LHE 3305Perkembangan Moral

(psikologi – Abdul Rahman Md Aroff)

falsafah (falsafah (konsepkonsep) moral) moralHow the individual ought to grow or what How the individual ought to grow or what

he should become morally, what it he should become morally, what it means to be morally maturedmeans to be morally matured

psikologi (psikologi (perkembanganperkembangan) moral) moralDescribes how the individual actually Describes how the individual actually

develops morallydevelops morally

Non-developmental theoryNon-developmental theorylearning behaviourlearning behaviourpsycho-analysispsycho-analysis

Developmental theoryDevelopmental theorysimple stages of developmentsimple stages of developmentrecapitulationrecapitulationmoral sanctionsmoral sanctionsmoral judgment/cognitive-developmentmoral judgment/cognitive-developmentpsycho-socialpsycho-social

How essential andHow essential and no one theory has ano one theory has ahow inadequate each monopoly on explanationhow inadequate each monopoly on explanation(theory) is(theory) is in this area (moral in this area (moral

development)development) D.Wright (1978:22) M.L.Hoffman (1970:345)D.Wright (1978:22) M.L.Hoffman (1970:345)

Pembelajaran Tingkah Laku

Amalan keluarga dan campur tangan orang dewasa

Teknik pemeliharaan kanak-kanak Perbezaan sosiobudaya

dendaanganjaran

conotoh teladan

• Punishment administered as children initiate deviant acts is more effective than punishment given after the acts have been

performed. Early punishment makes children apprehensive as they prepare to commit a transgression, so that they are less likely to

follow through. But late punishment makes children apprehensive after the act is done, so that they may perform the act again and

only then feel anxious.• High intensity punishment is more effective at inhibiting

undesirable conduct than mild punishments are. However, very intense punishments can backfire by making children hostile

toward the punitive agent and willing to deviate ‘out of spite’ when the disciplinarian is not around to oversee their activities.

• To be effective, punishment must be administered consistently. Satisfying acts that are punished erratically or inconsistently

persist for long periods and are difficult to eliminate even after the punitive agent begins to punish them on a regular basis.

• Punishment is more effective at establishing moral prohibitions when administered by someone who has previously established a

warm and friendly (rewarding) relationship with the child.

psikoanalisisid ~ desakan naluri mencari kepuasan segeraego ~ dunia sebenar di luar diri individu

super ego ~ - suara batin (conscience):

menekan/melemahkan/ mengalihkan kuasa naluri; identification with the aggressor

- ego unggul (ego ideal): norma sosial dan nilai yang harus dipupuk; anaclictic identification

► Moral teaching-learning would be a non-viable activityMoral teaching-learning would be a non-viable activityconscience & character are inedibly established in infancyconscience & character are inedibly established in infancyignored the intellectual/thinking aspect of moral developmentignored the intellectual/thinking aspect of moral development

► Blind obedience > autonomyBlind obedience > autonomymoral reasoning is stultifiedmoral reasoning is stultified

► Moral motivationMoral motivationfear/anxiety /guilt/remorse> oughtfear/anxiety /guilt/remorse> ought

► ModelsModelsirrelevant/inadequateirrelevant/inadequate

► Inflexible learning/situation specificInflexible learning/situation specificnot easily modified or generalized to circumstances posing a not easily modified or generalized to circumstances posing a different problem different problem

~Macaulay & Watkins (1925) An investigation into the development of the moral conceptions of children

(general pattern of moral development)

~Hartshorne, May & Maller (1928-30) Studies in the nature of character

(specificity in moral behaviour)

RECAPITULATIONontogeny- a study of an individual’s development

phylogeny – a study of the development of a speciesontogeny RECAPITULATES phylogeny

The individual traverses essentially the same course as that traversed by mankind in the course of the

history of the human race. The stages that the individual, as well as the human race, passes

through can be summarised as follows: In the moral evolution of man one can trace different stages.

From control by taboo we passed to control by law. At this point reciprocity emerged as the primary

moral principle, but man lapsed into authoritarianism. More recently, the race passed into the age of ‘inner-direction’, then of ‘other-direction’

and now stands on the brink of autonomous morality.

Simple Stages of Simple Stages of DevelopmentDevelopment

(how are children likely to behave)

Moral development passes through different stages and that the

behaviour characteristic of each stage can be clearly described. The

concern is on actual behaviour.

H.B.Smith (1937) Growing minds

• Obedience: morality is obedience to parents and other authority figures (when a child does what authority tells him, he is doing the ‘right’ thing)

• Legalism: morality consists of subscribing to laws (an action is right if it follows an accepted rule)

• Personal morality: consists of personal adjustment – feel/think for him not only the criteria determining what is right or what is wrong but also the claims of those actions, which he believes should characterise his conduct

Swainson

The essence of morality consists of interpersonal or human relationships (Martin

Buber, I-Thou). Moral development takes place by means of the creative tension

between a morality of being true to oneself and the morality of relating to others

(“in the beginning is relation”, “all real life is meeting”)

TRANQUIL -------------------------- TURBULENT(tenteram, tenang, sejahtera) (bergolak, bergelora)

B.M.Swainson (1949) The development of moral ideas in children and adolescents

• Infancy ( -8thn) the tension between the need of the individual child to be true to his own nature (to express himself with no concern for others) and also the need to be acceptable to others: prudential & authoritarian

• Childhood (9-12thn) moral extraversion and healthy resistance to guilt and remorse lead them into perpetual conflict with authority – this is all external and uncomplicated, no internal turmoil: authoritarian & social

• Adolescence (13-19thn) internal problem, to be resolved from within, complex and painful process; less willing to discuss problems with adults; moral agent standing alone; searching true morality and true self: social, personal & altruism

isbat moral

Biasanya semua ahli keluarga anda minum teh petang bersama. Suatu

hari, kerana lapar, anda ingin mengambil makanan di atas meja untuk minuman petang itu, tetapi anda tidak berbuat demikian. Ini

kerana ibu bapa dan ahli keluarga anda yang lain belum pulang.

Apakah sebab yang menghalang anda daripada mengambil makanan

itu?

• Ibunya selalu berkata tunggu dahulu ahli keluarga yang lain

• Kawannya akan menganggap dia sebagai pencuri• Walaupun lapar, dia rasa bersalah mengambil

makanan itu• Nanti dia terambil lebih dan nanti ada ahli

keluarganya yang lain tidak dapat makanan itu• Perbuatan itu merupakan suatu dosa• Dia bukan jenis individu yang mengambil sesuatu

tanpa meminta izin• Dia takut tertangkap dan didenda• Ibunya tidak pernah mengambil sesuatu

daripadanya tanpa meminta izin

isbat = motif/dorongan/sekatan yang menentukan tingkah laku

~ isbat moral adalah sistem kawalan yang telah dihayati

(internalised control)

~ kumpulan dan peringkat umur

~ beroperasi sepanjang hayat

~ ada satu yang paling berpengaruh

psikososial

Havighurst & Taba (1949)

Peck & Havighurst (1960)

psikososial

~ berkait rapat dengan sahsiah/personaliti

~ bahagian personaliti yang menjadi fokus adalah watak, peribadi atau tingkah laku yang paling tertakluk

kepada penerimaan sosial

~ watak adalah gabungan beberapa ciri/tret tertentu

latar belakang berkaitan… Pembelajaran sosial

+ Persekitaran sosial –

tanggapan masyarakat tentang watak yang baik,

faktor sosioekonomi, pengalaman pembelajaran,

pemikiran refleksi, dan sebagainnya

Havighurst & Taba

pola/profil individu berdasarkan pembolehubah (sifat/ciri peribadi) – kejujuran, tanggungjawab, kesetiaan, kemesraan, dan keberanian moral

jenis watak – unadjusted, defiant, submissive, adaptive, dan self-directive

faktor latar belakang yang membezakan pelbagai jenis watak

Peck & Havishurst

Amoral Expedient Conforming Irrational-conscientious Rational-altruistic

D.WrightD.Wright

altruistic autonomousaltruistic autonomous

conscientiousconscientious

rule-following collectivistrule-following collectivist

authoritarian authoritarian conformistconformist

amoralamoral

mainly adult influence-----------------mainly peer influence mainly adult influence-----------------mainly peer influence

degree of internalisation of socialising influencedegree of internalisation of socialising influence

Pertimbangan (Pertimbangan (JudgementJudgement) Moral) Moralatauatau

Teori Perkembangan Kognitif MoralTeori Perkembangan Kognitif Moral

Jean Piaget Jean Piaget (9/8/1896-16/9/1980)(9/8/1896-16/9/1980)

Lawrence Kohlberg Lawrence Kohlberg (25/10/1927-19/1/1987)(25/10/1927-19/1/1987)

~ Perkembangan moral dicerminkan ~ Perkembangan moral dicerminkan oleh perubahan dalam pertimbangan oleh perubahan dalam pertimbangan

moralmoral~ Perubahan ini berlaku apabila ~ Perubahan ini berlaku apabila

kanak-kanak berkembang dan kanak-kanak berkembang dan matang dari segi mental dan intelek matang dari segi mental dan intelek

The Rules of the Game

Practice of Rules:motor rules>egocentricity>cooperation>codification of rules

Consciousness of Rules~ rules are purely motor, not coercive in nature and are adopted

unconsciously~ rules are obligatory realities, sacred, unchangeable and external

originating with adults~ a rule is looked upon rationally as an effect of autonomous

conscience, as a law to which consent is due, but alterable if it is so agreed by most of those concerned

Type of Respect for Rules * heteronomy *autonomy

Adult Constraint and Moral Realism

Method used involves the presentation of stories concerning clumsiness, stealing and lying

Findings conclude that moral realism is to be found among the younger children (up to about 8 years old) due to: spontaneous thought of the child and the constraint exercised by adults

heteronomyLiteral realism – the letter rather than the spirit of the law shall

be observedObjective responsibility – the material results or consequences

seem to be the important criterion used in making moral judgment

Unilateral respect – the good is rigidly defined as obedience to adult and external rule

Cooperation and the Idea of Justice

retributive -> -> distributive justice immanent justice collective punishment

autonomy subjective responsibility morality of cooperation mutual/multilateral respect

kritikan terhadap Piaget

• Moral development = growth of complexity, and not characterized by sequential stages. The richness of the emotional life, emotional response and personal awareness of the child is underestimated

• Mistakenly assume there was only one dominant factor, intellectual, in moral development. Other elements need to be considered, e.g. impact of parental pressures and differences in social class, societies and educational traditions

• Cannot be generalized because study involves lower class only and small in number

• Ignored moral action

dilema HeinzSeorang wanita berada dalam keadaan tenat kerana barah.

Doktor berpendapat bahawa ada sejenis ubat yang boleh menyelamatkan nyawa wanita itu. Ubat itu ditemui seorang

pembuat ubat yang telah membelanjakan $2,000 untuk menghasilkannya. Dia mahu menjual ubat itu dengan harga

$20,000. Heinz, suami wanita yang sakit itu, mampu mengumpul (setelah bersungguh-sungguh berusaha)

$10,000 sahaja. Heinz merayu kepada pembuat ubat itu agar menjual ubat itu kepadanya dengan harga $10,000 dan

membenarkan dia membayar baki $10,000 kemudian. Penjual ubat itu berkata, “Tidak boleh. Aku hasilkan ubat itu dan aku mahu mendapat untung daripadanya”. Heinz berasa tertekan

dan membuat pertimbangan untuk mencuri ubat itu agar isterinya pulih seperti sedia kala.

Patutkah Heinz mencuri ubat itu? Mengapa ya/tidak?

The most common level of reasoning for

6 to 9 yrs old Stage 1

10 to 12 yrs old Stage 2

14 t0 24 yrs old Stage 3

24 to 36 yrs old Stage 4

But some individuals reasoned at Stage 4 when they were only 12 yrs old and at

Stage 5 when they were 18. A few others never rose above Stage 2

72/75 lelaki 10, 13 & 16, selama 12 thn, iaitu longitudinal

Great Britain, Canada, Taiwan, Mexico, Turkey

Dilema moral bersifat hypothetical

characteristics of cognitive stages of development

Stages imply qualitative differences in modes of thinking

Each stage forms a structured whole Stages form an invariant sequence Stages are hierarchical integrations

kritikan terhadap Kohlbergkritikan terhadap KohlbergKohlberg has dealt with only one aspect ofKohlberg has dealt with only one aspect of moral development, i.e. moral development, i.e.

moralmoral reasoning.reasoning. This leaves out a great deal. Things that Kohlberg This leaves out a great deal. Things that Kohlberg failed to do are:failed to do are:

~ to deal adequately with the behavioural aspect of moral development~ to deal adequately with the behavioural aspect of moral development ~ overlook the role of affect~ overlook the role of affect ~ moral reasoning about real instead of hypothetical dilemmas~ moral reasoning about real instead of hypothetical dilemmas ~ defines morality in terms of the formal character of a moral judgment, ~ defines morality in terms of the formal character of a moral judgment,

rather in terms of its content, i.e. he omits rules and virtues/habitsrather in terms of its content, i.e. he omits rules and virtues/habitsKohlberg has also been criticized for what he has included in his Kohlberg has also been criticized for what he has included in his

theory, and they aretheory, and they are ~ morality based on the concept of justice~ morality based on the concept of justice ~ universal and sequential stages~ universal and sequential stages

•Learning Readiness

•Very few reach the 5th & 6th stages

The different The different elementselements in moral in moral developmentdevelopment

► Moral development passes through different stages Moral development passes through different stages and the and the behaviourbehaviour characteristic of each stage can be characteristic of each stage can be clearly described (clearly described (how are they likely to behave?how are they likely to behave?).).

► Moral development can be understood in terms of the Moral development can be understood in terms of the different different sanctionssanctions which govern moral behaviour. This which govern moral behaviour. This involves one in a study of the motivational elements involves one in a study of the motivational elements (sanctions) in moral conduct, i.e. the varying motives (sanctions) in moral conduct, i.e. the varying motives underlying behaviour at different stages of underlying behaviour at different stages of development (development (why will they behave in this way?why will they behave in this way?).).

► Moral development is concerned with the developing Moral development is concerned with the developing maturity of moral judgement. The emphasis is on the maturity of moral judgement. The emphasis is on the intellectual (intellectual (cognitivecognitive) element involved in ) element involved in judgements made concerning moral problems and judgements made concerning moral problems and dilemmas (issues and conflicts).dilemmas (issues and conflicts).

► The actual The actual personalitypersonality of the individual is linked with of the individual is linked with his behaviour and his stage of psycho-social his behaviour and his stage of psycho-social development.development.

Kesimpulan (dan hipotesis) daripada Kesimpulan (dan hipotesis) daripada sorotan karya bertulis tentang sorotan karya bertulis tentang

perkembangan moral 1930-60perkembangan moral 1930-60 ► Perkembangan moral adalah kompleks dan Perkembangan moral adalah kompleks dan

faktor situasi mempengaruhi tingkah lakufaktor situasi mempengaruhi tingkah laku► Suatu skema atau pola perkembangan moral Suatu skema atau pola perkembangan moral

adalah nyata semasa kanak-kanak adalah nyata semasa kanak-kanak membesar ke peringkat remajamembesar ke peringkat remaja

► Terdapat peringkat-peringkat yang jelas Terdapat peringkat-peringkat yang jelas dalam proses perkembangan moral inidalam proses perkembangan moral ini

► Unsur atau jenis kawalan tertentu adalah Unsur atau jenis kawalan tertentu adalah natural bagi setiap peringkatnatural bagi setiap peringkat

► Kawalan in boleh ditafsir dari segi, misalnya, Kawalan in boleh ditafsir dari segi, misalnya, isbat moral, hubungan sosial, pertimbangan isbat moral, hubungan sosial, pertimbangan moral, struktur sahsiahmoral, struktur sahsiah

Piaget’s understanding of moral development is Piaget’s understanding of moral development is “things are motor, individual and social all at once” “things are motor, individual and social all at once” hal.79hal.79

Process/Factors of Moral Development

• Intellectual – shift from egocentric to decentred thinking; spontaneous thought to deliberation

• Motor rule / habit – through which the child perceives and begins to understand the regularities of social interactions

• Experiencing regularities as obligatory, initially in causal rather than in moral terms ‘I ought’ (observing and participating in social interactions)

• The nature of the dominant/significant personal relationship that the child experiences and the way he cognitively construes this inter-individual relationship. If constraint / unilateral respect is more dominant than cooperation / mutual respect in a person’s relationship with others, then, he is experiencing heteronomous morality rather than autonomous morality

The distinction made by Piaget betweenThe distinction made by Piaget between

• theoretical morality – verbal morality/thought, i.e. intellectual

discussion about hypothetical dilemmas

• practical morality – active/true/effective thought, i.e. real life

situations and experiences related to real life moral decisions, actions and practices

A moral problem presented to the child is far further removed from his moral practice than is an intellectual

problem from his logical practice. (hal. 108)

A child who pronounces correctly on the values of actions he is told about, is, on the whole, better than one whose moral judgement is less acute. This may be, but it is also

conceivable that intelligence alone might suffice to sharpen the child’s evaluation of conduct without

necessarily inclining him to do good actions. In this case an intelligent scamp would perhaps give better answers

than a slow-witted but really good-hearted little boy. (hal. 111-2)