Life Span Development

Chapter 10

Methods in Developmental Psychology

Cross-Sectional Study Study people of different ages at the

same point in timeAdvantages

InexpensiveCan be completed quicklyLow attrition

DisadvantagesDifferent age groups are not necessarily

much alikeDifferences may be due to cohort

differences rather than age

Longitudinal Study

Study the same group of people over time

AdvantagesDetailed information about subjectsDevelopmental changes can be studied in

detailEliminates cohort differences

DisadvantagesExpensive and time consumingPotential for high attritionDifferences over time may be due to

assessment tools and not age

Biographical or Retrospective Study

Participant’s past is reconstructed through interviews and other research about their life

AdvantagesGreat detail about life of individualIn-depth study of one person

DisadvantagesRecall of individual may not be accurateCan be expensive and time consuming

Prenatal Development

Period of time from conception to birth

EmbryoFrom about two weeks after conception

to three months after conceptionFetus

Three months after conception to birthPlacenta

Connects fetus to motherBrings oxygen and nutrientsTakes away wastes

Prenatal DevelopmentCritical Period

Time when influences have major effectTerotogens

Substances that can damage an embryo or fetus

Fetal Alcohol SyndromeOccurs in children of women who consume

large amounts of alcohol during pregnancySymptoms include facial deformities, heart

defects, stunted growth, and cognitive impairments

The Newborn Baby

ReflexesRooting

Baby turns its head toward something that brushes its cheek and gropes around with mouth

Sucking Newborn’s tendency to suck on objects placed in

the mouthSwallowing

Enables newborn babies to swallow liquids without choking

Grasping Close fist around anything placed in their hand

Stepping Stepping motions made by an infant when held

upright

Temperament Temperament refers to characteristic

patterns of emotional reactions and emotional self-regulation

Thomas and Chess identified three basic types of babiesEasy

Good-natured, easy to care for, adaptable

DifficultMoody and intense, react to new

situations and people negatively and strongly

Slow-to-warm-upInactive and slow to respond to new

things, and when they do react, it is mild

Temperament

Kagan has added a fourth typeShy Child

Timid and inhibited, fearful of anything new or strange

Temperament may predict later disposition

Perceptual AbilitiesVision

Clear for 8-10 inchesGood vision by 6 months

Depth PerceptionVisual cliff research

Other SensesEars are functional prior to birthInfants particularly tune in to human

voicesTaste and smell are fully functional

Infancy and Childhood

Physical Development

Children grow about 10 inches and gain about 15 pounds in first year

Growth occurs in spurts, as much as 1 inch overnight

Growth slows during second year

Motor Development

Developmental NormsAges by which an average child

achieves various developmental milestones

MaturationAutomatic biological unfolding of

development in an organism as a function of passage of time

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Sensory-Motor Stage (birth to 2 years)Object permanence

Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)Egocentric

Concrete Operations (7-11 years)Principles of conservation

Formal Operations (11-15 years)Understand abstract ideas

Criticisms of Piaget's Theory

Many question assumption that there are distinct stages in cognitive development

Criticism of notion that infants do not understand world

Piaget may have underestimated influence of social interaction in cognitive development

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral

DevelopmentPreconventional

(preadolescence)“Good” behavior is mostly to avoid

punishment or seek reward

Conventional (adolescence)Behavior is about pleasing others and, in

later adolescence, becoming a good citizen

PostconventionalEmphasis is on abstract principles such as

justice, equality, and liberty

Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory

Research shows that many people never progress past the conventional level

Theory does not take cultural differences into account

Theory is considered by some to be sexist in that girls often scored lower on tests of morality

Language Development

BabblingMake the sounds of all languages

HolophrasesOne word is used to mean a whole

sentence

Theories of Language Development

Skinner theorized that language develops as parents reward children for language usage

Chomsky proposed the language acquisition deviceA neural mechanism for acquiring

language presumed to be “wired into” all humans

Bilingualism and the development of a second language

Social Development

Parent-Child Relationships in Infancy

Development of Attachment

ImprintingTendency to follow the first moving thing

seenOccurs in many species of animals

AttachmentHumans form a bond with those who care

for them in infancyBased upon interaction with caregiver

AutonomySense of independence

SocializationProcess by which children learn appropriate

attitudes and behaviors

Social Development

Parent-Child Relationships in Childhood

Baumrind’s Parenting Styles

Authoritarian Tightly control children’s behavior and

insist on obedienceCan produce children who have poor

communication skills, who are moody, withdrawn, and distrustful

Permissive-indifferentParents have too little control and often

are indifferent and neglectfulChildren tend to become overly dependent

and lack social skills and self-control

Baumrind’s Parenting StylesPermissive-Indulgent

Parents are very attentive and supportive, but do not set limits on behavior

Children tend to be immature, disrespectful, impulsive, and out of control

Authoritative Parents provide firm structure, but are not

overly controllingParents listen to their children’s opinions

and explain their decisions, bur are still clearly in charge

Children tend to become self-reliant and socially responsible

Relationships With Other Children

Solitary playChildren first play by themselves

Parallel playAs they get older, children play side-by-

side with other children, but not interacting

Cooperative playBy about 3 or 3½, children begin playing

with others

Relationships With Other Children

Peer groupA network of same-aged friends and

acquaintances who give one another emotional and social support

When children start school, peers begin to have greater influence

Nonshared environmentUnique aspects of the environment that

are experienced differently by siblings

Sex-Role Development

Gender identityKnowledge of being a boy or girlOccurs by age 3

Gender constancyChild realizes that gender cannot changeOccurs by age 4 or 5

Sex-Role Development

Gender-role awarenessKnowing appropriate behavior for each

genderGender stereotypes

Beliefs about presumed characteristics of each gender

Sex-typed behaviorSocially defined ways to behave different for

boys and girlsMay be at least partly biological in origin

Adolescence

Physical Changes

Growth spurtBegins about age 10½ in girls and about

12½ in boysSexual development

PubertyOnset of sexual maturation

MenarcheFirst menstrual period for girls

Physical ChangesEarly and late developersAdolescent sexual activity

Approximately ¾ of males and ½ of females between 15 and 19 have had intercourse

Average age for first intercourse is 16 for boys and 17 for girls

Teenage pregnancyRate of teen pregnancy has fallen in the

last 50 yearsHighest in U.S. of all industrialized nations

Cognitive Changes

Imaginary audienceAdolescent delusion that everyone else

is always focused on themPersonal fable

Delusion that they are unique and very important

InvulnerabilityNothing can harm them

Personality and Social Development

Major occurrence in adolescence is identity formation

Forming an identityAchievement

Successfully find identityForeclosure

Settle for identity others wish for themMoratorium

Explore various identitiesDiffusion

Unable to “find themselves”

Personality and Social Development

Relationships with peersAdolescents often form cliques, or

groups with similar interests and strong mutual attachment

Relationships with parentsAdolescents test and question every rule

and guideline from parents

Some Problems of Adolescence

Declines in self-esteemRelated to appearanceSatisfaction in appearance is related

to higher self-esteemDepression and suicide

Rate of suicide among adolescents has increased 600% since 1950, but has leveled off in ’90s

Suicide often related to depression, drug abuse, and disruptive behaviors

Adulthood

Love, Partnerships, and Parenting

Forming partnershipsFirst major event of adulthood is forming

and maintaining close relationshipsParenthood

Having children alters dynamics of relationships

Marital satisfaction often declines after birth of child

Marital Satisfaction

Other Issues

The World of WorkBalancing career and family obligations

is a challengeCognitive Changes

Thinking is more flexible and practicalPersonality Changes

Less self-centered, better coping skillsSome men and women have a midlife

crisis (or midlife transition)The "Change of Life"

Menopause

Late Adulthood

Physical Changes

In late adulthood, physical deterioration is inevitable

A person’s response to these changes are important

Social Development

Independent and satisfying lifestyles

RetirementMost people will stop working and face

challenges with that sudden changeSexual behavior

Research shows that many older couples continue to be sexually active

Cognitive Changes

Research has demonstrated that those who continue to “exercise” their mental abilities can delay mental decline

Alzheimer’s disease afflicts approximately 10% of people over 65 and perhaps as many as 50% of those over 85

Facing the End-of-Life

Kubler-Ross’s Stages of Dying

DenialAngerBargainingDepressionAcceptance