s employment History of women’s employment and educationand education

Women’s current labour market Women’s current labour market situation in generalsituation in general

Child care provisionsChild care provisions Prevalent ideologies concerning Prevalent ideologies concerning

gender equality gender equality Gender equality legislationGender equality legislation


University and Research SystemUniversity and Research System

The heritage of women’s education (early The heritage of women’s education (early – late entry into universities)– late entry into universities)

Women’s participation trendsWomen’s participation trends

Horizontal and vertical gender segregation Horizontal and vertical gender segregation

Gender distribution of gate-keepersGender distribution of gate-keepers

Promotion systems - transparencyPromotion systems - transparency


… … University and Research systemUniversity and Research system

Mobility demands Mobility demands

Age and time limits in advancement and Age and time limits in advancement and promotion (academic age vs. biological age promotion (academic age vs. biological age

Provisions to reconcile work and familyProvisions to reconcile work and family

Gender equality promotion and policies in Gender equality promotion and policies in universities – also seemingly gender neutral universities – also seemingly gender neutral practices may have gendered outcomespractices may have gendered outcomes

Position of women’s studies in universitiesPosition of women’s studies in universities


The Finnish settingThe Finnish setting High overall gender equality (UNDP)High overall gender equality (UNDP)

Women’s full time employment Women’s full time employment

Mothers predominantly in paid employment, full-Mothers predominantly in paid employment, full-timetime

Fertility rate higher than EU average (estimate Fertility rate higher than EU average (estimate 1.8 in 2004) 1.8 in 2004)

Public provisions to reconciliate work and familyPublic provisions to reconciliate work and family


Women’s long term political participation – full Women’s long term political participation – full political rights 1906; female President!political rights 1906; female President!

Gender equality legislation since 1987Gender equality legislation since 1987

R&D investment among the highest in the worldR&D investment among the highest in the world

Gender segregated labour marketGender segregated labour market

Few women in positions of power regardless of Few women in positions of power regardless of sectorsector


Sexism, Support and Survival in AcademiaAcademic Women

and Hidden Discrimination in Finland

Liisa Husu

University of Helsinki, Social Psychological Studies 6, 2001, 383 pp., ISBN 952-10-0164-x


Research questionsResearch questions What kind of discrimination, especially What kind of discrimination, especially

hidden/covert discrimination academic hidden/covert discrimination academic women encounter in the scientific women encounter in the scientific community?community?

How do they interpret these experiences How do they interpret these experiences and respond to discrimination?and respond to discrimination?

From where, whom and how do academic From where, whom and how do academic women receive social support in their women receive social support in their career?career?

What kind of conscious or less conscious What kind of conscious or less conscious survival strategies they use? survival strategies they use?


Qualitative study with 102 informantsQualitative study with 102 informants Interviews, written accountsInterviews, written accounts 11 universities, 33 disciplines11 universities, 33 disciplines All major disciplinary fieldsAll major disciplinary fields From young academics to professors and From young academics to professors and

“leavers”“leavers” Mothers and non-mothersMothers and non-mothers Feminists and non-feministsFeminists and non-feminists Data gathered in 1995-1999Data gathered in 1995-1999


From blatant to more hidden From blatant to more hidden discriminationdiscrimination

As a result of anti-discrimination As a result of anti-discrimination policies and legislation, sexism and policies and legislation, sexism and discrimination have not vanished but discrimination have not vanished but have changed from a more blatant have changed from a more blatant sexism towards less obvious onesexism towards less obvious one


Paula Caplan (1993): Paula Caplan (1993): Lifting a Ton of Lifting a Ton of Feathers, p. 17 Feathers, p. 17

Typically, when one form of prejudice Typically, when one form of prejudice (such as sexism or racism) is labelled (such as sexism or racism) is labelled as unacceptable, it does not simply as unacceptable, it does not simply vanish; rather it tends to take vanish; rather it tends to take increasingly subtler forms, thus increasingly subtler forms, thus protecting the prejudiced person protecting the prejudiced person from both social and legal from both social and legal accusations accusations


Sex/gender discriminationSex/gender discrimination

Unequal and harmful treatment of Unequal and harmful treatment of people because of their sex people because of their sex (Benokraitis & Feagin 1995)(Benokraitis & Feagin 1995)

Related concepts: Related concepts: Sexism, everyday sexismSexism, everyday sexism Micro-inequitiesMicro-inequities Gender harassmentGender harassment Opaque violenceOpaque violence


Overt/blatant, subtle and covert Overt/blatant, subtle and covert discrimination discrimination (Benokraitis & Feagín 1995)(Benokraitis & Feagín 1995)

Overt discrimination: unequal and Overt discrimination: unequal and harmful treatment of women that is harmful treatment of women that is typically intentional, quite visible and typically intentional, quite visible and easily documentedeasily documented

Subtle discrimination: unequal and Subtle discrimination: unequal and harmful treatment that is visible but harmful treatment that is visible but not often noticed because we have not often noticed because we have internalised sexist behaviour as internalised sexist behaviour as “normal”, “natural” or “acceptable”.“normal”, “natural” or “acceptable”.


Covert discrimination: unequal and Covert discrimination: unequal and harmful treatment that is hidden, harmful treatment that is hidden, purposeful, and often maliciously purposeful, and often maliciously motivated and difficult to documentmotivated and difficult to document

Hidden discrimination: Hidden discrimination:

Subtle + covert discriminationSubtle + covert discrimination


Universities as gendered Universities as gendered organisationsorganisations

Seemingly gender-neutral but gender Seemingly gender-neutral but gender constantly negotiatedconstantly negotiated

Gendered processes that produce and Gendered processes that produce and reproduce inequalities: reproduce inequalities:

Gender divisions (hierarchies, pay)Gender divisions (hierarchies, pay) Gendered symbols (masters, fellows)Gendered symbols (masters, fellows) Gendered interaction (networks, Gendered interaction (networks,

invisibility)invisibility) Gendered understanding of one’s place in Gendered understanding of one’s place in

the organisation (e.g. exclusion explained the organisation (e.g. exclusion explained as one’s own choice)as one’s own choice)


Some main resultsSome main results

Discrimination experiences as Discrimination experiences as processesprocesses

Perception and recognition of Perception and recognition of discrimination a multifaceted discrimination a multifaceted phenomenonphenomenon

Personal and social costs of Personal and social costs of recognising discriminationrecognising discrimination

Is it gender or something else: the Is it gender or something else: the entangled nature of discriminationentangled nature of discrimination


……resultsresults

The illusion of fairnessThe illusion of fairness Variety of forms and arenas:Variety of forms and arenas: Organisation cultureOrganisation culture Invisibility, exclusion, isolationInvisibility, exclusion, isolation Sex-role spill-overSex-role spill-over Recruitment & career advancementRecruitment & career advancement


… … resultsresults

Evaluation of meritsEvaluation of merits Formal and informal division of Formal and informal division of

labourlabour Access to office and laboratory spaceAccess to office and laboratory space Access to secretarial helpAccess to secretarial help Access to informationAccess to information Doctoral years especially vulnerableDoctoral years especially vulnerable


I think I have received just treatment, in I think I have received just treatment, in official matters, mostly. So what has been official matters, mostly. So what has been an obstacle has been sort of unofficial. It an obstacle has been sort of unofficial. It really was like a revelation to me in adult really was like a revelation to me in adult age, because I am more from an upper age, because I am more from an upper class family, always been good in school, class family, always been good in school, among the three best in class, I do not among the three best in class, I do not have any visible handicaps, I am quite have any visible handicaps, I am quite quick in my speech and have good quick in my speech and have good language skills, so I did not have any kind language skills, so I did not have any kind of social handicaps until adult age. of social handicaps until adult age.

Doctor in human sciences, born in the 1950sDoctor in human sciences, born in the 1950s


I grew up believing that no one has any reason to I grew up believing that no one has any reason to presume that I would not be capable of something, presume that I would not be capable of something, because I was rather above the average on all these because I was rather above the average on all these visible social attributes. But when I came to the visible social attributes. But when I came to the university I had a couple of sort of shocks, when I university I had a couple of sort of shocks, when I wondered, that what is it --- what was wrong with me, wondered, that what is it --- what was wrong with me, why couldn’t I? And then I realized that oh dear, he why couldn’t I? And then I realized that oh dear, he [the professor] wants a boy. As if he was waiting until [the professor] wants a boy. As if he was waiting until a suitable male student came along. And I realized a suitable male student came along. And I realized that my credibility at the university is weakened by that my credibility at the university is weakened by the fact that I happen to be a woman, and that was the fact that I happen to be a woman, and that was something I had never realized earlier, and I never on something I had never realized earlier, and I never on the whole realized that something could weaken my the whole realized that something could weaken my credibility sociallycredibility socially”. ”.


If I was a young man…If I was a young man… ““Oh my goodness, if I was a young man, I would be Oh my goodness, if I was a young man, I would be

accepted in a quite different way, and I would have been accepted in a quite different way, and I would have been pushed forwards. Some old professor would mentor me, pushed forwards. Some old professor would mentor me, would get me grants, take me to the sauna and explain to would get me grants, take me to the sauna and explain to me all the networks and so on ... But I am outside all that. me all the networks and so on ... But I am outside all that. But in fact I want to be, because I feel it is terribly But in fact I want to be, because I feel it is terribly important that I do things as I do. That I am androgynous, important that I do things as I do. That I am androgynous, that I am not like a wo man in that way, I mean socialised as that I am not like a wo man in that way, I mean socialised as a wo man in that way ... it is frightening. Certainly it is a wo man in that way ... it is frightening. Certainly it is terribly threatening the independence that I radiate, such terribly threatening the independence that I radiate, such as that I grasp the task and I do it. And on the other hand, a as that I grasp the task and I do it. And on the other hand, a certain warmth that I also have confuses people. I am not a certain warmth that I also have confuses people. I am not a spinster or bitter or something, they have difficulties spinster or bitter or something, they have difficulties understanding it. But for men, absolutely the fact that I am understanding it. But for men, absolutely the fact that I am fully independent, it is atavistically threatening to them.fully independent, it is atavistically threatening to them. “ “

Professor, single, early forties, natural sciencesProfessor, single, early forties, natural sciences


Social supportSocial support

Strongly gendered: female professors Strongly gendered: female professors and female colleagues importantand female colleagues important

Common to have only scarce support Common to have only scarce support from one’s own settingfrom one’s own setting

Active search for support from Active search for support from outside own settingoutside own setting

Family and partner important Family and partner important support in careersupport in career


Survival strategiesSurvival strategies

Acting and reflectingActing and reflecting

Strategy “repertoires”Strategy “repertoires”

Action strategies:Action strategies: PersonalPersonal Interactional Interactional Organisational Organisational


Personal action strategiesPersonal action strategies

Efficiency, effective time Efficiency, effective time managementmanagement

Timing or shortening parental leaveTiming or shortening parental leave Sharing parental leave with partnerSharing parental leave with partner Managing appearances and voiceManaging appearances and voice Emphasising motherhood to prevent Emphasising motherhood to prevent

sexual harassmentsexual harassment


Interactional survival strategiesInteractional survival strategies

Sharing and active search for support Sharing and active search for support Creating support networksCreating support networks Building alliances with other womenBuilding alliances with other women Protecting male colleagues’ face & Protecting male colleagues’ face &

ego in interactionego in interaction Using humour in interactionUsing humour in interaction


Organisational survival strategiesOrganisational survival strategies

Direct interventions Direct interventions Mentoring and supporting younger Mentoring and supporting younger

female colleaguesfemale colleagues Formal discrimination complaintsFormal discrimination complaints Learning the tricks of the trade: learn Learning the tricks of the trade: learn

to know the system and use it! to know the system and use it! Learning social mobility in the Learning social mobility in the

structurestructure


Reflective strategies:Reflective strategies:

Alternative future: keeping open a Alternative future: keeping open a back door or back gateback door or back gate

New light through dramatic life New light through dramatic life experiencesexperiences

Perseverance, “sisu”Perseverance, “sisu” Accepting lonelinessAccepting loneliness


Everything helps…Everything helps… ““Generally, let’s say that discussion helps, one Generally, let’s say that discussion helps, one

cannot forbid stupidity by law; violence, cannot forbid stupidity by law; violence, aggression, domestic fights cannot be forbidden aggression, domestic fights cannot be forbidden by law. But there are many such people that by law. But there are many such people that nothing helps, they have only to pass away nothing helps, they have only to pass away [laughs]. But then there are also quite many [laughs]. But then there are also quite many people who are surprised that oh dear, this did not people who are surprised that oh dear, this did not come into my mind at all. And in that sense, come into my mind at all. And in that sense, bringing out examples, publicity, writing and bringing out examples, publicity, writing and different channels, where you can then complain, different channels, where you can then complain, or quarrels that do not lead anywhere, but keep or quarrels that do not lead anywhere, but keep the issue on the agenda, because this issue [of the issue on the agenda, because this issue [of gender equality] has not gone fully through but it gender equality] has not gone fully through but it should be kept up all the time, that there is a new should be kept up all the time, that there is a new macho generation of young blokes growing up. ---macho generation of young blokes growing up. --- “ Professor in human sciences“ Professor in human sciences


Points of policy intervention Points of policy intervention (Harding & McGregor 1995)(Harding & McGregor 1995)

Assessment of

environment

Separation

Pay

Training and

Develop-ment

Re-entry

Promotion

Retention

Recruit-ment

GENDER EQUITY FRAME-WORK


Tools & Strategies for policy Tools & Strategies for policy interventions (1)interventions (1)

Assessment of the Assessment of the environment:environment:

Institutional self-evaluation Institutional self-evaluation questionnairesquestionnaires

Climate evaluation and Climate evaluation and monitoring surveysmonitoring surveys

Responsibility centres for Responsibility centres for equality evaluation, equality evaluation, monitoring & reportingmonitoring & reporting

Foreign review panelsForeign review panels

Recruitment:Recruitment: Open advertising and Open advertising and

competition for postscompetition for posts Pro-active search Pro-active search

techniques using women’s techniques using women’s professional networks, professional networks, NGOS, internet to seek NGOS, internet to seek qualified female qualified female candidatescandidates

Gender balanced Gender balanced interviewing teams and interviewing teams and recruitment committeesrecruitment committees

Gender neutral Gender neutral interviewing techniques & interviewing techniques & formatsformats


… … Tools & strategies 2Tools & strategies 2 Targets for hiring Targets for hiring

qualified female qualified female professionalsprofessionals

Designated Designated fellowships for womenfellowships for women

Flexible overseas Flexible overseas scholarships for scholarships for women in sciencewomen in science

RetentionRetention Senior management Senior management

support; corporate support; corporate policy, equality action policy, equality action plansplans

Policies on gender and Policies on gender and sexual harassmentsexual harassment

Guidelines on Guidelines on language, illustrations language, illustrations and visual materialsand visual materials

High visibility High visibility ombudspersons; ombudspersons; women on grievance women on grievance committeescommittees


… … Tools & strategies 3Tools & strategies 3 Appointment of Appointment of

women to powerful women to powerful and visibility and visibility committeescommittees

Institutional support Institutional support for professional for professional women’s networks women’s networks and internet policy and internet policy discussion groupsdiscussion groups

Recognition, support Recognition, support and reward of role and reward of role model and mentoring model and mentoring programmesprogrammes

Supportive spousal Supportive spousal employment employment programmesprogrammes

On-site childcare On-site childcare facilities and elder facilities and elder care servicescare services


… … Tools and strategies 4Tools and strategies 4

PROMOTION:PROMOTION: Flexible tenure and Flexible tenure and

promotion criteria; promotion criteria; changed reward changed reward system system

Succession planning Succession planning and career counsellingand career counselling

Equity targets with Equity targets with timelines and timelines and statistical trackingstatistical tracking

Regular public Regular public reporting of reporting of performanceperformance

Building a pipeline of Building a pipeline of female candidatesfemale candidates

Gender neutral, bias-Gender neutral, bias-free performance free performance appraisal systemappraisal system


… … Tools and strategies 5Tools and strategies 5

RE-ENTRY:RE-ENTRY: Flexi-time, flexi-Flexi-time, flexi-

location, job-location, job-sharing optionssharing options

Return to work Return to work directory on directory on refresher courses, refresher courses, childcare options, childcare options, mentors, role mentors, role models, career models, career counselingcounseling

Career break Career break schemes and re-schemes and re-entry refresher entry refresher coursescourses

Childcare Childcare allowances for allowances for applicantsapplicants

Progressive Progressive parental leave parental leave policiespolicies


… … Tools & strategies 6Tools & strategies 6 TRAINING AND TRAINING AND

DEVELOPMENT:DEVELOPMENT: Gender sensitivity Gender sensitivity

training for teachers, training for teachers, students & staffstudents & staff

Pedagogical training Pedagogical training for teachers; for teachers; curriculum revision; curriculum revision;

Recognition of diverse Recognition of diverse ways of doing science ways of doing science and differing gender and differing gender patterns in patterns in

communication and communication and learning styleslearning styles

Gender-neutral Gender-neutral language, images, language, images, illustrationsillustrations

Training on gender, Training on gender, interviewing interviewing techniques, combating techniques, combating harassmentharassment

Executive level Executive level internships for womeninternships for women


… … Tools & strategies 7Tools & strategies 7

PAY: PAY: Pay equityPay equity Equity in research Equity in research

fundingfunding

SEPARATION:SEPARATION: Gender equity in Gender equity in

separation separation packagespackages

Exit interviews with Exit interviews with womenwomen

Source: Harding andSource: Harding and

McGregor 1995 in World McGregor 1995 in World Science ReportScience Report


Promoting gender equality in the Promoting gender equality in the University of HelsinkiUniversity of Helsinki

Gender equality committee appointed by Gender equality committee appointed by the University Board, chaired by the Vice the University Board, chaired by the Vice RectorRector

Gender equality adviser, full-time positionGender equality adviser, full-time position Gender equality network: each Gender equality network: each

department and institute has a contact department and institute has a contact personperson

Email distribution list for gender equality Email distribution list for gender equality committee members both nationally and committee members both nationally and inside university inside university


ActivitiesActivities

Gender equality plans since early 1990sGender equality plans since early 1990s Anti-discrimination plan (concerningAnti-discrimination plan (concerning

other discrimination grounds than gender other discrimination grounds than gender (ethnicity, age, disability etc.) since 2001 (ethnicity, age, disability etc.) since 2001

Drafted by the Equality Committee, Drafted by the Equality Committee, accepted by the Consistorium (the highest accepted by the Consistorium (the highest decision making body of the University) decision making body of the University)

Guidelines how to prevent sexual Guidelines how to prevent sexual harassment since mid-1990sharassment since mid-1990s


… … ActivitiesActivities

Evaluations of the plansEvaluations of the plans Mainstreaming gender equality in all Mainstreaming gender equality in all

activities throughout the universityactivities throughout the university Annual funding for gender equality Annual funding for gender equality

projectsprojects Annual gender equality priceAnnual gender equality price Women’s studies/gender studies Women’s studies/gender studies

promotion as part of gender equality promotion as part of gender equality promotionpromotion


Go Electronic! JOIN THE EUROPEAN Go Electronic! JOIN THE EUROPEAN NETWORK ON GENDER EQUALITY IN HENETWORK ON GENDER EQUALITY IN HE

An electronic discussion An electronic discussion list to discuss and share list to discuss and share information on gender information on gender equality in HE in Europe.equality in HE in Europe.

Over 330 members from Over 330 members from

30 countries and five 30 countries and five continents (2004). continents (2004).

Hosted by the University Hosted by the University of Helsinki, moderated by of Helsinki, moderated by Liisa Husu and Terhi Liisa Husu and Terhi Saarikoski. Saarikoski.

How to join: Send an email How to join: Send an email with the text SUBSCRIBE with the text SUBSCRIBE EQ-UNI to EQ-UNI to [email protected]@helsinki.fi..

Liisa Husu * University of Helsinki * 2004 Academic women and gendered universities Recent research...

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