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Life Cycle Inventory of different forms of Rice
by
Poritosh Roy, Tsutomu Ijiri, Daisuke Nei, Hiroshi Okadome, Nobutaka Nakamura, Yutaka Ishikawa and Takeo Shiina
Distribution Engineering Laboratory,National Food Research Institute, Tsukuba, Japan
Introduction
Rice is a staple food for nearly two-thirds of the world’s population.
However, rice consumption has been decreasing since 1960s, leads to develop different value added rice products to stabilize the rice consumption.
Fig. 2 Rice consumption trends in Japan (source: MAFF)
White rice, partially milled, brown rice, germinated brown rice, rice bread etc.
0
40000
80000
120000
160000
200000
Japa
nBan
glade
sh
China
India
Thaila
ndInd
ones
iaViet
Nam
Producing countries
Pro
duct
ion
(x10
00 t)
199520002005
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
1985 1990 1995 2000 2002 2003
Consumption years
Per
cap
ita c
onsu
mpt
ion,
kg
Fig. 1 Rough rice production in major rice producing countries (source: FAO)
Population in 2005:Japan: 127.42 millions; Bangladesh: 146.7 millions (168 kg/person-year)
Table 1 Food components of riceRice variety Rice Milling
Type Degree, Energy, Protein, Thiamin Riboflavin Niacin, Dietary% kJ g (B1), mg (B2), mg mg fibers, g
1Brown rice 0 1456 10 0.41 0.04 6.3 3Japonica
1Partially milled 4-5 1473 9.5 0.3 0.03 3.5 1.41Partially milled 6-7 1485 9.4 0.24 0.03 1.7 0.91White rice 8-10 1485 9.2 0.08 0.02 12 0.52Germinated brown rice 0 1403 8.2 - - - 4.2
Indica3Milled parboiled rice 7-8 1544 - - - - -
1Upland rice; Food coposition table, 2000, Japan2Ohtsubo et al., 20053FAO
Food Components per 100 grams
Greenhouse gas emission has been increasing remarkably by a tremendous use of energy resulted global warming, is perhaps the most serious problem mankind faces today.
According to the Kyoto Protocol Japan has agreed to reduce its Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) emission 6% below the 1990 level by 2012.
Reducing its energy-derived CO2 emission to 1990 level is a prerequisite for achieving this target.
Agriculture and in particular rice production has been named as a significant contributor to greenhouse gas emission (primary and secondary).
This study attempts to evaluate the life cycle of rice (well milled, partially milled, brown rice, and parboiled milled rice) to determine if CO2emission can be reduced.
comparison of alternative produces, processes or services,
comparison of alternative life cycles for a certain product or service,
identification of parts where the greatest improvement can be made.
The purpose of an LCA can be:
Methodology
Milling: 8%Milling: 2% Milling: 5% Milling: 10%
Paddy Brown rice Germinated brown rice
Fig. 3 Photographs of paddy and different forms of rice
Fig. 4 Flow diagram of the life cycle of different forms of rice
The functional unit of this study is defined as the mass of the product i.e., 1 kg of rice (well milled or partially milled or brown or white or parboiled) consumed at households.
Cooking: Rice cooker
Cultivation
Harvesting Paddy Consumption Milling
Dehusking
Parboiling
Brown rice
Transportation/Packaging/Retail shop/Washing
CookingParboiled rice
Partially/well milled rice
Seedling
Dehusking
Dehusking Milling Waste
De-husking
Milling
Pre-steaming7-15 min
Soaking12-24 h
Steaming5-80 min
Drying14% mc
Parboiled Rice
Trad
ition
al p
arbo
iling
pro
cess
Fig.5 Flow diagram of the production process of parboiled rice
Fig. 6 Local parboiling devices
Capacity: 5-10 t/batch
FAO, 1997
Rice cooker
Earlier model
Latest model
Household energy ladder typical in south Asia (Smith et al., 1994)
Fuel wood collection by children and women
FAO, 1997
Fig. 7 Fuel wood collection, household energy ladder and cooking devices
Inventory analysis and data collection:Table 2 Data and the data sources for the inventory analysis
Tahara, 20050.011/kg-white riceWaste managementTahara, 20050.054/ kg-white riceTransportationTahara, 20050.008/kg-white ricePackagingNIAES, 20030.334/kg-brown riceProduction
SourcesCO2 emissionSystems
Energy consumption in milling processes were measured at laboratory and at a local farm.
Cooking processes were studied in the laboratory.The emission from the postharvest phases of parboiled rice was also collected from the literature (Roy et al., 2005).
Results and Discussion
Fig. 8 Energy consumption in the cooking processes
NH-PA10-HH: 1L (5.5 cup); NP-GA05-XA: 0.54L (3 cup)
White rice: 1.5Brown rice: 1.875
0.00.2
0.40.6
0.81.0
1.21.4
1.6
1-cup 2-cup 3-cup 5-cup
Ammount ofrice (180 ml/cup)
Ener
gy c
onsu
mpt
ion,
kW
h/kg Brown-NH-PA10 Brown-NP-GA05
White-NP-GA05
Fig. 9 Temperature and energy consumption patterns of different cooking processes (well and partially milled rice)
Cooking time, min
W e ll m ille d
0
2 0
4 0
6 0
8 0
1 0 0
0 2 0 4 0 6 0 8 0
Tem
pera
ture
, ℃
0
0 .1
0 .2
0 .3
0 .4
0 .5
0 .6
0 .7
0 .8
Ene
rgy
cons
umpt
ion,
kWT - ro o m
T -c o o k e rE ne rg y
Partia lly milled
0
20
40
60
80
100
0 20 40 60 80
Tem
pera
ture
, ℃
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
Ener
gy c
onsu
mpt
ion,
kWT-room
T-cooker
E nergy
Fig. 10 Temperature and energy consumption patterns of different cooking processes (GBR and brown rice)
GBR
0
20
40
60
80
100
0 20 40 60 80Cooking time, min
Tem
pera
ture
, ℃
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
Ene
rgy
cons
umpt
ion,
kWT -room T-cooker
Energy
Brown
0
20
40
60
80
100
0 20 40 60 80
Cooking time, min
Tem
pera
ture
, ℃
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
Ene
rgy
cons
umpt
ion,
kW
T-roomT-cookerEnergy
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Soaking time, h
Moi
stur
e co
nten
t, %
(w.b
.)
Brown Milled 10%Milled 8% Milled 5%Milled 2%
Fig. 11 Cooked rice
b. Partially milled
d. Parboiled ricec. Brown rice
a. white rice
Table 3 Energy consumption and quality indices of cooked rice
Type Water- Cooking Energy Cooked Hardness,of rice time, consumption, rice, Nrice ratio min kWh/kg MC%
Well milled 1.5 45.9 0.333 60.5 10.6Partially milled 2% 1.6 51.2 0.367 59.9 12.7Partially milled 5% 1.6 49.9 0.352 60.7 12.7Partially milled 8% 1.6 51.4 0.366 60.3 11.4GBR 1.5 64.2 0.404 65.1 10.9Brown rice 1.9 81.9 0.571 64.8 13.2Parboiled 2.5 48.6 0.433 67.9 13.9GBR: germinated brown rice
Fig. 12 LCI of different forms of rice
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Milled Partially-milled 2%
Partially-milled 5%
Partially-milled 8%
Brown Parboiledmilled
Types of rice
CO
2 em
issi
on, k
g/kg
-ric
e
Production Parboiling
Milling Packaging
Transportation CookingWaste management
Fig. 13 LCI of different forms of rice (includes GBR)
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Milled Partially-milled
2%
Partially-milled
5%
Partially-milled
8%
Brown Parboiledmilled
GBR
Types of rice
CO
2 em
issi
on, k
g/kg
-ric
e
Production ParboilingMilling PackagingTransportation GerminationCooking Waste management
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
Milled Partially-milled 2%
Partially-milled 5%
Partially-milled 8%
Brown Parboiledmilled
GBR
Types of rice
Em
issi
on, k
g/kg
-coo
ked
rice
Production ParboilingMilling PackagingTransportation GerminationCooking Waste management
Fig. 14 LCI of different forms of rice (based on the mass of cooked rice)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Milled Partially-milled 2%
Partially-milled 5%
Partially-milled 8%
Brown Parboiledmilled
GBR
Types of rice
Em
issi
on, g
/MJ
of c
ooke
d ric
e
Production ParboilingMilling Packaging
Transportation GerminationCooking Waste management
Fig. 15 LCI of different forms of rice (based on the energy content of cooked rice)
Conclusions
The inventory was found to be increased gradually from partially milled rice to parboiled rice.
A change in rice production process and consumption pattern would reduce the energy consumption and environmental load from the rice life cycle.
However, taste of rice and its acceptability have to be considered for a method switching.
Motivation and awareness on environment and health are required for method switching.
The method switching would reduce environmental load from the rice industry and lead to reduce deforestation and global warming potential.