Lexington, Kentucky October 27 29, 1980

Lexington, Kentucky

October 27 - 29, 1980

sponsored by

I ~

TABLE OF

Trees f o r Tomorrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Edward A. Johnson

Trees f o r Reclamation i n t h e Eastern United S t a t e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

C. W. Moody, David T. Kimbrell

Mine Reclamation in Arkansas . . . . . . . . 9 Floyd Durham, James G. Barnum

A Look a t Trees and Reclamation i n Georgia 11 Sanford P. Darby

Reclamation wi th Trees i n I l l i n o i s . . . . .15 Brad E v i l s iz er

Using Trees on keclaimed Mined Lands i n Southern I l l i n o i s . . . . . . . . . . . .17

Jim Sandusky

Fores t ry a s a Reclamation P r a c t i c e on S t r i p Mined Lands i n Kansas . . . . . . .21

Harold G. Gallaher and Gary G. Naughton

CONTENTS

Has Anyone Noticed t h a t Trees Are Not . . . . . . . Being Planted Any Longer?. 53 Walter D. Smith

Revegetat ion of Surf ace-Mined Lands . . . . . . . . . . . . i n Pennsylvania 57 G. Nevin St rock

Trees f o r Reclamation i n t h e Eastern United S t a t e s ; A West Virg in ia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Perspect ive 61

James E. P i t senbarger

The Role of West V i rg in i a ' s Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . of Fores t ry 63 Asher W. Kelly, Jr.

Trees f o r Reclamation i n t h e Eas tern . . . . . . . . . . . . . United S t a t e s 65 James R. White

In t roduct ion t o Pine Refores ta t ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Action Plan 69 George N. Brooks

Kentucky' s Nursery S i tua t ion . . . . . . . .25 Fores ta t ion of Surface Mines f o r Wi ld l i f e 71 Raymond J. Swatzyna Thomas G. Zarger

Tree Plant ing - Strip-Mined Area i n Maryland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Fred L. Bagley

Refores ta t ion Species Study on a Reclaimed Surface Mine in Western Maryland . . . . .35

Jay A. Engle

An Evaluation of Reclamation Tree Plant ing i n Southwest Virg in ia . . . . . . . . . .37

Danny R. Brown, Donald L. Branson

Refores ta t ion Program i n Southwest Virg in ia 39 Wallace F. Custard

Revegetation f o r Aes the t ics . . . . . . . 75 Bernard M. S l i c k

Tree Plant ing Experiences i n t h e Eas tern . . . . . . . . . I n t e r i o r Coal Province 85 Charles Medvick

. . . . . . Direct Seeding f o r Fores ta t ion 93 Walter H. Davidson

Resul t s of 30-Year-Old P l an t a t i ons on Surface Mines in t h e Cent ra l S t a t e s . . 99

W. Clark Ashby, Clay A. Kolar, Nelson F. Rogers

Refores ta t ion of Surface Mines on Lands Role of Mycorrhizae i n Fores ta t ion of . . . . . . . . . . . . of V I C C Land Company . . . . . . . . . . .41 Surface Mines 109 Thomas F. Evans Donald H. Marx

Land Reclamation with Trees i n Iowa . . . .45 Revegetating Surface-Mined Land with Richard B. Hal l Herbaceous and Woody Species Together . . . . . . . . . . W i l l i s G. Vogel 117

Tree P l an t ing i n Reclamat ion . . . . . . . .4 9 Glen G. Kizer Postmining Land Use: Economic

Comparison of Fores t ry and Pastureland . . . . . . . . . . . . Trees f o r Ohio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 A l t e r n a t i v e s . 127 Ernes t J. Gebhart Charles H. Wolf

Edward A. ~ohnson~

Abstract.--As coal production increases, forestry will become an increasingly important land use both before and after mining activity. New studies are needed to determine the long-range effect of mining in forested areas and to maximize the production of wood products on reclaimed areas.

INTRODUCTION

Chairman Kenes Bowling, fellow foresters, and reclamation specialists, I feel honored to be asked to speak here today. I have especially wanted an invitation to meet with you, so the invitation from Willie Curtis and Director Thorud struck a very responsive note. The reason is quite simple. It's because I believe that industry foresters, State foresters, and State Directors of Reclamation have a significant role to play in surface coal mining and reclamation.

I think the record of foresters associated with surface mining and reclamation proves that. More than 50 years ago, foresters were one of the first groups to undertake prompt revegetation of disturbed areas. I know that many of the State reclamation agencies originated in the forestry agencies and few people realize that through the leadership of the State Directors of Reclamation there now exists in States with commercial forest land regulatory language comparable to the California Forest Practices and similar Acts in Washington and Oregon. This is success with a capital "S". So you see, the forestry profession was leading, not following.

I don't need to tell you foresters about the many tree and shrub seedlings you plant or the direct seeding you do every year on reclamation operations on abandoned mine lands,

or tell you about tree nursery production, or your work in forest-fire prevention around mined areas. You who are doing all this work already know about those things.

Instead, I want to tell you that I predict this meeting will stand out as one of your most remembered meetings, and here are some reasons why I think so.

Here is one reason: For the first time since passage of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (P.L. 95-87) foresters in industry, States, and the Federal regulatory agencies are meeting to discuss thefr common interests. Just by meeting here, and reporting on this meeting, people will be made more conscious of the shorter term role of forestry in the reclamation of disturbed lands and the longer term opportunities for postmining land use in providing trees for tomorrow.

Here is another reason: For 2 days we can join in dialog on how we can help one another to implement Public Law 95-87 and the regulations under the Act. I do not know of a better place and time to discuss technically the broad area of forestry, whether as part of a State program, Federal program, Federal lands program, Indian lands program, or Abandoned Mine Lands program.

* And another: Organization of this meeting

by coal province and region enables industry, States, and Federal agencies to join in bring- ing an appreciation to the emerging opportuni-

'paper presented at the symposium "Trees ties, problems, and research needs for each for Reclamation in the Eastern U.S.", October 27-29,. 1980, Lexington, Kentucky; sponsored by of the coal provinces and regions.

the Interstate Mining Compact cbmmission and , the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service. And a fourth reason: There will be time at this meeting to discuss the process by

2~enior Staff Member, Office of Surface which any person may petition to initiate a

Mining, Technical Services and Research, 1951 proceeding for the issuance, amendment, or

Constitution Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20240 repeal of any regulation under the Act.

b

It is 19 years s i n c e I helped launch t h e f o r e s t r y over t h e pas t 70 years. I n o the r Berea, Ky., reclamation research program. The cases, d is turbed- land ' s unique problems w i l l growth of t h i s p ro j ec t and the research r e s u l t s r equ i r e s p e c i a l l y d i r ec t ed , new research have a very warm spot i n my h e a r t . So being e f f o r t s . Some a reas where I bel ieve- research here i n Kentucky is l i k e coming home. must be strengthened include:

- Techniques f o r promptly e s t ab l i sh ing ROLE OF FORESTRY I N SURFACE COAL M I N I N G and growing, tending, and harves t ing

t r e e s o r shrubs on d is turbed s i t e s Today, !.t is c l e a r t h a t t h e r e i s an and i n harsh environments, inc luding

e spec i a l l y prominent r o l e f o r f o r e s t e r s i n more e f f i c i e n t and f a s t e r p l an t ing postmining land use. But combining f o r e s t r y p r a c t i c e s and su r f ace mining i s a r e a l challenge. "The pas t i s prologue" i s a s tatement i n - P a t t e r n s of t r e e and shrub p lant ings s tone a t t h e National Archives. Pas t success f o r most e f f i c i e n t l y obta in ing i n planned and properly managed f o r e s t s on d i v e r s i t y of spec ies some surface-mined s i t e s is my g r e a t e s t source of optimism f o r t h e fu tu re . And I am confi- - Methods t o rec la im t h e wood f i b e r dent we a r e going t o f ace t h e challenges i n on a r e a s t o be su r f ace mined a r e a l i s t i c way, not wi th a t o r r e n t of words, but wi th teamwork i n a l l our coa l provinces. - Se lec t ion and breeding of super ior The importance of f o r e s t r y becomes even more spec i e s and v a r i e t i e s of t r e e s o r noteworthy wi th t he inventory of land uses i n shrubs t h a t a r e we l l adapted t o surface-mined a reas : 70-90 percent of t he l i v i n g i n t h e range of environ- mining s i t e s i n S t a t e s of t h e Appalachian ments c rea ted by su r f ace mining coa l province a r e i n f o r e s t o r r eve r t i ng t o f o r e s t , 35-55 percent of t h e mining s i t e s - Macro and micro s i t e requirements, i n S t a t e s of t h e I n t e r i o r coa l province a r e growth and roo t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , i n a f o r e s t type. Thus, f o r e s t land is a and n u t r i e n t s t o provide t h e b a s i s concern of important proport ions. f o r more i n t ens ive f o r e s t p r a c t i c e s

P ro j ec t ions of an average 4.6-percent - Increas ing the production of high- growth r a t e i n n a t i o n a l coa l production q u a l i t y seed, and b e t t e r methods over t h e next 2 decades, pushing annual of harves t ing , s t o r i n g , processing, production from 700 mi l l i on t o almost 2 and c e r t i f y i n g seeds, wi th emphasis b i l l i o n tons , suggest t he re i s some hard on n a t i v e spec i e s work ahead f o r a l l of us. We cannot a f fo rd t o t h ink only i n terms of t o t a l fo re s t ed - Developing improved measurement ac re s , we must focus our a t t e n t i o n on pro- techniques and inventory proce- d u c t i v i t y of fo re s t ed areas . dures t h a t a r e r ap id , accura te ,

and r e a d i l y adaptable f o r And we cannot consider t he r o l e of admin i s t r a t i ve use i n measuring

f o r e s t r y i n su r f ace coa l mining and rec la- p l an t , r oo t , and s o i l responses mation i n a vacuum, a s something sepa ra t e t o su r f ace mining and a p a r t from o the r land uses. I f f o r e s t r y is t o keep up wi th hayland, pas ture land, and w i l d l i f e h a b i t a t a s a land use, we must take s t e p s a s long a s those of o the r uses. L e t ' s CONSIDERATIONS FOR TJ3E FUTURE

evalua te pas t progress and present e f f o r t i n terms of f u t u r e needs and programs under What i s immediately ahead a s we e n t e r t h e t h e mandate of P. L. 95-87. It w i l l be a 80 ' s? Increas ingly , we w i l l be challenged t o new b a l l game f o r i ndas t ry and t h e S t a t e s t r u l y consider a l l f o r e s t va lues , and t o do once the S t a t e s have achieved primacy under something p o s i t i v e t o enhance them. Have you the Surface Mining Act. ever considered t h e ex t en t t o which f o r e s t

p r a c t i c e s a r e o r i en t ed exclus ive ly t o timber production?

NEED FOR RESEARCH

A l l too f requent ly , we pay l i t t l e a t t en - Fores t ry associa ted wi th su r f ace coa l t i o n t o l e s s e r vegeta t ion , t o f lowering t r e e s ,

mining provides a challenge f o r f o r e s t r y t o shrubs, and t o browse. Shouldn't our research. Many f o r e s t r y problems f o r surface- reclamation p r a c t i c e s consider more of t h i s ? d is turbed lands can be solved o r lessened by Won't we have t o , a s we move i n t o t he per- applying knowledge and methods from the g r e a t manent regula tory programs under t h e Surface body of technology developed f o r t r a d i t i o n a l Mining Act.

2

It is my feeling that the State Foresters need to be involved in even greater measure in decision making involving the reclamation of forest sites. What does this involve? I visualize it basically as a joint State Forester and regulatory authority decision- making process based on programs, people, and funding .

On programs, I visualize for forest and related lands joint policy-making direction and thrust such as review and approval of reclamation manuals and supplements, operating procedures, and joint agreement on, and input to, experimental-practice studies.

On people, I would like to see a greater emphasis on what kind, where, and how many forestry specialists should be available for service to Directors of Reclamation. In particular, let's try to foster an interchange of forestry as well as reclamation personnel under the Intergovernmental Personnel Act procedures. I'm convinced that an employee with this experience is better qualified when he or she returns. Kipling said: "He knows not England who only England knows." We must communicate freely, exchanging views and shar- ing research findings. It is my earnest hope that in our discussions during the next 2 days we will be practical, and will explore a broader spectrum than usually occurs when professionals talk with fellow professionals about surface coal mining and reclamation for forest areas.

Let us consider wood production for a moment. We foresters have been indoctrinated in the merits of planting trees to grow more timber and a forest cover for watershed protection. Only of late has our thinking turned to shaping the landscape and microclimate and to improving mine-soil properties in order to maximize or optimize wood production and economic returns. As a practical matter, what are the criteria for such a forested site? Tn what manner and to what degree will this possibility for surface-mined areas affect priorities for postmining land use? This is the kind of problem that poses a challenge to the ingenuity of researchers and to those of us in regulatory agencies involved in rule drafting and permit, mine-plan, and reclamation approval. It should shake us foresters out of our classic patterns of thinking,

The foregoing can be equally applied to the development of wildlife habitat, range land, pastureland, or hayland.

To those of us who serve the public, there is another challenge. We have to deal with about 10,000 coal mine permits.

In the Appalachians, three quarters of the surface coal mining occurs on forest land and on small holdings, many under 30 acres in extent. Kentucky alone has over 2,000 permits with an area of less than 30 acres.

State Foresters recognize the small tract as unfavorable to the practice of forestry. What, if anything, should and can be done to overcome problems associated with small tracts in the forestry information required for permit applications, reclamation plans, and monitoring, inspec- tion, and enforcement programs?

EFFECT OF THE SURFACE MINING ACT

So far, I have talked of problems that we share as foresters. I think you will agree we will need to get more specific. Now let us get into the details for some of the State programs and rules under P.L. 95-87 which all of us -- industry, State, Federal, and university representa- tives -- may be discussing during the next 2 days. Let's quickly indicate the size of the subject we are talking about. I'm going to use a broad brush in painting this picture by using portions of 30 CFR Chapter VII of the Federal rules as a guide.

Summary of regulations

Subchapter A of the permanent regulatory program contains the definitions generally applicable to the programs and persons covered by the Act. The procedure for peti- tioning to initiate a proceeding for the issuance, amendment, or repeal of a regulation under Section 201(g) (1) of the Act is also described.

Subchapter C covers applications for, and decisions on, permanent State programs, and describes implementation of a Federal program in a State such as Georgia, which did not apply for primacy.

Subchapter D covers operations on Federal lands as opposed to State and private lands. Federal lands include federally-owned surface and privately-owned coal, as is likely to occur in a National Forest.

Subchapter F contains criteria for desig- nating areas as unsuitable for all or certain types of surface coal mining operations and for identifying forest lands on which surface coal mining operations are restricted under Section 522(e)(2) of the Act to those that are technologically and economically feasible for reclamation.

Subchapter G covers requirements for permits and coal exploration under State programs, along with small-operator assistance. Michigan, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island are Eastern States where there is new activity in exploration.

Subchapter J contains criteria for bonding and liability insurance, including release of performance bonds on reclaimed forest lands.

Subchapter K covers the permanent program performance standards.

Subchapter R contains requirements for the Abandoned Mined Land program,

Lastly, Subchapter S covers the Mining and Mineral Resource and Research Institute program.

Permi ts

With that much background, let's get to the topic at hand, starting with permits (Chapter G), You are all aware that there are various court actions dealing with the permit regulations. Therefore, let's focus our attention on the Act rather than the rules. Section 507 of the Act, with its 23 subsections, contains a comprehensive tabulation of information that an applicant must assemble and submit to State or Federal regulatory authorities. Keep in mind the proportion of land that is in a forest setting.

I predict that Directors of Reclamation will be turning more frequently to State Foresters and asking what controlling watershed factors are needed to approve the site- specific permit applications, Section 507(bl (11) calls for "an assessment of the probable cumulative impacts of all anticipated mining in the area upon the hydrology of the area and particularly upon water availability. " It's a new ball game for forest hydrologists. I am looking forward to hearing your views on this requirement, and the role of forestry.

Reclamation plans

Now, what about the reclamation plan requirements, Section 508 of the Act? It is my firm conviction that forestry needs to be more involved in planning for reclamation. The Act is very specific in requiring a statement on the condition of the forest land and productivity of the land prior to mining, the postmining land use, and plans to comply with the environmental protection performance standards of Section 515. Even though our knowledge of site-specific watershed behavior and the influence that mine soil and plant

4

management have on waterflow characteristics is far from complete, we can still do much on the basis of present knowledge to increase mine-soil productivity and to make full use of mined-land resources while maintaining an optimum supply of usable water. Because so much of our forested land that is surface mined for coal is in small private ownership, with various management objectives and ownership purposes, it is a real challenge to bring these factors together successfully. The job ahead need not dismay us, for it is really a form of forest watershed reclamation, rehabil- itation, or restoration planning that has been successful for decades.

Coal exploration

Coal exploration on forest lands has increased with the growth in energy needs. In many ways, we are still only at the beginning in exploration. The big job is still ahead in meeting the predicted growth rate in national coal production. Section 512 of the Act includes a requirement for an exploration permit when removing more than 250 tons. Roads are a prominent part of exploration. State Foresters should have an interest in this area because the ability to apply intensive timber-management practices, particularly timber-stand improvement, is closely correlated with access roads. Although not required in the rules, there is an opportunity for closer coordination of forestry and mine exploration in planning access-road systems.

Performance standards

Subchapter K, the permanent program performance standards, includes surface mining and reclamation operations for contour mining; area, box cut, open pit, and auger mining; mountaintop removal; and removal of coal from waste piles. I predict that as the various State programs become operational, the technical factors in this Subchapter will be reassessed from time to time by State Foresters, Directors of Reclamation, and State and Federal personnel,

In our discussions on this Subchapter let's stress what will it take to get the job done on the ground. Some of the factors which will affect trees for tomorrow are, as I see them:

- Topsoil

- Hydrologic balance - Disposal of excess spoil - Backfilling and grading

- Revegetation

- Postmining land use

- Pro tec t ion of f i s h and w i l d l i f e .

The purpose of t h i s l i s t i s t o have a common poin t of re ference t o consider i n some of t h e d iscuss ions t h a t we a r e t o have over t h e next 2 days. Time permi t t ing , we may t ake revegeta t ion , f o r example, and could have d iscuss ions on such top i c s a s :

- S i t e evalua t ion

- S i t e prepara t ion

- Seeding and p l an t ing techniques f o r t r e e s and shrubs o r nurse crop of g ra s s

- Species s e l e c t i o n

- Woody-plant seed laws which r equ i r e seed c e r t i f i c a t i o n and t e s t i n g

- Topsoil s u b s t i t u t i o n and supplements

- Monitoring

- Evaluation.

Another poin t i n Subchapter K is t h a t i t provides f o r grant ing exemption from compliance wi th t h e performance s tandards of Sec t ions 515 and 516 of t h e Act, on an experimental b a s i s . One purpose i s t o encourage advances i n mining and reclamation technologies a s long a s they - conform wi th c e r t a i n c r i t e r i a : (1) t h e a r e a used must not be l a r g e r than necessary t o determine t h e e f f ec t ivenes s of t h e experimental p r a c t i c e , (2 ) t h e experiment must no t reduce t h e p ro t ec t ion af forded t o publ ic h e a l t h and s a f e t y by t h e performance s tandards , and (3) t h e experiment must be a t l e a s t a s environmentally p ro t ec t ive a s t he standard procedures would be during and a f t e r mining,

Bonding and insurance

L e t ' s look a t Subchapter J , bonding and insurance requirements. This Subchapter desc r ibes t h e amount of bond requi red t o a s su re t h a t t h e s i t e is brought i n t o compliance with t h e Act, The amount of bond must be adequate f o r t h e regula tory au tho r i t y t o complete b a c k f i l l i n g , grading, t opso i l i ng , and revegeta t ion i f an opera tor is unable t o . The l i a b i l i t y period f o r reclamation opera t ions is requi red by t h e Act. An important concept i s t h a t whi le t h e f i l i n g and r e l e a s e of bond l i a b i l i t y may be incre- mental, t h e bond l i a b i l i t y app l i cab le t o a

permit extends t o t h e e n t i r e permit a rea . The amount of bond i s ca l cu l a t ed on t h e b a s i s of reclamation cos t s ' and no t d i r e c t l y on acreage. The c r i t e r i a f o r bond r e l e a s e on f o r e s t s i t e s a r e a l s o included i n t he performance s tandards .

Areas unsu i t ab l e f o r mining

Another poin t is Subchapter F, a r e a s unsu i t ab l e f o r mining. There a r e many t echn ica l and l e g a l r ami f i ca t ions t o t hese r u l e s , which de r ive from Section 522 of t h e Act. It w i l l b e challenging t o f o r e s t e r s t o meet t he se requirements by developing p r a c t i c a l l o c a l c r i t e r i a f o r des ignat ing f o r e s t watershed s i t e s a s being so hazardous t h a t t he re should not be any su r f ace mining o r land d is turbance .

We should no t l o s e s i g h t of t he f a c t t h a t a s u b s t a n t i a l po r t i on of t h e 20 mi l l i on ac re s of fo re s t ed U.S. Government lands was acquired by purchase under t h e Weeks Law of 1911 t o p ro t ec t ion watersheds and t h e Nation's navigable waters. I n checking t h e j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r purchase, t he U.S. Geological Survey has signed of f on a s u b s t a n t i a l percentage of t he land t r ansac t ions a s being made f o r watershed p ro t ec t ion purposes. Since p r i v a t e lands a r e intermingled with many of t he se s i t e s , I fo re see a s another challenge t o t h e f o r e s t hydrologis t , a s t o whether mining would b e a hazard and would impact on t h e Nation's navigable waters.

Federal programs f o r S t a t e s

Subchapter C involves t h e implementation of a Federal program on non-Federal and non- Indian lands w i th in a S t a t e . Georgia i s one S t a t e t h a t w i l l have such a program. Fores t ry w i l l have a prominent r o l e i n t he four coal- producing count ies where much of t h e su r f ace mining occurs on fo re s t ed s i t e s .

Abandoned mine lands

The r o l e of t r e e s i n t h e abandoned mine land program is a p a r t i c u l a r l y t imely t o p i c a t t h i s meeting. Subchapter R inc ludes sources and uses of money f o r t h e abandoned mine land reclamation programs; procedures f o r t h e acqu i s i t i on , management, and d is - pos i t i on of e l i g i b l e land; reclamation on p r i v a t e lands ; S t a t e reclamation p lans and work; and t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of t he Secre tary of Agr icul ture t o ca r ry out t h e Rural Lands Reclamation Program.

Keep i n mind t h e U.S. Department of t h e I n t e r i o r ' s Regional and Nationwide Survey under P.L. 89-5, i n 1965, which repor ted t h a t over 90 percent of t he su r f ace coa l mining a t t h a t time was occurring on upstream s i t e s i n a f o r e s t o r on land r eve r t i ng t o f o r e s t . Much of t h i s a r ea is p a r t of t he 2 mi l l i on ac re s i d e n t i f i e d by USDA a s needing land treatment. Trees have a d e f i n i t e , unique r o l e i n con t ro l l i ng runoff where i t o r i g i n a t e s i n headwaters and where mining was a temporary land use. Bas ica l ly , t h e f o r e s t r y measures e s s e n t i a l t o put t he se headwater lands i n shape can only be bought, o r ordered, o r obtained by persuasion. One th ing appears t o be c l e a r f o r t he se smal ler f o r e s t a r e a s -- persuasion a lone i s not g e t t i n g the land- treatment job done f a s t enough. What, i f anything, should and can be done t o overcome t h e problem of t h e small s i z e of t he se poten- t i a l f o r e s t t r a c t s ?

SUMMARY

Par t of my reason f o r being he re is t o express my apprec ia t ion t o t h e S t a t e Direc tors of Reclamation and S t a t e Fo res t e r s f o r t h e i r i n t e r e s t i n improving communications between our var ious f i e l d s of i n t e r e s t . We need more f requent t echn ica l meetings i n t h e o ther land uses so we can b e t t e r understand the problems

of su r f ace mining and reclamation, and what should be done about them. We who make r e - clamation our fu l l - t ime, l i f e t i m e bus iness do not know a l l t he answers. So I ' m t r y ing t o say t h a t you ge t i n t o t he a c t from two s i d e s : Helping t o promote widespread knowledge and understanding of why su r f ace mining and reclam- a t i o n is v i t a l , and he lp ing t o f i nd p r a c t i c a l answers.

You f o r e s t e r s and s p e c i a l i s t s i n su r f ace coa l mining and reclamation a r e t r u l y b u i l d e r s of a new landscape; your approach t o your work is i n t h e s p i r i t of improving the f o r e s t environment, r a t h e r than merely continuing business a s usual . May your plans be a s wise a s they a r e imaginative, and may your l abo r s be your r ea f f i rma t ion of t h e j o i n t des t i ny of f o r e s t r y and su r f ace coa l mining reclamation.

I am reminded of a s tatement a t t r i b u t e d t o Thomas Je f f e r son -- "It's a good th ing a medal has two sides." He implied t h a t whi le one s i d e of t h e medal is f o r bui ld ing up t h e ego of t h e r e c i p i e n t , t h e o the r s i d e i s t h e r e t o remind t h e person of h i s o r he r responsi- b i l i t y .

+Iow you use t h a t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y is going. t o have a profound e f f e c t on t r e e s f o r tomorrow.

Again, thank you f o r t h e opportunity t o meet with you today.

TREES FOR RECLAMATION IN THE EASTERN UNITED STATES

LEXINGTON, KENTUCKY

OCTOBER 27-29, 1980

C. W. Moody, State Forester Alabama Forestry Commission

513 Madison Avenue Montgomery, Alabama 36130

Daniel T. Kimbrell, Forester - Surface Mine Reclamation Specialist

Alabama Forestry Commission 1225 Forestdale Boulevard Birmingham, Alabama 35214

The Alabama Forestry Commission promotes reclamation through forest resource education providing seedlings for reclamation and assistance to industry and landowners. Approximately 85% of the lands mined in 1979 will go into forest production. Good forest management on reclaimed lands will enable Alabama to meet its future demands for forest products.

Since the inception of the Alabama Fores- try Commission in 1969, it has been charged with the responsibility of public education of the people in Alabama concerning timber and forest and other natural resources of Alabama. Educational efforts have been geared toward informing the general public of the role of forestry and how it benefits first the landowner and secondly the state.

The ultimate determinate of post mining land use is the goal or goals of the landowner. We must honor their rights or ownership and it is our hope that through a more enlightened public that landowners will choose forest management as a viable alternative in post mining land use. This is, in fact, what is happening. Of the 28,528 acres permitted for surface mining in 1979, approximately 85% of the land will be planted to a forest species.

Assistance is being provided to landowners and industry alike through the Alabama Forestry Commission specialist group. A program designed to give foresters with the Commission an opportunity and flexibility in their work schedules to address particular areas of forestry. Tom Kimbrell, the state surface mine specialist, works with both landowners and industry on specific problems they may have. Tom is also working to establish plantations of Paulonia (Paulonia

tomentosa), an invader species on many Alabama mine spoils. Paulonia is being ex- ported to Japan where it is used to produce a high quality veneer.

The State Nursery has long contributed to Alabama's reclamation effort by producing high quality pine seedlings for reforestation. The vast majority of the reclaimed lands that go into forest production have been regenerated to one of the major yellow pine species, that is, loblolly pine, longleaf pine, shortleaf pine and virginia pine. The Commission's nursery goal for the 1980-81 season is to produce 80 million pine seedlings. At this level of production, there should be no immediate problem meeting the states overall needs for pine seedlings in the coming seasons. Hope- fully, in the not too distant future, our nursery section will be able to add to those species already being produced a number of other species that will be beneficial for improving wildlife habitat and reclamation.

The Commission's improved seedling program is young by many standards, but it is a bright ray on the horizon. Gains in both volume and quality are expected from improved seedlings from Alabama's own orchards. Our improved seedlings show promise of increase in volume production of 15-20% from first generation seedlings. Quality factors such as straightness, small knots and branching angle

a r e more d i f f i c u l t t o quant i fy , however, we expect a l s o a 15-20% increase i n q u a l i t y f a c t o r s from t h e improved seedl ings . Ala- bama's 351 ac re s of p ine seed orchards range i n age from one t o twelve years. These orchards a r e now producing about twelve mi l l i on improved seedl ings a year - 115 of t h e s t a t e s needs.

Seedling orders now have t o be pro- r a t ed , allowing no s i n g l e landowner more than 20% of h i s t o t a l order t o be improved seed- l i n g s . It is our aim t o be producing 100 mi l l i on improved seedl ings from our improved seed orchard by 1990.

I n conclusion, I would l i k e t o say t h a t t he good reclamation e f f e c t s u s a l l , no mat ter what a r ea of f o r e s t r y we a r e pursuing. It is a f a c t t h a t some of our bes t timber lands a r e going i n t o a g r i c u l t u r a l production and t h a t t he demand f o r f o r e s t products w i l l increase i n coming years. I f we b e l i t t l e t h e produc- t i v e c a p a b i l i t y of reclaimed lands and pass of f reclamation a s having only cosmetic va lue o r j u s t a p rac t i ce t o save theconsc ienceof t he genera l publ ic , we w i l l be neglec t ing a va luable resource. A resource t h a t w i l l be needed i f our na t ion ' s f u t u r e demand f o r wood products a r e met.

MINE RECLAMATION I N ARKANSAS

Presen ted a t Trees f o r Reclamation Symposium i n Lexington, Kentucky on October 27-29, 1980 by

Floyd Durham, Chief Mining and Reclamation D i v i s i o n

Arkansas Department of P o l l u t i o n Cont ro l and Ecology P.O. Box 9583

L i t t l e Rock, Arkansas 72219

and

James G. Barnum, A s s i s t a n t Management F o r e s t e r Arkansas F o r e s t r y Commission P.O. Box 4523, Asher S t a t i o n L i t t l e Rock, Arkansas 72204

Open c u t mine land rec lamat ion laws have on ly been e f f e c t i v e s i n c e 1971 i n Arkansas. S ince t h a t t ime a l l l and a f f e c t e d by mining had t o be reclaimed. To guaran tee reclama- t i o n , t h e f i r s t law r e q u i r e d a $500 p e r a c r e s u r e t y bond be pos ted w i t h t h e Arkansas Department of P o l l u t i o n Cont ro l and Ecology. The Arkansas Open Cut Land Reclamation Act of 1977 changed t h e bonding requirements t o t h e es t imated c o s t of rec lamat ion . Even s o , t h e r e were no s p e c i f i c g u i d e l i n e s s e t t i n g f o r t h r e q u i r e d s p e c i e s of g r a s s , legumes, o r t r e e s t o be used i n rec lamat ion . Consequent- l y , t h e t r e n d was t o r e v e g e t a t e w i t h g r a s s e s o r legumes f o r p a s t u r e .

Mining i n Arkansas i s done on r e l a t i v e - l y s m a l l t r a c t s which a r e most ly u n f o r e s t e d ; t h e r e f o r e n o t many f o r e s t e d a c r e s have been d i s t u r b e d . For example j u s t over 300 a c r e s were cons idered reclaimed dur ing t h e per iod J u l y 1979 through J u l y 1980. With t h e ad- ven t of t h e Sur face Mining Enforcement and Reclamation Act of 1977 (Publ ic Law 95-87) requirements a r e more s t r i n g e n t , and c o a l mine o p e r a t o r s a r e be ing encouraged t o p l a n t t r e e s e e d l i n g s a s p a r t of t h e i r rec - lamation e f f o r t s .

Pre-law mine s p o i l s have r e v e g e t a t e d n a t u r a l l y t o mixed hardwoods and some s o f t - woods. To e f f e c t rec lamat ion of t h e s e l a n d s , would, i n some i n s t a n c e s , probably do more harm t h a n good because of d e s t r u c t i o n t o e s t a b l i s h e d cover , no twi ths tand ing t h e l o s s of w i l d l i f e h a b i t a t .

It is expected t h a t i n t h e near f u t u r e , s t r i p mining a c t i v i t i e s , e s p e c i a l l y l i g n i t e , w i l l i n c r e a s e s i g n i f i c a n t l y . One l i g n i t e

producer a l o n e i n t e n d s t o d i s t u r b 1,000 a c r e s per year . L i g n i t e mining w i l l b e concent ra ted i n h e a v i l y f o r e s t e d a r e a s i n which f o r e s t i n d u s t r i e s own s i g n i f i c a n t ac reages . There- f o r e , i t i s a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t much of t h i s l and w i l l be r e f o r e s t e d most ly w i t h s o f t - wood s p e c i e s w i t h some hardwoods.

The Arkansas F o r e s t r y Commission, i n coopera t ion w i t h t h e Arkansas Department of P o l l u t i o n Cont ro l and Ecology, Bureau of Mining, S o i l Conservat ion S e r v i c e and o t h e r a g e n c i e s , have made p l a n s t o i n s t a l l t e s t s t o de te rmine which s p e c i e s of t r e e s a r e b e s t adapted t o grow on v a r i o u s s t r i p mined s p o i l s i n Arkansas. These t e s t s a r e t o be e s t a b - l i s h e d on o l d pre-law s p o i l s owned by t h e Corps of Engineers near R u s s e l l v i l l e , Arkan- s a s , which i s t o be reclaimed under a r e - s e a r c h and development p r o j e c t f inanced by t h e Abandoned Mined Lands Program of t h e Off i c e of Sur face Mining. This r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t should g i v e u s much needed informa- t i o n on a p p r o p r i a t e s p e c i e s of t r e e s t o rec - ommend f o r r e v e g e t a t i o n of s u r f a c e mined a r e a s .

Cur ren t ly , s p e c i e s a r e recommended based on o t h e r s t a t e ' s r e s e a r c h p l u s l o c a l t r e e s p e c i e s appearing adaptab le . Arkansas F o r e s t r y Commission n u r s e r i e s a r e p r e s e n t l y producing l i m i t e d q u a n t i t i e s of v a r i o u s s p e c i e s of hardwood s e e d l i n g s . Both r e g u l a r and g e n e t i c a l l y improved l o b l o l l y and s h o r t - l e a f p i n e a r e a l s o being grown f o r s a l e t o p r i v a t e landowners throughout t h e s t a t e . S p e c i a l e f f o r t s can and w i l l be made t o pro- c u r e from o t h e r n u r s e r i e s a p p r o p r i a t e seed- l i n g s f o r r e v e g e t a t i o n f o r reclaimed a r e a s u n t i l such t ime t h a t Arkansas F o r e s t r y Com- miss ion n u r s e r i e s can produce s u f f i c i e n t

q u a n t i t i e s of seedl ings necessary f o r rec lamation e f f o r t s . Arkansas Fores t ry Commission nu r se r i e s w i l l produce requi red seedl ings a s these a r e determined.

By working c l o s e l y with t he Department of Po l lu t ion Control and Ecology, t he Arkan- s a s Fores t ry Commission w i l l be kept informed of t h e reclamation p lans of var ious compa- n i e s and indiv iduals . This w i l l g ive u s advance information a s t o t h e spec ies and amount of seedl ings requi red so t h a t t h e nu r se r i e s can plan accordingly.

I n t h e event t h a t a su r f ace mined a r e a has been reclaimed i n g ra s s and t h e landowner dec ides t h a t he wants t o grow t r e e s , he can g e t add i t i ona l f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e through t h e Fores t ry Incent ives Program (FIP) and t echn ica l a s s i s t a n c e from Arkansas Fores t ry Commission f i e l d f o r e s t e r s . These measures should encourage add i t i ona l landowners t o r evege ta t e more reclaimed a r e a s with t r e e seedl ings .

A LOOK AT TREES AND RECLAMATION I N GEORGIA

Sanford P . Darby Program Manager

Surf ace Mined Land Reclamation Program Environmental P r o t e c t i o n D i v i s i o n Department of N a t u r a l Resources

P . 0 . Box 233 Macon, Georgia 31202

A b s t r a c t .--The a u t h o r b r i e f l y reviews Georgia 's l a n d rec lamat ion requirements when r e h a b i l i t a t i n g mined lands w i t h

'

t r e e s a s one ' s rec lamat ion o b j e c t i v e . Techniques used t o e s t a b l i s h two p l a n t a t i o n s a r e used t o r a i s e s e v e r a l impor tan t i s s u e s which, i f r eso lved , can r e s u l t i n i n c r e a s e d t r e e p l a n t i n g and lower l and rec lamat ion c o s t .

INTRODUCTION

Tree p l a n t i n g was recognized a s a v a l u a b l e l and rec lamat ion p r a c t i c e e a r l y i n t h e development of Georg ia ' s program f o r r e h a b i l i t a t i o n of mined lands . O r i g i n a l Land Reclamation Rules , promulgated January 19 , 1969, e s t a b l i s h e d f o r e s t r y a s one of s e v e r a l o b j e c t i v e s which a mining o p e r a t o r could choose when rec la iming l a n d s a f f e c t e d by s u r f a c e mining.

This paper r a i s e s c e r t a i n i s s u e s which a r e impor tan t t o t h e rec lamat ion of mined l a n d s , u s i n g f o r e s t r y a s one ' s major r e c l a - mation o b j e c t i v e . To accomplish t h i s , a b r i e f c a s e review of two l o b l o l l y p i n e (Pinus tueda) p l a n t a t i o n s e s t a b l i s h e d by mining companies t o f u l f i l l t h e i r l e g a l reclamat ion o b l i g a t i o n is p r e s e n t e d . P l a n t i n g techniques used t o e s t a b l i s h t h e p l a n t a t i o n s were s i m i l a r , a s each s i te was machine p l a n t e d . C u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s used v a r i e d and a r e shown i n Table 1.

Georg ia ' s o r i g i n a l r u l e s involv ing f o r e s t r y s p e c i f i e d : "An approved cover o f t r e e s must be e s t a b l i s h e d on a f f e c t e d a r e a s . The c h a r a c t e r and n a t u r e of t h e overburden ( s o i l f e r t i l i t y , pH, d ra inage , e t c . ) must Table 1.--A comparison of c u l t u r a l p rac t i ces used by two mining

companies when reclaiming mined lands using t r e e s i n d i c a t e t h a t same w i l l p roper ly s u p p o r t growth of t h e s p e c i e s s e l e c t e d f o r p l a n t i n g . Prac t i ce P lan ta t ion A P lan ta t ion B

On lands where t r e e c rops a r e p l a n t e d , a S i t e preparat ion Backfi l led and graded Backfi l led and graded

minimum of 500 uniformly d i s t r i b u t e d t r e e s t o r o l l i n g topography. t o r o l l i n g topography

p e r a c r e must be e s t a b l i s h e d . NO f a i l s p o t s Type growing media LOW grade, kao l i r r type Best ava i l ab le s p o i l - l a r g e r than one-fourth a c r e i n s i z e w i l l be clay and white sand. yellow sandy mixture.

Heterogenous i n nature.

pe rmi t ted . " S i t e preparat ion:

I n 1971, Georgia 's Land Reclamation Rules were amended. F o r e s t r y was s t i l l an a l lowable rec lamat ion o b j e c t i v e and s i m i l a r requirements p r e v a i l e d a s t o t h e s e l e c t i o n of s p e c i e s f o r p l a n t i n g , number of t r e e s p e r a c r e t o e s t a b l i s h , s i z e of f a i l s p o t s , e t c . An impor tan t a d d i t i o n t o t h e Land Reclama- t i o n Rules concerning f o r e s t r y was: "When a f f e c t e d l a n d s a r e b e i n g developed f o r f o r e s t r y t h e o p e r a t o r w i l l , i n a d d i t i o n t o t r e e s , e s t a b l i s h a p r o t e c t i v e v e g e t a t i v e cover of some o t h e r type p l a n t , such a s g r a s s , t o a s s i s t i n p revent ing e x c e s s i v e e r o s i o n pending t h e development of f o r e s t t r e e s e e d l i n g s i n t o t r e e s . "

Subsoil ing None.

F e r t i l i z a t i o n None a t s eed l ing planting.

Vegetative cover No type ground cover e s t ab l i shed p r i o r t o t r e e planting.

Pos t-planting 6 02s. 10-10-10 per t reatment seedling. 400 l b s . /acre

10-10-10 i n 1972, 200 lbs . / ac re of 20-20-20 i n 1974, 1977 and 1979.

F e r t i l i z a t i o n Five varied applica- frequency t ions .

18 inches.

500 lbs. 6-12-12, 500 lbs . superphosphate, 1 ton dolo- mi t i c lime and 100 lbs . N. p r i o r t o seeding ground cover.

A ground cover cons i s t ing of common Bermuda, lovegrass and se r i cea lespedeza 1/ seeded p r i o r t o p l an t ing t r e e seedlings.

500 lbs . 10-10-10 one year a f t e r seeding.

Once following planting.

co-n Bermuda grass (Cynodon d a c t y b n ) , lovegrass (Emgros t i s beauv) and s e r i c e a lespedeza fhspedeaa nmeata).

PLANTATION A

Company A , i n t h e i r i n i t i a l reclamation work i n Georgia, chose t o develop mined lands f o r f o r e s t r y purposes. This company e s t a b l i s h e d l o b l o l l y t r e e s eed l i ngs on a prev ious ly mined a r e a dur ing t h e f a l l of 1969. P r i o r t o p l an t i ng , l ands were back- f i l l e d and graded t o a g e n t l e , r o l l i n g topography b u t wi th long , un in t e r rup t ed s l opes . No p r o t e c t i v e ground cover was e s t a b l i s h e d . The p l a n t i n g media cons i s t ed p r ima r i l y of whi te sands and kaolin-type c l ays and was p r ima r i l y void of p l a n t n u t r i e n t s ( see Photo 1 ) . To o b t a i n growth of s eed l i ngs , i t was necessary t h a t each i n d i v i d u a l t r e e be f e r t i l i z e d . This was i n i t i a l l y accomplished us ing crews of l abo re r s t o p l ace 6 02s. of 10-10-10 about 6 inches from the s tem of each s e e d l i ng . Ground opera ted f e r t i l i z e r spreade;s app l i ed 400 l b s . / a c r e of 10-10-10 Photo 2.--Plantat ion A - showing growth and

i n 1972. Ae r i a l app l i c a t i ons of f e r t i l i z e r development of p lan ted l o b l o l l y p ine dur ing

were made a t 200 l b s . / a c r e of 20-20-20 i n J u l y , 1980. Note ground cover r e s u l t i n g 1974, 1977 and 1979. from p ine s t raw.

Photo 1.--Plantat ion A - Loblo l ly p ine plan- t a t i o n e s t a b l i s h e d on k a o l i n mined lands t o f u l f i l l f o r e s t r y rec lamat ion ob j ec t i ve . Note l a ck of p r o t e c t i v e vege t a t i ve cover , growing media and presence of e ro s ion . Photo taken 10/73.

S t a t i s t i c a l d a t a on development of P l a n t a t i o n A is shown i n Table 2. Diameter growth averaged approximately .5 inch p e r y e a r . Average h e i g h t growth was 2.8 f e e t annual ly . Fo re s t f l o o r l i t t e r , a f t e r 11 yea r s and where p r e sen t , averaged approximate ly one-half inch i n depth ( s ee Photo 2 ) . Gullying by e r o s i o n from improperly managed s u r f a c e runoff was p r e sen t and is i l l u s t r a - t e d i n Photo 3 .

Photo 3.--Plantat ion A - showing t y p i c a l gu l l y r e s u l t i n g from s u r f a c e runoff e ro s ion . Photo taken 7/80.

Table 2 . - - S t a t i s t i c a l d a t a f o r P l a n t a t i o n A showing average D . B . H . , h e igh t and number e s t a b l i s h e d stems pe r a c r e through J u l y , 1980.

D.B.H. Height Stems /Acre

2 5 40 29 3 7 31 43 35 45 39 15 4 4 2 4 2 6 -

T o t a l 188 Average D.B.H. - 6" Average Height - 31'

PLANTATION B

Company B e l e c t e d t o r e c l a i m 600 a c r e s of p rev ious ly mined land . This company's s i t e was graded t o a r o l l i n g topography, blended i n t o t h e e x i s t i n g landscape and p l a n t e d t o a permanent v e g e t a t i v e cover of common Bermuda g r a s s , l o v e g r a s s and s e r i c e a l e s p e d e z a . l / L o b l o l l y p i n e tree s e e d l i n g s were p l a n t e d dur ing t h e s p r i n g of 1972, t h e f i r s t p l a n t i n g season a f t e r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e ground cover ( s e e Photo 4) . A commer- c i a l f e r t i l i z e r (6-12-12) i n t h e amount of 500 l b s . p e r a c r e and 1 t o n of l i m e (do lomi te ) , a long wi th 500 l b s . / a c r e of superphosphate and 100 l b s . o f n i t r o g e n , were a p p l i e d p r i o r t o s e e d i n g of t h e permanent v e g e t a t i v e cover . A top d r e s s i n g of 500 l b s . / a c r e of 10-10-10 was a p p l i e d about one y e a r a f t e r s e e d i n g of t h e s i t e . No addi- t i o n a l f e r t i l i z a t i o n was g iven t o f o r e s t tree Photo 5 . - -P lan ta t ion B - showing t y p i c a l s e e d l i n g s a f t e r a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e top dress- view under canopy dur ing 7/80. Note ing . The p i n e t r e e s developed i n a s a t i s - d e n s i t y of p r o t e c t i v e v e g e t a t i v e cover f a c t o r y manner, were n e v e r c h l o r a t i c and have and l o s s of same due t o shad ing by made a c c e p t a b l e growth. Trees involved have canopy. S i t e had 100% cover o f l i t t e r been windfirm and a minimum amount o f e r o s i o n r e s u l t i n g from l e a f and need le f a l l , occur red on t h e si te. wi th minimum e r o s i o n .

Table 3 . - - S t a t i s t i c a l d a t a f o r P l a n t a t i o n B

Photo .4 . - -Plantat ion B - l o b l o l l y p i n e t r e e s e s t a b l i s h e d on mined l a n d s i n protec- t i v e cover o f s e r i c e a lespedeza. Photo taken 7/80.

In format ion concerning development o f P l a n t a t i o n B is shown i n Table 3. Diameter growth averaged .6 inch annua l ly , w h i l e average h i e g h t growth was 3.5 f e e t p e r y e a r . The f o r e s t f l o o r under t h i s p l a n t a t i o n , a f t e r 8 y e a r s , was completely covered w i t h l i t t e r t h a t averaged 1 i n c h i n depth ( s e e Photo 5 ) .

showing D.B .H. , h e i g h t and number e s tab- l i s h e d stems p e r a c r e through J u l y , 1980.

D.B.H. Hei gh t Stems /Acre

4 2 6 114 5 28 9 8 6 30 46 7 3 2 14 ' -

T o t a l 272

Average D.B .H. - 5" Average Height - 28'

DISCUSSION

S e v e r a l impor tan t l a n d rec lamat ion and f o r e s t r y i s s u e s a r e sugges ted when one c o w p a r e s management t echniques used t o es tab- l i s h t h e two p i n e p l a n t a t i o n s . S i l v i l c u l - t u r i s t s would b e i n t e r e s t e d i n a comparison of t h e economics of t h e two c u l t u r a l methods employed t o e s t a b l i s h t r e e s and grow same t o t h e i r p r e s e n t s t a t e . This paper h a s n o t a t t empted t o examine t h e c o s t o f management techniques involved . I f one should a t t empt a c o s t - b e n e f i t r a t i o s t u d y , i t must be remembered t h a t a normal f o r e s t r y s i t e is n o t

p re sen t b u t one on which a l e g a l l and r ec l a - mation o b l i g a t i o n e x i s t s t o r e h a b i l i t a t e lands d r a s t i c a l l y d i s turbed by mining. The l e g a l o b l i g a t i o n regard ing t he rec lamat ion of mined lands r a i s e s t he ques t i on of "how f a r can one go ' c o s t wise ' applying var ious s i l v i c u l t u r e techniques t o rec la im a f f e c t e d a c r e s us ing f o r e s t r y a s a rec lamat ion objec- t i v e ? "

I am of t h e op in ion t h a t reclamation c o s t t o i ndus t ry can be minimized and i nc r ea sed t r e e p l a n t i n g on mined l and r e a l i z e d i f we r eeva lua t e our land reclama- t i o n s p e c i f i c a t i o n s . I ' m convinced t r e e s "over t h e long term" w i l l accomplish more rec lamat ion than they have been given c r e d i t f o r .

I n Georgia, t r e e p l a n t i n g on mined lands has been minimized s i n c e t h e Land Reclamation Rule change r e q u i r i n g t h a t a permanent vege- t a t i v e cover be e s t a b l i s h e d when t r e e s a r e p lan ted . It is accepted land rec lamat ion procedure t o r e q u i r e t h e p l a n t i n g of a ground cover with t r e e s . Reclamationis ts have observed s i t e s be ing reclaimed where e r o s i o n of b a r e lands under young p lan ted t r e e s was heavy and v i s u a l l y rendered a s i t e unaccep- t a b l e .

Most Georgia based mining companies assumed t he a t t i t u d e t h a t i t was advanta- geous t o t h e i r opera t ions t o rec la im mined lands f o r pa s tu r e o r g rass lands r a t h e r than f o r e s t l and . By fo l lowing t h i s course of a c t i o n i n conducting reclamation work, mining ope ra to r s were no t l e g a l l y ob l i ga t ed t o t h e S t a t e t o e s t a b l i s h t r e e crops and were f r e e t o conduct t h e i r t r e e p l an t i ng a c t i v i t i e s a t a l a t e r d a t e fo l lowing rec lamat ion and r e l e a s e of l ands involved.

Ground cover requirements f o r S t a t e l and reclamation programs and miner ' s a t t i t u d e r e s u l t i n g from same spawned an important i s s u e regard ing t r e e p l an t i ng a c t i v i t i e s on reclaimed lands . Fo re s t managers and rec la - ma t i on i s t s should determine t h e long-range economics and environmental impact of requi r - i n g a ground cover on a l l s i t e s when t r e e s a r e p lan ted . Study is needed, when f o r e s t r y i s one ' s reclamation o b j e c t i v e , t o determine how much e ro s ion and gu l l y ing one can to le - r a t e and y e t produce and h a r v e s t an accep- t a b l e t r e e crop. When rec la iming mined lands with t r e e s , what per iod of time should one ' s reclamation o b j e c t i v e be confined to? Is i t proper f o r one t o cons ider a s h o r t term land reclamation o b j e c t i v e o r extend rec lamat ion t o i nc lude a reasonable f o r e s t r y r o t a t i o n ?

I n conc lus ion , research o rgan i za t i ons a r e encouraged t o examine t h e s e v e r a l problems mentioned. I n summary, they should provide long-range guidance t o i s s u e s such a s :

1. Should a l l reclaimed s i t e s have a vege t a t i ve cover e s t a b l i s h e d when p l a n t i n g t r e e s ?

2 . Can t r e e p l a n t a t i o n s e s t a b l i s h e d on mined lands s u f f i c i e n t l y s t a b i l i z e a s i t e s o t h a t i t can be c l a s s i f i e d a s reclaimed and a t what age?

3 . What per iod of time can be considered reasonable when us ing f o r e s t r y a s a reclamation ob j ec t i ve?

4 . How much e ro s ion , inc lud ing gul ly ing , can one accept on a reclaimed s i t e when f o r e s t r y is t h e rec lamat ion ob j ec t i ve?

5. How may v i s u a l o r a e s t h e t i c problems which appear e a r l y i n t h e l i f e of a f o r e s t t r e e p l a n t a t i o n be minimized?

6 . W i l l t r e e s eed l i ngs and heavy s t r aw mulch produce an accep t ab l e reclaimed s i t e ?

I n Georgia, we do no t know t h e answers t o ques t i ons r a i s ed . We c e r t a i n l y hope work w i l l . b e i n i t i a t e d t o f i n d s o l u t i o n s which w i l l s t i m u l a t e t r e e p l a n t i n g dur ing mined land reclamation a c t i v i t i e s . Af t e r a l l , one r e a l i z e s l i t t l e f i n a n c i a l ga in from grass- l ands wi thout l i v e s t o c k ; bu t p lan ted t r e e s w i l l y i e l d f u t u r e d o l l a r s .

Twelve years ago, when I o f f i c i a l l y e n t e r ed rec lamat ion work i n Georgia, I was a s taunch advocate of g r a s s f i r s t , then t r e e s . Since I have had t h e p r i v i l e g e of observing t h e two p l a n t a t i o n s prev ious ly d i scussed , my suppor t of the "no grass-no t r e e s " po l i cy is f a i l i n g .

RECLAMATION WITH TREES I N ILLINOIS

Paper presen ted a t t h e symposium, Trees f o r Reclamation i n t h e Eas te rn U.S., Lexington, Kentucky, October 27-29, 1980

Brad E v i l s i z e r D i r ec to r , I l l i n o i s Department of Mines and Minerals

704 Wm. G. S t r a t t o n Of f i c e Bui ld ing , Sp r ing f i e ld , IL 62706

Thru p r i v a t e i n i t i a t i v e , I l l i n o i s c i t i z e n s h i s t o r i c a l l y have invented and conducted la rge-sca le t r e e p l a n t i n g programs, s t a r t i n g wi th hedgerow fences and farmstead windbreaks and cont inu ing w i th s u r f a c e mine rec lamat ion and farm woodlands . With i nva luab l e he lp from pub l i c and p r i v a t e sc ien- t i f i c personnel , t h e o ld and new programs hold promise of enlargement and increased success .

When t a l k i n g about p l an t i ng t r e e s , whether on s u r f a c e c o a l mines o r on farms, we t h i n k I l l i n o i s ha s an i n t e r e s t i n g record. H i s t o r i c a l l y , t e n s of m i l l i o n s of hardyosage orange s eed l i ngs were produced and p lan ted a s hedgerows f o r f ence s by p r i - v a t e n u r s e r i e s and p ioneer fa rmers be fo r e and a f t e r t h e C i v i l War. Our p ioneers p lan ted them t o con f ine c a t t l e , t o p r o t e c t c rops , t o de f i ne proper ty , and t o c i v i l i z e t h e p r a i r i e winds. Appreciated and known a s hedgerows f o r 100 yea r s by fencepos t c u t t e r s and by sportsmen, they provided a n enormous h a b i t a t f o r w i l d l i f e , something not o r i g i - n a l l y contemplated. Unfor tuna te ly , t h e popu- l a r i t y of osage orange hedges dwindled wi th t h e coming of t h e bu l l doze r , s i n g l e - crop g r a i n farming, and i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e . Many of our c i t i z e n s and f o r e s t e r s s t i l l mourn t h e pass ing of t h i s e x c e l l e n t wild- l i f e h a b i t a t and t h e durab le osage orange fencepos t . It i s almost t h e on ly f o r e s t c rop , except Christmas t r e e s , which has been p lan ted and grown commonly i n I l l i n o i s and so ld f o r a p r o f i t . These hedge pos t s have las ted i n t h e s o i l f o r 60 yea r s and more without f a i l u r e .

H i s t o r i c a l l y , I l l i n o i s experienced o t h e r e n t h u s i a s t i c p l a n t i n g programs. One promoted a s u r p r i s i n g number of c a t a lpa p l a n t a t i o n s along r a i l r o a d s f o r t i e production. So f a r a s is known, none were ever harves ted . Other programs were moderately succe s s fu l i n es tab- l i s h i n g farmstead windbreaks and a few b lack walnut p l a n t a t i o n s .

I n modern t imes s i n c e t h e i n s t i t u t i o n of of S t a t e t r e e n u r s e r i e s , pub l i c f o r e s t e r s , and organized conserva t ion agenc ies beginning i n t h e 19301s, I l l i n o i s s t r i p miners and f o r e s t e r s have p lan ted approximately 50 m i l - l i o n t r e e s eed l i ngs . To a l l c l a s s e s of t r e e p l a n t e r s i n I l l i n o i s , t h e S t a t e has d i s t r i - buted a n es t imated 300 m i l l i o n t r e e s s i n c e 1935. During t h e f i r s t h a l f of t h i s modern pe r i od , t h e s u r f a c e mines gene ra l l y p r e f e r r e d t o p l a n t con i f e r s . Since 1955, t h e hardwoods have gained i n popu l a r i t y w i th t h e mines and wi th f o r e s t e r s advis ing them. The popu l a r i t y of va r i ous spec i e s has changed r a d i c a l l y over t h e yea r s and i s changing even now i n respmse t o improvement i n mine s p o i l a c i d i t y (now out- lawed by rec lamat ion laws) , i n response t o f a i l u r e s from i n s e c t s and d i s ea se s , i n re - sponse t o i c e s torms and extreme c l i m a t i c fac- t o r s , and i n response t o a myriad of o the r f a c t o r s f o r e s t e r s l ea rned by b i t t e r exper i - ence.

I l l i n o i s t r i e s t o l e a r n from experience; bu t , un l i ke a farmer o r an agronomist exper i - menting w i th an annual g r a i n crop and con- f r on t ed only by t h e p o t e n t i a l d i s a s t e r of a s i n g l e yea r , a f o r e s t e r ' s t r e e crop must with- s tand every ca t a s t rophe common t o ha l f a cen- t u ry . The f o r e s t e r cannot plow under a 20- year-old mis take a s e a s i l y a s an agronomist might plow under an insect-damaged corn o r a l f a l f a crop. The t r e e s p e c i e s he s e l e c t s must be ready t o wi ths tand t h e worst i c e s torm, t h e worst drought , t h e worst i n s e c t s , t h e worst d i s ea se s l i k e l y t o appear on t h e

horizon i n 50 years. The gamble is f a r g rea t e r than wi th annual corn o r soybeans. Many f o r e s t e r s , it seems t o me, have no t weighed these odds s u f f i c i e n t l y i n choosing spec ies o r combination of spec ies and spac- ings t o use. Poss ib ly because of t he se increased r i s k s , f o r e s t e r s o f t en choose t o p l an t legumes and g ra s se s on su r f ace mines ins tead of t r e e s . The chance of quicker, g r ea t e r and more c e r t a i n p r o f i t a b i l i t y is o f t en t h e overwhelming f a c t o r . Un t i l timber p r i c e s r i s e d r a s t i c a l l y , i t w i l l be a stub- born f a c t o r t o d is lodge o r Ignore.

I n I l l i n o i s , we a r e faced by extremes i n temperature, r a i n f a l l , wind, drought, and o ther c l ima t i c f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g t r e e sur- v i v a l , growth, and damage. But among our s e r ious r i s k f a c t o r s i n t r e e p l an t a t i ons , t h e p r i n c i p a l ones seem t o be i n s e c t s and d iseases . Furthermore, we a r e not wel l equipped t o handle t hese problems, s ince f o r e s t entomologists and pa tho log i s t s a r e not genera l ly present on most f o r e s t r y s t a f f s and a r e not r e a d i l y ava i l ab l e f o r f i e l d ad- v i c e t o f o r e s t owners. I n add i t i on , t h e treatment of t he se problems o f t en i s not economically f e a s i b l e . A s a r e s u l t , we f r e -

quently dec l ine t o p lant c e r t a i n spec ies because of i n s e c t s . A t t h i s time, we a r e inc l ined t o favor t he p l an t ing of hardwood n a t i v e spec ies .

The good news, however, is t h a t we have many f i n e s c i e n t i s t s i n our land-grant col- l eges , our Federal and S t a t e research ten- t e r s , and i n our f i e l d fo rces . I f anything can be done, i t w i l l be known t o our scientists and t h e information w i l l be ava i l ab l e .

Our s t a t e is apprec i a t i ve of t h e research which has been and i s being done on su r f ace mines i n t h e f i e l d s of s o i l compac- t i o n , n a t u r a l invasion of na t ive spec ies , s o i l recons t ruc t ion , and e s p e c i a l l y s t u d i e s of t he bene f i t s of introduced s o i l mycor- r h i z a l fung i f o r improved r e f o r e s t a t i o n on adverse s i t e s .

Surface coa l mining is a very s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t of t h e economic c l imate i n I l l i n o i s . Our mine reclamation wi th pas tures , t imber, and even with row crops has been q u i t e successfu l f o r s eve ra l decades. We hope you w i l l have an opportunity t o v i s i t some of t h i s work.

USING TREES ON RECLAIMED MINED LANDS I N SOUTHERN ILLINOIS

J i m Sandusky

Abstract.--In southern I l l i n o i s Peabody Coal Company included r e f o r e s t a t i o n a s a p a r t of its t e n year plan f o r t h e reclamation of ac id mine s p o i l . Hand p lanted t r e e s had h ighes t su rv iva l r a t e s . The spec i e s t h a t proved most successfu l were b lack locus t , autumn o l i v e , sweetgum, b lack a lde r , l o b l o l l y pine, and r i v e r b i rch .

Tree p l an t ing on surfaced mined land i n I n 1968 t h e Surface-Mined Land Recla- I l l i n o i s began i n t he spr ing of 1920. Approx- mation Act (SMLR) was passed. This a c t was imately 9,000 mixed p ines and hardwoods were more s t r i g e n t than t h e f i r s t (OCLR) i n regu- planted on a mine s i t e near Danvil le , I l l i n o i s . l a t i n g su rv iva l r a t e s of 450 t r e e s a f t e r t h e However, i t wasn't u n t i l t h e 1930's t h a t mined second growing season. A sampling procedure lands were p lanted t o t r e e s on a l a r g e s ca l e . was a l s o implemented. F i r e l anes of 25' width I n 1937 a cooperat ive program was i n i t i a t e d had t o be cons t ruc ted a t 440' i n t e r v a l s . between s i x c o a l companies and the I l l i n o i s Division of Fores t ry . This i n i t i a l agreement The Surface-Mined Land Conservation and r e s u l t e d i n over a qua r t e r of mi l l i on t r e e s i n Reclamation Act (SML) was implemented i n 1971. t he spr ing of 1938. With t h e passing of t h i s a c t (SML) t h e pendulum

swung from f o r e s t r y p r a c t i c e s t o t h e e s t ab l i sh - I n 1939 t h e I l l i n o i s Coal S t r i p p e r s Asso- ment of permanent pas tu re s on t h e reclaimed

c i a t i o n made an arrangement wi th t h e I l l i n o i s mined lands. The reason f o r t h i s change away Fores t ry Divis ion- to p l a n t an equal amount of from t r e e s was t h e new grading requirements. acreage t h a t was s t r i pped annually by t h e c o a l The grading requirements passed i n t h i s a c t companies. This r e su l t ed i n t he p l an t ing of s t a t e d t h a t a l l e x t e r i o r s lopes must be graded over seven mi l l i on t r e e s from 1941 t o 1945. t o 30% and i n t e r i o r s lopes graded t o 15%. With

t h e e l iminat ion of t h e s p o i l r i dges , farm ma- P l an t ing of t r e e s on Peabody Coal Company's chinery could t r a v e r s e t he e n t i r e a r ea , making

W i l l S c a r l e t Mine began i n 1956. This was f i v e i t much e a s i e r t o e s t a b l i s h permanent pas ture years p r i o r t o I l l i n o i s ' f i r s t reclamation law a s a vege t a t i ve cover. This method was much e f f e c t i v e January 1962. A t f i r s t , l a r g e blocks more favorable , e s p e c i a l l y t o t he l a r g e r a r ea of p ines were p lanted , c h i e f l y l o b l o l l y pine su r f ace mines which where a f f e c t i n g 50 t o 400 (Pinus taeda) and Vi rg in i a p ine (Pinus v i r g i n i a ) . a c re s annually. These p l an t ings were c h i e f l y f o r e s t h i c s and f o r covering t h e un-reclaimed mine s p o i l . I n 1974 Peabody Coal company's W i l l

S c a r l e t Mine began a t en year p lan which would Af ter 1961 a l a r g e r v a r i e t y of spec i e s was reclaim 2600 ac re s of ac id mine spo i l s . This

used. The spec i e s included b lack l o c u s t included a l a r g e watershed which was loca ted (Robinia pseudoacacia), sweet gum (Liquidambar adjacent t o t h e South Fork of t h e Sa l ine River. s t y r a c i f l u a ) , sycamore (Platanus occ iden ta l i s ) , A mu l t i p l e land use f o r t h i s a r e a was designed r i v e r b i r ch (Betula n i g r a ) , red oak (Quercus wi th fou r ca tegor ies . These were f o r e s t r y , rub ra ) , s i l v e r maple (Acer saccharinum) and w i l d l i f e , l i ve s tock management and r ec rea t ion . white p ine (Pinus s t r o b i a ) . Introduced spec ies his land use plan had two purposes: t o r i d t he included such t r e e s a s autumn o l i v e (Elaeagnus a r ea of an environmental hazard of ac id mine umbellata) , and European b lack a l d e r (Ulnus drainage and t o c r e a t e a higher and b e t t e r land g l u t i n o s a ) . A t t h i s time t h e Open Cut Land use. Reclamation Act (OCLR) of 1962 came i n t o a f f e c t .

Tree spec ies used f o r t h i s p ro j ec t were This law made no requirements on grading se l ec t ed f o r t h e fol lowing c r i t e r i a :

o the r than f i r e l a n e s be cons t ruc ted t o a min- 1 ) commercial f o r e s t ; 2) ac id to lerance; imum width of t e n f e e t and be loca ted every 440 3) w i l d l i f e , and 4) e s t h i c s . yards. A minimum number of 680 t r e e s per a c r e was required t o be planted. No sampling pro- Those t r e e s s e l ec t ed f o r t h e i r commercial cedure was requi red and, a f t e r t en years t h e d e s i r e a b i l i t y were b lack walnut (Juglans n i g r a ) , reclamation bond was re leased even i f no t r e e red oak, yellow poplar (Liriodendron t u l i p i f e r a ) , su rv iva l was evident . sycamore, sweet gum, cottonwood (Populus

17

d e l t o i d e s ) , and southern yellow pines (Pinus spp). S i t e s e l e c t i o n f o r these spec ies was determined from those s p o i l s t h a t had the h ighes t s o i l pH. These spec ies were planted on 6 x 7 spacing g iv ing a planted seedl ing populat ion of 1037 t r e e s per acre . A l l s pec i e s were mixed during p l an t ing giving a heterogenous stand.

Both mechanical and manual p l an t ing was employed t h e f i r s t t h r e e years. The f o u r t h year a l l t r e e s were planted manually. Those a r e a s p lanted by hand tended t o have the h ighes t r a t e of su rv iva l . The loose sha ley ma te r i a l of s p o i l along wi th t he tendency t o g e t J-rooting of seedl ings neces s i t a t ed the e l iminat ion of t h e mechanical t r e e p l an t e r s .

Since over 90% of t he pre-law mined lands i n t he W i l l S c a r l e t Mine a r ea was crea ted from s t r i p s p o i l s of t h e Davis and Dekovan seams, high a c i d i t y problems developed. These two coa l seams a r e very high i n s u l f u r and t h e overburden covering them is a l s o very a c i d i c . S o i l t e s t on some s p o i l s showed a pH from 2.8 t o 3.4 wi th t o t a l s u l f u r exceeding 8%. Therefore, i n grading of t he se pre-law s p o i l s new unleached t o x i c ma te r i a l s were brought t o t he sur face . To counterac t t h i s a c i d i t y , 12 t o 30 tons per a c r e of a g r i c u l t u r e l imestone were broadcast spread. Af ter t h e a r e a s had been limed they were disced. Acid t o l e r a n t t r e e spec ies were then se l ec t ed f o r p lant ing . These t r e e spec ies included b lack locus t , European b lack a lde r , r i v e r b i rch , autumn o l i v e and b r i s t l y l ocus t (Robinia h i sp ida ) .

The p l a n t methodology of t he se ac id t o l e r - a n t spec i e s included small blocks and s t r i p s . We found t h a t both b lack locus t and autumn o l i v e planted a s c l o s e a s 4 ' x 4 ' spacing on s t eep s lopes crea ted very good eros ion b a r r i e r s .

I n t h e p l an t ing schematic high emphasis was made on e s t ab l i sh ing herterogenous s tands of hardwoods p lanted i n s t r i p s o r bands. These bands were layed out i n such a manner a s t o c r e a t e a s much w i l d l i f e "edge" a s poss ib le . The contour of t h e topography was followed i n using these bands much i n t h e same manner a s contour farming is prac t iced . Open s t r i p s between t h e t r e e bands were l e f t and were seeded t o grasses and legumes.

Where poss ib le , t h e ou te r perimeter of t he hardwood s t r i p s was p lanted t o l o b l o l l y pine, white pine, autumn o l i v e and b lack locus t . Cypress (Taxodium distichum) was used exten- s i v e l y t o border t h e small ponds and the longer lakes .

Screenings of l o b l o l l y p ine and whi te pine have been p lanted around t h e e x t e r i o r perimeter mainly f o r a e s t h e t i c purposes. Volunteer cottonwoods, willow, and r i v e r b i r c h have come

i n on most of t h e a r eas planted.

The spec ies numbers and stocking r a t e s per a c r e r e f l e c t t he adverse condi t ions encountered on t h i s one p a r t i c u l a r a rea .

Tree mor t a l i t y during t h e f i r s t year i s extremely high. I n t h r e e of t he pas t f i v e years extremely dry weather has followed the spr ing p l an t ing season. Droughty condi t ions coupled wi th t h e highly a c i d i c s p o i l s have g r e a t l y re - duced su rv iva l . Therefore, l a r g e t r e e populat ions of over 1000 t r e e s per a c r e have been planted. I n 1979 t h e most favorable sp r ing of t h e pas t f i v e occurred. Af ter one y e a r ' s growth, mor t a l i t y was recorded a t i t s lowest. Surviva l f o r t h i s p a r t i c u l a r year was 63%, giving approximately 600 l i v e t r e e s per a c r e a f t e r one year. The spr ing of 1977 su rv iva l was a s low a s 13% of t he t o t a l t r e e s planted. An extremely dry spr ing , coupled wi th rece iv ing p l an t ing s tock l a t e from the nu r se r i e s , l ed t o t h i s high mor t a l i t y .

The success i n 1979 was a t t r i b u t e d t o t h r e e f a c t o r s : A l l a r ea s t o be planted were seeded t o cover crop of Balboa rye t h e preceding f a l l . P lant ing s tock was obtained from the nursery i n February, and a l l p l an t ing was com- p l e t ed by t h e end of March. During the sp r ing and summer growing season adequate p r e c i p i t a t i o n f e l l .

Sampling procedures t o determine su rv iva l were c a r r i e d out by running t r a n s e c t s of 100 t r e e counts and averaging t h e number of t rans- s e c t l i n e s . No s t a t i s t i c a l averages o r o the r computations were made.

P l an t ing methods cons is ted of mechanical, manual and d i r e c t a e r i a l seeding.

Mechanical p l an t ing was accomplished by using a double and s i n g l e row t r e e p l a n t e r pul led behind a D-4 c a t t r a c t o r . This method of p l an t ing was el iminated due t o t h e poor su rv iva l t h a t r e su l t ed from it . The reason f o r t h i s was t h e f a i l u r e t o c l o s e t he t rench properly, l e t - t i n g the t r e e r o o t s dry out . Also a high degree of J roo t ing was caused because the shaley s o i l s d id not permit t he trenching plow t o pene t r a t e deep enough.

A higher degree of su rv iva l was obtained from using manual hand p lant ing . Fores t ry technology s tuden t s from Southeastern I l l i n o i s Junior College were employed and paid on a per t r e e bas i s .

I n t he spr ing of 1980 an at tempt was made t o a e r i a l seed b lack locus t . Two pounds of seed t o t h e a c r e were a e r i a l broadcast using a he l i cop te r . I nacces s ib l e a r e a s such a s high wa l l s and f i n a l c u t s p o i l s above water impound- ments were seeded i n t h i s manner.

The black locus t seed was s c a r i f i e d p r i o r 6) Species i n the c lean up program were t o being a e r i a l seeded. The method f o r s ca r i fy ing chosen for : commercial f o r e s t ; a c id to lerance; was soaking the seed i n weak so lu t ion of s u l f u r i c w i l d l i f e , and e s th i c s . a c id f o r fo r ty - f ive minutes and r i n s i n g with water and baking soda. A t t h i s time no seed- 7 ) Trees were p lanted both mechanically and l i n g s have been not iced on the a r e a s t h a t were manually. A h igher degree of su rv iva l was accom- a e r i a l seeded. p l i shed by manual p lant ings .

I n 1978 f e r t i l i z e r p e l l e t s of 18-8-3 8) Aer ia l seeding and f e r t i l i z i n g have both a n a l y s i s were used. A p e l l e t was placed adjacent been attempted. No favorable r e s u l t s a s of y e t t o each t r e e a s i t was manually planted. Both have been a t t r i b u t e d t o e i t h e r prac t ice . b lack locus t and l o b l o l l y showed some response t o t h i s f e r t i l i z i n g . No s p e c i f i c da t a was co r r e l a t ed on these p l an t ings o the r than v i s u a l observations.

On one s i t e of black locus t , the t r e e s on one s i d e of an access road were f e r t i l i z e d while the t r e e s on the oppos i te s i d e of the road were not . The f e r t i l i z e d t r e e s seemed t o have a h igher r a t e of surv iva l and g r e a t e r degree of t o t a l he ight . Some indiv idual t r e e s grew t o he igh t s of s i x f e e t the f i r s t growing season.

Loblolly pine showed a l s o a h igher degree of surv iva l with f e r t i l i z e d t rees . However, severe i n f e s t a t i o n of Nantucket Pine t i p moth (Rhyocionia f r u s t r a n a ) on both f e r t i l i z e d and u n f e r t i l i z e d t r e e s g r e a t l y surpressed growth.

SUMMARY

1 ) The f i r s t p l an t ing of t r e e s i n I l l i n o i s began i n the spr ing of 1920 and by 1938 a cooperat ive program had ma te r i l i zed with coal companies and the I l l i n o i s Division of Fores t ry .

2) Tree p l an t ing on voluntary b a s i s began on Peabody Coal Company's W i l l S c a r l e t Mine i n 1956. Loblolly and Virg in ia Pine were the p r i n c i p a l spec ies used.

3) I n 1961 a l a r g e r v a r i e t y of both hardwoods and p ines were used.

4 ) E a r l i e r reclamation laws made f o r e s t r y a h igher p r i o r i t y i n t he reclamation s t r i p mined lands.

5 ) I n 1974 a ten year program was i n i t i a t e d a t t he W i l l S c a r l e t Mine t o c lean up 1600 ac re s of pre-law spo i l s . Due t o t he high a c i k i c na tu re of the regraded s p o i l s , l a rge amounts of agr i - c u l t u r a l limestone was applied.

19

FORESTRY AS A RECLAMATION PRACTICE

ON STRIP MINED LANDS I N KANSAS'

Harold G. Gallaher and Gary G. ~ a u ~ h t o n ~

Abstract.--A genera l desc r ip t ion of t he s i g n i f i - cance of coa l s t r i p mining i n Kansas and the current e f f o r t s t o reclaim s p o i l banks t o f o r e s t uses. Land- owner's objec t ives a r e shown t o be t he most l im i t i ng f a c t o r i n f o r e s t r y operat ions.

S t r i p mining f o r coa l i n Kansas began i n t he 1860's with horse-drawn equipment and hand t o o l s , working on seams exposed a t t he su r f ace along creeks and b l u f f s . D r i f t and tunnel mines began a t about t he same time. By 1877, a steam-operated shovel had been introduced and s t r i p p i n g of su r f ace overburden began. I n 1918, t he f i r s t e l e c t r i c a l l y powered shovel was used and s t r i p mining r ap id ly displaced tunnel mining i n the region (Pierce and Cour t ie r , 1937).

Kansas coa l occurs i n the ea s t e rn one- fou r th of t h e s t a t e i n what is p a r t of t he Western I n t e r i o r Bituminous Coal Province (Powell, 1974) . Currently, t he re a r e s i x com- merc ia l seams of bituminous coa l i n southeas tern Kansas occurring i n a s soc i a t i on wi th sha l e s , l imestones, and sandstones of t he Pennsylvanian Era sediments. Some commercial grades of f i r e c lay a r e a l s o found a t some s i t e s .

The occurrence of l a r g e amounts of i r o n p y r i t e s i n Kansas coa l causes t h ree s i g n i f i c a n t problems :

1) The s u l f u r f r a c t i o n of t he p y r i t e gives an average y i e l d of over 3% sulphur t o our coal , which i n turn causes problems i n combustion from the a i r po l lu t ion poin t of view.

--

'paper presented a t t he Trees f o r Reclama- t i o n Symposium, Lexington, Kentucky on October 27-29, 1980.

2 ~ d e n t i f i c a t i o n of authors:

Harold G. Gallaher S t a t e and Extension Fores ter Gary G. Naughton Ass i t an t S t a t e Extension Fores ter Department of Fores t ry 2610 C l a f l i n Road Manhattan, KS 66502

2) The weathering of t he se exposed py- r i t e s l e f t on o ld mine dumps and t i p p l e s i t e s is a source of s u l f u r i c ac id po l lu t ion i n p i t waters and l o c a l streams .

3) The oxida t ion of p y r i t i c ma te r i a l s c r ea t e s "hot spots" of t ox i c wastes which occur randomly throughout the s p o i l banks and i n h i b i t reclamation e f f o r t s .

The reclamation problem i n Kansas is no t l a rge i n scope. Since 1969, we have had the Mined Land Reclamation and Conservation Act (Kansas, 1968), which r equ i r e s new mines t o be leve led t o a s u b s t a n t i a l l y f l a t sur face . The v i s i b l e r e s u l t s of t h i s "reclaim a s you go" requirement, a r e r ead i ly apparent . Re- vegeta t ion is predominantly t o fescue pas tu re o r wheat, both of which a r e common l o c a l products of farming p r a c t i c e s on un-mined lands. Other common perennia l forages used inc lude a l f a l f a , c lover , vetch, and warm season n a t i v e grasses .

Pri.or t o t h e 1969 law, some 46,000 ac re s of s t r i p mined lands were unreclaimed and not sub jec t t c t he provis ions of t he new law. This represents only .08% of t h e land i n Kansas and is thus not a massive problem from the S t a t e perspect ive .

However, most of t h i s abandoned land is i n a two-county a r ea which has been impacted by the ups and downs of t he coal-mining economy f o r over a century. I n t hese two count ies unreclaimed s t r i p mined lands cover approximately 6% of t h e a r e a - - s t i l l no t a massive problem. But, t he re a r e some townships which a r e near ly 50% s t r i p mined due t o t he concen- t r a t i o n of t h e commercial coa l seams. A s i n a l l problems, t h e perspect ive is important.

As e a r l y a s 1935, t h e U.S. F o r e s t Ser- v i c e e s t a b l i s h e d t r e e p l a n t a t i o n r e s e a r c h p l o t s i n Kansas s t r i p mines ( ~ o g e r , 1949). I n 1967, t h e F o r e s t r y Department a t Kansas S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y i n i t i a t e d r e s e a r c h i n t h e s t r i p mines based upon t h e work of t h e USFS and designed t o e v a l u a t e t r e e s p e c i e s s e l e c - t i o n and management p r a c t i c e s which would b e f e a s i b l e and p r a c t i c a l f o r t h e reclama- t i o n of s t r i p mines a s p r o d u c t i v e f o r e s t s , (Geyer, 1971) .

Hardwood f o r e s t s occur n a t u r a l l y on about 10% of t h e l a n d i n t h e reg ion of Kansas where s t r i p mining has been concen- t r a t e d . Our work w i t h p r i v a t e landowners and p u b l i c o f f i c i a l s h a s been based upon t h e concept t h a t , i d e a l l y , 10% of l and reclaimed would r e t u r n t o f o r e s t uses s o t h a t t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l economy of t h e a r e a would approach normalcy.

The F o r e s t r y Department began a de- t a i l e d s t u d y of t h e s p o i l bank lands i n May of 1980 f o r t h e purposes of de te rmin ing t h e f e a s i b i l i t y of e s t a b l i s h i n g energy f o r e s t p l a n t a t i o n s on t h e s e lands a s a rec lamat ion technique . The s tudy i s designed t o a s s i - m i l a t e a l l t h e p a s t r e s e a r c h d a t a from s p o i l bank exper imenta t ion p l u s t h e i n p u t s from a r e c e n t l y completed s t u d y on s h o r t r o t a t i o n energy f o r e s t s , (Naughton, 1980) .

Two p o s s i b l e outcomes a r e a n t i c i p a t e d :

1) p roduc t ion of cordwood f u e l s f o r d i r e c t consumption a s home h e a t i n g f u e l .

2) p roduc t ion of woodchips f o r com- b u s t i o n i n mix ture w i t h h igh s u l - f u r c o a l f o r i n d u s t r i a l use.

I n t h e f i r s t c a s e , our s tudy i s showing t h a t rec lamat ion is r e l a t i v e l y low c o s t , re- l i a b l e , b u t a l s o low i n t o t a l economic pro- d u c t i v i t y because of t h e time r e q u i r e d t o produce a c rop and t h e low stumpage v a l u e p e r cord.

I n t h e second c a s e , rec lamat ion c o s t s w i l l b e h i g h e r because s p o i l banks w i l l need t o b e l e v e l e d s u f f i c i e n t l y p r i o r t o p l a n t i n g t o a l low f o r mechanized p l a n t i n g and har- v e s t i n g of t r e e s . The r e t u r n s p e r a c r e w i l l a l s o b e h i g h e r because of t h e s h o r t e r r o t a - t i o n and t h e h i g h e r y i e l d p e r a c r e .

I n b o t h c a s e s , t h e concept of reclama- t i o n t o f o r e s t r y uses t a k e s i n t o consider- a t i o n t h e v a l u e of t h e head-wall p i t s f o r f i s h i n g and wate r based r e c r e a t i o n and in- t ends t o develop and enhance t h e s e v a l u e s by :

1) improving t h e a c c e s s i b i l i t y t o p i t w a t e r s .

2) c o n t r o l l i n g o n - s i t e e r o s i o n which p o l l u t e s t h e s e w a t e r s .

3) p l a n t i n g s h o r e l i n e v e g e t a t i o n f o r a e s t h e t i c purposes which would n o t be inc luded i n t h e normal h a r v e s t i n g cyc le .

4) exc lud ing use by domest ice l i v e - s t o c k s o t h a t w i l d game h a b i t a t w i l l be enhanced.

PAST RECLAMATION EFFORTS

Over t h e y e a r s , t h e Kansas F i s h and Game Commission h a s acqui red c o n t r o l of approximately 6,500 a c r e s of t h e s e s p o i l banks f o r management a s p u b l i c hunt ing and f i s h i n g re- s e r v e s . The preponderance of t h i s ac reage is is wooded, some of i t having been p l a n t e d by t h e C i v i l i a n Conservat ion Corps i n t h e mid- 1930's under t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e U.S. F o r e s t S e r v i c e . A l a r g e r p o r t i o n of t h i s p u b l i c l and is n a t u r a l l y r e - f o r e s t e d a s t h e r e s u l t of management p o l i c i e s which favored t r e e s by exc lud ing domest ic l i v e s t o c k .

There a r e t h r e e r e c r e a t i o n developments by p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l s e s t a b l i s h e d on a f e e b a s i s . They have r e c e i v e d some p u b l i c f i n a n c i a l suppor t i n t h e p a s t f o r p a r t i a l re- shap ing of t h e s p o i l banks and f o r some re- v e g e t a t i o n work. For t h e most p a r t , t h e s e o p e r a t i o n s a r e only modestly s u c c e s s f u l , t h e owners a l l having o t h e r primary sources of income.

I n d i v i d u a l landowners have no t t y p i c a l l y p l a n t e d t r e e s i n t h e i r e f f o r t s t o r e c l a i m s p o i l banks. There a r e , however, a few no- t a b l e excep t ions which have been q u i t e suc- c e s s f u l . For t h e most p a r t , t r e e p l a n t i n g i s viewed a s an a e s t h e t i c c o r r e c t i o n t o t h e landscape. I n one c a s e t h e r e is a modestly s u c c e s s f u l Christmas t r e e p l a n t a t i o n .

A few s m a l l a r e a s of s p o i l banks c l o s e t o P i t t s b u r g have been reclaimed f o r country homesi tes . These a r e extremely popular b u t t h e r e i s l i t t l e hope t h a t such h i g h l y developed u s e w i l l have a major impact on reclama- t i o n .

We c u r r e n t l y e s t i m a t e t h a t n e a r l y 3,000 a c r e s of formerly abandoned s p o i l banks have been reclaimed t o pasture--mostly fescue-- by p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l s u s i n g one o r more of a v a i l a b l e f e d e r a l l y f inanced g r a n t s through t h e Resource Conservat ion and Development D i s t r i c t o r t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l S t a b i l i z a t i o n and Conservat ion Serv ice .

This l eaves us approximately 32,000 Reclamation of n a t u r a l l y s tocked s p o i l a c r e s s t i l l inadequa te ly t r e a t e d . banks is r e l a t i v e l y easy. I n most cases , t h e

p r i n c i p a l requirements a r e t o (1) develop access r o u t e s i n t o t h e a r e a s f o r logging

FOREST MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS purposes and (2) t o f i n d markets f o r r e l a - t i v e l y low-value produc ts . I n t h e f i r s t

The abandoned s p o i l bank lands we a r e case , we a r e developing a rec lamat ion model d e a l i n g w i t h were a l l mined p r i o r t o 1969, which w i l l use p u b l i c funds f o r development of t h e median age of t h e ac reage be ing over 30 low-cost access r o u t e s . I n t h e second c a s e , y e a r s o ld . S u b s t a n t i a l wea ther ing of s p o i l s we a r e depending upon t h e i n c r e a s e d market h a s t aken p l a c e dur ing t h a t t i m e , and t o f o r fuelwood t o consume t h e m a j o r i t y of our some e x t e n t , t i m e h a s a l r e a d y hea led t h e product ou tpu t . wounds.

A g e n e r a l gu ide f o r t h e rec lamat ion of N a t u r a l r e v e g e t a t i o n by cottonwood h a s s p o i l s i n Kansas was prepared by t h e S o i l

been s u b s t a n t i a l l y s u c c e s s f u l on 20% of t h e Conservat ion S e r v i c e and Kansas S t a t e Univer- a r e a , and almost 60% of t h e unreclaimed a r e a s i t y (uSDA, 1969). S p o i l s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , h a s cottonwood and o t h e r v o l u n t e e r hardwood s i t e p r e p a r a t i o n , s p e c i e s s e l e c t i o n , manage- cover between 20% and 50% s t o c k i n g . ment p r a c t i c e s , and conserva t ion measures

a r e ou t l i n e d . It is our conc lus ion t h a t we can expec t

b i o l o g i c a l s u c c e s s i n t r e e p l a n t i n g most of OTHER CURRENT STUDIES

t h e t ime i f we u s e cottonwood, b l a c k l o c u s t , l o b l o l l y p ine , and p i n oak. Black walnut , The Center f o r P u b l i c A f f a i r s and t h e

b u r oak, European a l d e r , and autumn o l i v e Kansas Applied Remote Sensing Program of t h e a r e a l s o h i g h l y r e l i a b l e s p e c i e s f o r vegeta- U n i v e r s i t y of Kansas a r e j o i n t l y conduct ing t i o n . a n inventory of abandoned mined l a n d s i n

Kansas. The p r o j e c t is funded by t h e O f f i c e Economic s u c c e s s of r e f o r e s t a t i o n appears Surface Mining* The primary objective

t o b e marginal a t b e s t . It is our c u r r e n t of t h e inventory is t o i d e n t i f y h e a l t h ,

b e l i e f t h a t s a l a b l e q u a n t i t i e s of c o t tonwood s a z e t y and environmental problems a s s o c i a t e d and b l a c k l o c u s t can b e produced from p lan ta - w i t h abandoned c o a l mines i n t h e s t a t e .

t i o n s , and t h e r e is some hope f o r l o b l o l l y I n t e r v i e w s w i t h county agency personne l , p ine . The o t h e r s p e c i e s appear t o b e sub- l o c a l o f f i c i a l s , and a r e a r e s i d e n t s a r e be ing marginal . conducted t o i d e n t i f y s p e c i f i c problem a r e a s .

I n a d d i t i o n , e x i s t i n g medium-scale and h igh

S o c i o - p o l i t i c a l successes i n r e f o r e s t a - a l t i t u d e c o l o r i n f r a r e d photography a r e be ing t i o n seem t o b e geared t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e used t o e v a l u a t e g e n e r a l s i te c o n d i t i o n s and l o c a l p u b l i c w i l l accep t a l i m i t e d amount of t o i d e n t i f y problems r e s u l t i n g from a c i d

" f o r e s t " i n t h e reg ion . It is a l s o important s p o i l c o n d i t i o n s and consequent poor revege- t o r e a l i z e t h a t t h e s e f o r e s t a r e a s a r e accept- t a t i o n . On-si te v i s i t s a r e conducted t o

a b l e t o t h e p u b l i c from t h e viewpoint of e v a l u a t e and document t h e problems. The a e s t h e t i c s , r e c r e a t i o n and w i l d l i f e h a b i t a t . in format ion gained from t h i s inven tory w i l l

Economic p r o d u c t i v i t y is n o t a s i g n i f i c a n t be used by t h e O f f i c e of Sur face Mining f o r

p u b l i c i s s u e a t t h e l e v e l s of f o r e s t which p r i o r i t i z i n g t h e rec lamat ion of abandoned

w i l l b e r e a d i l y accep tab le . mined landc 5- Sansas.

This same team i s a l s o conduct ing a Pro- The c r i t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s f o r us a r e t o t y p e Study i n s o u t h e a s t e r n Kansas which

t h e wants , needs, and a t t i t u d e s of t h e i n d i - w i l l b e used t o a s s i s t OSM and t h e c o a l pro- v i d u a l s who own t h e mined l a n d s i n q u e s t i o n . ducing s t a t e s i n improving t h e q u a l i t y and It is g e n e r a l l y t r u e i n Kansas t h a t people u t i l i t y of i n v e n t o r i e s . The t a s k s of t h e who make t h e i r l i v i n g d i r e c t l y from t h e land Pro to type Study a r e inc luded among s i x major d o n ' t p l a n t t r e e s , w h i l e those people w i t h r e s e a r c h components. These components a r e o t h e r primary s o u r c e s of income do p l a n t a s fol lows: trees. Thus, r e f o r e s t a t i o n e f f o r t s on Kansas mines a r e more l i m i t e d by landowner a t t i t u d e s 1) Assessment of Mine S p o i l s and Mine

than by b i o l o g i c a l , economic o r p o l i t i c a l S o i l s .

c o n s t r a i n t s . 2) Assessment of Erosion-Sedimentation Prob lems .

I n cases where s t a n d s of t r e e s a r e a l - ready e s t a b l i s h e d , we s t i l l f i n d t h e land- 3) Assessment of Vege ta t ion Problems.

owners d iv ided a s t o what p roduc t ion a l t e r n a - 4 ) Assessment of Water Qual i ty Problems. t i v e s they w i l l c o n s i d e r , a l though we do have broader g e n e r a l accep tance of f o r e s t r y prac- 5) Assessment of Socio-Economic F a c t o r s

t i c e s on e x i s t i n g s t a n d s from a l l c l a s s e s of and Problems.

owners.

23

6) Assessment of Research Methodologies, i .e. , Photo Reconnaissance, f o r components 1 through 5.

A considerable amount of previous research has focused on mine s o i l s associa ted with reclaimed lands. I n con t r a s t , l i t t l e research has been d i r ec t ed towards t he condi- t i ons of mine s p o i l s o r mine s o i l s on abandoned mined lands. The Prototype Study w i l l determine the s p e c i f i c phys ica l and chemical p rope r t i e s of mine s p o i l s t h a t should be measured p r i o r t o reclamation. This informa- t i o n can be used t o determine reclamation a l t e r n a t i v e s and reclamation techniques. I n add i t i on , sampling methods a r e being t e s t ed i n t h e Prototype Study t o determine the most e f f i c i e n t and economical means of c o l l e c t i n g the mine s o i l and mine s p o i l da ta . Refine- ment of these methodologies w i l l lead t o t he development of sys temat ic sampling schemes f o r use i n s t a t e s t h a t a r e involved with t he reclamation of abandoned mined lands .

Erosion and sedimentat ion have been i d e n t i f i e d iis maj o r problems associa ted wi th abandoned mined lands i n Kansas. The Proto- type Study is being used t o (1) determine whether t he re a r e s i g n i f i c a n t f lood hazards associa ted with sedimentat ion i n problem a reas , (2) assess t he impacts of e ros ion and sedimentat ion on vegeta t ion i n problem a reas , and (3) t e s t da t a co l l ec t ion techniques and i d e n t i f y t he b e s t methods f o r acqui r ing the da ta . I n order t o maximize t h e under- s tanding of t he i n t e r a c t i o n s involved with t he aging of mine s p o i l s , e ros ion and sedimentation a r e being assessed i n a r eas coin- c i d e n t a l wi th and immediately adjacent t o those s e l ec t ed f o r vegeta t ion and s p o i l ana lyses . Both s t u d i e s w i l l be completed i n February, 1981.

LITERATURE CITED

Geyer, Wayne A. 1971. Reforest ing Kansas coa l s p o i l s . Kansas Agric. Expt. S ta . , C i r . 399, 9 p.

Kansas, 1968. The 1968 se s s ion laws of Kansas. Mined Land Conservation and Reclamation Act, 797-808.

Naughton, Gary G. (Ed.) 1980. The Univer- s i t y of Kansas energy f o r e s t . Ozarks Regional Commission, Doc. No. 106 1-0050, 74 p.

P ierce , W.G. and Cour t ie r , W.H. 1937. Geology and coal resources of south- e a s t e r n Kansas coa l f i e l d . Kansas Geological Survey, 122 p.

Powell, William E. 1974. Mechanized s t r i p mining and land reclamation i n t he Chero- kee-Cranford coa l f i e l d of southeas tern Kansas. Transactians of t h e Kansas Academy of Science, Vol. 76, No. 2, 167-182.

Rogers, Nelson F. 1949. The growth and development of b lack walnut (Juglans n i g r a L.) i n coa l strip-mined land i n southeas tern Kansas. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sc i . , Vol. 52, 49-104.

USDA, 1969. A guide f o r reclamation and conservation of s t r i p mined s p o i l s i n Kansas. USDA S o i l Conservation Service wi th Kansas S t a t e Universi ty, 70 p.

Raymond J. Swatzyna 2

Abstract.--The Kentucky Div is ion of Fo re s t ry ope ra t e s t h r e e t r e e n u r s e r i e s producing approximately 12.5 mi l l i on s eed l i ngs . Production is 60% hardwoods and shrubs and 40% pine. Production could be increased t o 18 m i l l i o n and spec i e s added t o meet demand.

Kentucky's i n t e r e s t i n r e f o r e s t a t i o n da t e s from 1914 when t h e General Assembly au thor ized t he es tab l i shment of two smal l n u r s e r i e s , one i n Frankfor t and t h e o t h e r a t t he o ld S t a t e Fairgrounds i n L o u i s v i l l e . At p r e sen t t h e D iv i s i on of Fo re s t ry ope ra t e s t h r e e n u r s e r i e s . The Pennyr i le Fo re s t Nursery was e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1946, t h e John P. Rhody Nursery i n 1956, and t h e Morgan County Nursery i n 1960. These n u r s e r i e s a r e c u r r e n t l y producing approximately 12.5 m i l l i o n s eed l i ngs annual ly . Some 20 d i f f e r e n t spec i e s a r e r a i s e d f o r d i s t r i b u t i o n , wi th f i v e - black a l d e r , b lack l o c u s t , b i c o l o r lespedeza, autumn o l i v e , and v i r g i n i a p ine - being grown p r i - mar i ly f o r rec lamat ion purposes, though o t h e r spe c i e s such a s l o b l o l l y , s h o r t l e a f , and wh i t e p ine a r e a l s o used t o some ex t en t . During t h e p a s t p l an t i ng season over 1 .5 m i l l i o n seed- l i n g s were used i n rec lamat ion work.

At p r e sen t 60% of our production is i n hardwoods and shrubs , and 40% i n p ine . Our production could be expanded t o 18-20 m i l l i o n s e e d l i ngs i f t h e demand i nc r ea se s and t h e cur- r e n t 60% hardwood-40% p ine mix was maintained.

We r e c e n t l y added a co ld s t o r a g e u n i t a t our John P. Rhody Nursery. Depending on spe c i e s t h i s u n i t w i l l ho ld between 3 and 4 m i l l i o n seed l ings . It w i l l a l low us t o l i f t i n good weather and s t o c k p i l e s eed l i ngs f o r packaging a t a l a t e r da t e , t hus we can make more e f f i c i e n t use of our time. With t h i s u n i t we expect t h a t we can extend t h e p l a n t i n g season up t o two months.

The D iv i s i on of Fo re s t ry is coopera t ing wi th t h e U . S. Fo re s t Serv ice Northeastern Fores t Experiment S t a t i o n a t Berea on a s tudy t o eva lua t e 14 d i f f e r e n t woody spec i e s f o r rec lamat ion purposes. The s tudy has s e v e r a l purposes. One is t o determine i f p r e sen t nursery p r a c t i c e s have a de t r imen t a l e f f e c t on t he growth of b e n e f i c i a l symbionts on seed- l i n g r o o t s . There is some evidence t o i n d i c a t e t h a t modern fumigat ion p r a c t i c e s r e s u l t i n s eed l i ngs l a ck ing i n s u f f i c i e n t q u a n t i t i e s of these b e n e f i c i a l symbionts t o do w e l l on some of t he mined s i t e s . To c a r r y ou t t h i s po r t i on of t h e s tudy , we w i l l be r a i s i n g h a l f t he seed- l i n g s under normal fumigated condi t ions a t t he John P. Rhody Nursery and t he r e s t a t t h e Pen- n y r i l e Nursery i n an a r e a t h a t has no t been fumigated f o r t h r e e yea r s .

The 14 spec i e s be ing r a i s e d i nc lude spec i e s t h a t were r a i s e d by some n u r s e r i e s i n t h e p a s t b u t a r e now no t gene ra l l y a v a i l a b l e f o r reclamation s t u d i e s . They inc lude such s p e c i e s a s h a z e l a l d e r , ind igo bush, s i l k y dogwood, sh in ing sumac, smooth sumac, and s i b e r i a n pea shrub.

I f t h e t e s t p l an t i ngs of t he se s p e c i e s prove succe s s fu l , we could make them a v a i l a b l e f o r reclamation p l a n t i n g s i f a s u f f i c i e n t demand develops.

Our Tree Improvement Program i s c u r r e n t l y working w i th t h r e e spec i e s t h a t a r e used f o r rec lamat ion , European b lack a l d e r , v i r g i n i a p ine , and b l ack l ocus t . A t t h i s po in t i n time we a r e concerned wi th t h e es tab l i shment of r e l i a b l e seed sources adapted t o t h e harsh

'paper presen ted a t t h e Trees f o r Recla- . environment of reclaimed l ands , and showing mation i n t h e Eas te rn United S t a t e s Symposium, s u i t a b l e r a t e s of growth. We have two v i r g i n i a Lexington, Kentucky, October 27-29, 1980. p ine s eed l i ng seed orchards l oca t ed i n Eas te rn

2 and Western Kentucky. Each orchard encompasses Raymond J. Swatzyna, D i r ec to r , Kentucky 14 ac r e s . The seed source f o r t h e orchards

Div is ion of Fo re s t ry , Bureau of Natura l Re- were open-poll inated seed from a f i r s t genera- sources , Department f o r Na tu r a l Resources and t i o n progeny t e s t of a c l o n a l orchard es tab- Environmental P ro t ec t i on , 618 Teton T r a i l , l i s h e d by t h e Univers i ty of Tennessee. The F ra nk fo r t , Kentucky 40601. s eed l i ngs were e s t a b l i s h e d dur ing t h e s p r i n g

-

of 1977. We expec t s e e d produc t ion t o beg in w i t h i n t h r e e y e a r s , f u l l s c a l e seed produc t ion w i t h i n seven y e a r s . I n 1979 we e s t a b l i s h e d 4 a c r e s of European b lack a l d e r seed produc t ion a r e a s i n two s i t e s i n Western Kentucky. The o r i g i n a l European seed source h a s been ob- se rved through r e p e a t e d r e g e n e r a t i o n i n t h e United S t a t e s . The seed source shows a r a p i d growth r a t e dur ing t h e e a r l y y e a r s of es tab- l i shment . We expec t some seed produc t ion w i t h i n two y e a r s , w i t h f u l l s c a l e p roduc t ion i n f i v e y e a r s . The Tree Improvement Program i s a coopera tor i n a b l a c k l o c u s t v a r i a t i o n s tudy w i t h two o u t p l a n t i n g s of 5 a c r e s each. The s tudy is r e g i o n a l i n scope and i s coordi- na ted by t h e U n i v e r s i t y of Tennessee. We a l s o p l a n t o e s t a b l i s h a s e e d l i n g seed orchard f o r b lack l o c u s t t o supplement t h e n u r s e r y program's seed needs. Seed s o u r c e s w i l l be from a c r o s s t h e S t a t e of Kentucky. S e l e c t i o n c r i - t e r i a w i l l emphasize d i s e a s e and i n s e c t r e s i s t a n c e w h i l e a l s o s t r e s s i n g s t r a i g h t s i n g l e s tems, good crown form, and s e l f prun- i n g a b i l i t y .

I n summary, I would l i k e t o say t h a t our working r e l a t i o n s w i t h Commissioner Grim and o t h e r s i n t h i s f i e l d a r e e x c e l l e n t , and we s t a n d ready and w i l l i n g t o do whatever we can t o produce t h e s p e c i e s and q u a n t i t y t h a t a r e needed t o g e t t h e rec lamat ion job done i n Kentucky.

TREE PLANTING - STRIP-MINED AREA I N MARYLAND

P a r t I

Paper Presen ted a t t h e

Symposium on Trees f o r Reclamation i n t h e E a s t e r n U.S.

INTRODUCTION

i n Lexington, Kentucky

October 27-29, 1980

Fred L. Bagley Energy Resources O f f i c e r

Energy Adminis t ra t ion Maryland Bureau of Mines

69 H i l l S t r e e t Fros tburg , Maryland 21532

Maryland is r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l i n r e l a t i o n w i t h o t h e r coal-producing s t a t e s . Only one and one-third Counties i n extreme Western Maryland is involved i n mining. E l e v a t i o n f o r t h e min- i n g r e g i o n i s from a low of 1200 f e e t t o a h igh of 3800 f e e t . R a i n f a l l i s w e l l d i s t r i b u t e d ranging from 40 t o 48 inches p e r y e a r .

U n t i l 1975, t h e r e v e g e t a t i o n of s t r i p mined a r e a s was t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of t h e Mary- l and F o r e s t S e r v i c e , thus t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n on t r e e p l a n t i n g . S ince 1975 a l l mining respon- s i b i l i t i e s have been t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e Bureau of Mines.

P l a n t i n g of t r e e s on s tr ip-mined a r e a s began i n 1963 w i t h herbaceous p l a n t i n g , a requirement beginning i n 1974. Trees were t h e pr imary r e v e g e t a t i o n method w i t h an average of 350-400 thousand t r e e s p l a n t e d each y e a r . Since 1974, t h e t r e n d h a s been f o r herbaceous p l a n t i n g , consequently t r e e p l a n t i n g h a s de- c l i n e d cons iderab ly (approximately 150 thousand p e r y e a r i n r e c e n t y e a r s ) . However, because of t h e O f f i c e of Sur face Mining's requ i rements , t h e f u t u r e d i c t a t e s a s u b s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e i n t r e e p l a n t i n g .

PRORLE?IS EXPERIENCED WITH TREE PLANTING

SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS OF TREE ESTABLISHMENT ON STRIP-MINED BEAS

To h e l p a l l e v i a t e t h e s e problems and t o g e t good p r a c t i c a l rec lamat ion of s t r ip-mined l a n d , we i n Maryland a r e p l a n t i n g Black Locust and Black Alder a s a f i r s t crop t r e e . We decided t h i s was t h e b e s t method t o fo l low because t h e s e t r e e s were leguminous; Elack Lscus t is a n a t u r a l i n v s d e r and we have a n e a s i l y a c c e s s i b l e market. Westvaco h a s a pa- p e r m i l l l o c a t e d i n t h e c e n t e r of o u r c o a l reg ion .

The problem of heavy herbaceous cover c u r t a i l i n g t h e s u r v i v a l and growth of t r e e s , can be overcome w i t h proper c a r e and p l a n t i n g techniques .

I would l i k e t o p o i n t o u t P a r t I1 of t h i s paper on t h e methods we have found t o be suc- c e s s f u l . I n p a r t i c u l a r t h e conc lus ion .

We i n l laryland b e l i e v e t h a t f o u r b a s i c requirements must be met t o ensure s u c c e s s f u l t r e e p l a n t i n g on s t r i p mined a r e a s .

1. m e p l a n t i n g s t o c k must be p r o p e r l y ca red f o r from t h e time of l i f t i n g u n t i l t h e a c t u a l p l a n t i n g on t h e mining s i t e . We do n o t recommend long s t o r a g e p e r i o d s . Less than f o u r weeks is p r e f e r r e d .

The problems we a r e encounte r ing w i t h t r e e 2 . It i s a b s o l u t e l y e s s e n t i a l t h a t p roper p l a n t i n g a t t h e p r e s e n t time a r e (1) e s t a b l i s h - s u p e r v i s i o n of t h e t r e e c a r e and t h e p l a n t i n g ment i n heavy herbaceous cover , and (2) t h e p r a c t i c e s a r e maintained a t a l l t imes. Many people of Western Maryland would l i k e r e p l a n t - agenc ies o r c o a l companies do n o t want t o i n g w i t h more hard wood s p e c i e s (Oak, Hickory, spend t h e money t h a t is needed f o r t h i s super- Maple, Cherry, e t c . ) . P a s t y e a r ' s t r e e p l a n t - v i s i o n . i n g h a s l eaned h e a v i l y on p i n e s p e c i e s .

3. P l a n t i n g of t r e e s a s e a r l y a s p o s s i b l e i n t h e s p r i n g . W e recommend t h e p l a n t i n g season n o t t o exceed A p r i l 20th i n Maryland. I n o t h e r words, s t a r t - a s soon a s f r o s t l e a v e s t h e ground and complete p l a n t i n g w i t h i n a f o u r week p e r i o d . Here a g a i n , pre-planning such a s having t r e e s o rdered , crews h i r e d , job s i t e s determined, e t c . . is very important s o t i m e w i l l n o t be wasted dur ing t h e a c t u a l t r e e p l a n t i n g p e r i o d .

4. L a s t , s c a l p i n g an a r e a of approximate- l y 12 t o 1 8 inches i n diameter w i l l be needed where herbaceous cover is heavy.

RE SEARCH

The Bureau of Mines and F o r e s t S e r v i c e i n Maryland h a s worked c l o s e l y w i t h t h e Agricul- t u r e Research S e r v i c e l o c a t e d i n B e l t s v i l l e , Maryland dur ing t h e e a r l y and mid-1970's i n con junc t ion w i t h r e v e g e t a t i o n r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s of s t r i p mined land . However, t h e emphasis was f o r herbaceous es tab l i shment . The p l a n t i n g of t r e e s and shrubs h a s been done s i n c e 1963, b a s i c a l l y us ing p r a c t i c a l i t y , n a t u r a l s p e c i e s 3pproach, a v a i l a b i l i t y o f s p e c i e s and good seed and p l a n t i n g techniques .

P a r t s 111 and I V of t h i s paper h a s been t h e r e s u l t s of many y e a r s of r e v e g e t a t i o n exper ience i n Plaryland. Our r e s e a r c h and exper ience r e s u l t s h a s always been towards t h e goa l of be ing a b l e t o apply and r e l a t e t o t h e normal d a i l y rec lamat ion and r e v e g e t a t i o n encountered by t h e c o a l o p e r a t o r s . We f e e l r e s e a r c h h a s f a l l e n s h o r t i f r e s u l t s cannot be a p p l i e d i n a reasonable and p r a c t i c a l sense i n c l u d i n g t h e economic c o n s i d e r a t i o n . We would l i k e t o have more d a t a on d i r e c t seed- i n g of t r e e s p e c i e s and hardwood s p e c i e s p l a n t - ing . P o s s i b l y we w i l l o b t a i n d a t a from t h i s Symposium.

CONCLUSION

Maryland h a s a very smal l a r e a where s t r i p mining i s conducted. That i s an a s s e t because t h e Bureau of Mines h a s a much c l o s e r r e l a t i o n - s h i p and p o s s i b l y b e t t e r c o n t r o l over t h e mining p r o c e s s , p a r t i c u l a r l y rec lamat ion and r e v e g e t a t i o n .

Our r e v e g e t a t i o n s t a n d a r d s a r e h igh . Our e f f o r t s t o d a t e a r e producing good r e s u l t s which we hope t o con t inue . Thank you.

TREE PLANTING - STRIP-MINED AREA I N IURYLAND

P a r t I1

Fred L. Bagley Energy Resources O f f i c e r

This r e p o r t is w r i t t e n t o e l u c i d a t e some of t h e problems encountered i n t h e p l a n t i n g of t r e e s on s tr ip-mined a r e a s i n Maryland. When problems a r e recognized , normally a so lu- t i o n ( o r a t l e a s t , an improvement) can be i n s t i t u t e d t o a l l e v i a t e t h e problem.

The methods c i t e d h e r e i n a r e those of experienced f o r e s t e r s engaged i n s t r ip -mine p l a n t i n g dur ing t h e p a s t seven teen y e a r s . Although t h e s e methods might seem very b a s i c , t h e procedure and t o o l s exp la ined i n t h i s r e p o r t g i v e t h e b e s t r e s u l t s w i t h t h e l e a s t amount of confusion.

MECHANICS OF PLANTING

The S t a t e of Maryland does have c e r t a i n g u i d e l i n e s f o r p l a n t i n g t r e e s i n t h e S t a t e . B r i e f l y , t h e s e g u i d e l i n e s a r e a s fo l lows:

1. Spacing: 6 ' x 7 ' ( o r 1 ,000 t r e e s p e r a c r e ) .

2. P l a n t i n g season i n Western Maryland: Karch 20 t o A p r i l 20 f o r s t r ip-mined a r e a s . The e a r l i e r trees a r e p l a n t e d t h e h i g h e r t h e s u r v i v a l w i l l be.

3. P l a n t i n g methods :

a . Hand - a r e a s one a c r e o r less i n s i z e , odd a r e a s , coa l - s t r ipped a r e a s , s t e e p o r rough a r e a s .

b. Machine - Three a c r e s o r more on even s l o p e s . Odd a r e a s on machine s i t e s a r e p l a n t e d by hand.

4. P l a n t i n g p r e c a u t i o n s :

a . P r o t e c t p l a n t a t i o n from g r a z i n g and f i r e .

b. P l a n t a s soon a s p o s s i b l e a f t e r t r e e s a r e rece ived .

c . Keep s e e d l i n g r o o t s moist a t a l l times.

d. P l a n t p r o p e r l y . Do n o t jam o r push r o o t s i n t o t h e h o l e . Do n o t i n s e r t seed- l i n g a t an ang le . P l a n t a t p roper dep th , which is t h e same dep th a s i n t h e nurse ry .

P o i n t s b and c a r e u s u a l l y overlooked b u t a r e extremely impor tan t t o good s u r v i v a l .

5. Proper s u p e r v i s i o n must be maintained a t a l l t i m e s .

Strip-mine p l a n t i n g is a s p e c i a l opera- t i o n . I n some r e s p e c t s , i t is a b e t t e r p l a n t - i n g than o l d f i e l d s o r woodlands because heavy sod , r o o t s , b rush , and stumps a r e n o t p r e s e n t . However, t h e r e can be problems. A s t r ip -mine w i l l d ry o u t cons iderab ly f a s t e r ; i n f a c t , w i t h t h e e v e r p r e s e n t winds, they can go from a n extremely wet t o a very dry c o n d i t i o n w i t h i n a few days. For t h e s e reasons , a r a t h e r heavy mattock is recommended. The f i v e pound mattock head seems t o be t h e b e s t s i z e a v a i l a b l e . With t h i s s i z e mattock, a good h o l e can be dug t o p l a n t t h e s e e d l i n g wi thout much over -exer t ion by t h e p l a n t e r .

S l i t p l a n t i n g has Droven t o g ive much lower s u r v i v a l than p l a n t i n g by d igg ing a h o l e . S l i t p l a n t i n g tends t o produce a J- roo ted c o n d i t i o n and, u n l e s s t h e f i r s t few y e a r s a f t e r p l a n t i n g a r e extremely wet , many s e e d l i n g s w i l l d i e . S l i t p l a n t i n g must NOT be used.

Digging a h o l e t o o sha l low w i l l produce t h e same r e s u l t s a s s l i t p l a n t i n g . The cor- r e c t (and b e s t ) method t o p l a n t s e e d l i n g s i s t o d i g a h o l e s e v e r a l i n c h e s l o n g e r and wider than t h e r o o t system of t h e s e e d l i n g . I f a h o l e is dug p r o p e r l y , one s i d e w i l l be v e r t i - c a l t o t h e width of t h e h o l e . Hold t h e t r e e a t t h e r o o t c o l l a r w i t h t h e thumb and fore - f i n g e r , and p l a c e t h e t r e e r o o t s i n t o t h e h o l e u n t i l t h e f i n g e r and thumb touch t h e o r i g i n a l s o i l l i n e .

Be c a r e f u l t h a t t h e s e e d l i n g is i n an up- r i g h t p o s i t i o n . Then u s e t h e f o o t t o push t h e f r e s h l y dug s o i l back i n t o t h e h o l e around t h e r o o t s . Care should be used n o t t o p u t s t o n e s around t h e s e e d l i n g r o o t s . The f i n a l s t e p i n t h e p l a n t i n g o r d e r is t o p l a c e t h e f o o t over t h i s s o i l , t o compact i t around t h e s e e d l i n g .

Another problem t o be cons idered when p l a n t i n g is t h a t of spac ing . Two methods can be used t o main ta in t h e d e s i r e d spacing. One method i s t o i n s t r u c t t h e p l a n t e r t h a t , when h e compacts t h e s o i l w i t h h i s f o o t , h e i s t o make one normal a d d i t i o n a l s t e p and s i n k t h e

mattock i n t o t he ground i n f r o n t of h imsel f ; s i z e s have ranged from 4-65 men. A s you can t h i s w i l l provide approximately s i x f e e t be- imagine, d i f f e r e n t crew s i z e s present d i f f e r e n t tween each t r e e . The o the r method is t o main- problems. t a i n c lo se supervis ion of t he p l an t ing crew, with t he foreman paying p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n For bes t con t ro l , t he smal ler crew is de- t o t he spacing of each p l a n t e r . Also, t he s i r a b l e . A small crew is considered t o be 20 bes t p l an t ing method e s t a b l i s h e s a good lead men o r l e s s . With a crew of t h i s s i z e , l e s s man, wi th each p l a n t e r t o s t a y one t r e e behind supervisors a r e needed and genera l confusion is the man he is using f o r a guide. See i l l u s t r a - minimized. t i o n :

Unfortunately, small crews cannot be used Step Method a t a l l times--especially when l a r g e acreages

a r e t o be p lanted i n a sho r t period of time. Guiding Lef t When l a r g e crews a r e used, i t is advisable t o

have seve ra l experienced men t o supervise t he Lead man + ' Direc t ion of p l an t ing job. These supervisors w i l l then in-

P l an t ing s t r u c t and reorganize t he crew i n t o t he smal ler + + 2nd man

T p lan t ing u n i t s .

+ + + 3rdman The following is a diagram of d i f f e r e n t s i z e crews:

+ + + + 4th man ( e t c . )

Small Crew Less Than 20 Men Guiding Right

Supervisor Direc t ion of Lead man +

Plant ing 2nd man + +

T Foreman Foreman

I 3rdman + + + P l a n t i n g u n i t

I Plant ing Unit

8 t o 10 men 8 t o 10 men 4 thman + + + + ( e t c . )

Large Crew More Than 20 Yen

XECHANICS OF RUNNING A CREW Supervisor Supervisor

Before t he a c t u a l p l an t ing opera t ion be- g ins , i t i s necessary t h a t t he p l a n t e r s be

+ Foreman Foreman Foreman 47 Foreman

i n s t r u c t e d a s t o what performance is expected of them. Then d iv ide the men i n t o crews and

I Plant ing

I I I Plan t ing Plant ing Plant ing

ass ign , o r have, a crew boss o r foreman. Each Unit 8 t o Unit 8 t o Unit 8 t o Unit 8 t o p l a n t e r is then given h i s p a r t i c u l a r spec ies 10 men 10 men 10 men 10 men of t r e e t o be p lanted . I n most cases , a l t e r - na t e rows of compatible t r e e spec ies a r e required. \hen a l l members of the crew have The foreman's d u t i e s cons i s t of maintain- t r e e s , ass ign a lead man and p lace t he crew. ing spacing, supplying p l a n t e r s with t r e e s , Normally, a lead man is a good p l a n t e r and t o o l s , e t c . , and maintaining good t r e e p l an t ing can fol low i n s t r u c t i o n s . Inform the lead man methods. of t he a r e a he i s t o p l an t . Each crew should use t h e Step Method of p l an t ing , a s previous ly P r i o r t o p l an t ing , a map should be s tudied described. by the supervisor t o determine the s i z e , t he

shape, and the hazards ( i f any) of t he p l an t ing Crew s i z e and necessary crew con t ro l w i l l a rea . Although each strip-mine is unique, ba-

determine the bes t p l an t ing r e s u l t s . without s i c methods can be used t o prevent confusion i n such con t ro l , i t is b e t t e r not t o p l a n t an t r e e p lant ing . Normally, strip-mines a r e long a rea a t a l l . narrow s t r i p c u t s around a h i l l s i d e , and they

vary i n width a t d i f f e r e n t po in t s . I f t he The b e s t p l an t ing u n i t i s composed of 8- crews do not p l a n t properly o r a r e not c lose ly

10 men p e r foreman. When a p l an t ing u n i t supervised, smal l a r ea s a r e not p lanted . Also, grows any l a r g e r , con t ro l is l o s t by the fore- i f t he crews a r e not supervised proper ly , near

man and, u sua l ly , poor p l an t ing r e s u l t s . t he end of t he p l an t ing job a l l t he p l an t ing u n i t s w i l l converge, thus c r ea t ing poor p lant -

I n Ides t e r n Maryland, experienced crew ing , confusion and, u l t ima te ly , time and money

30

economical ana, more important, i n su re gooa r e s u l t s .

MACHINE PLANTING

With the passage of recent s tr ip-mining laws i n Maryland, t he requirements f o r back- f i l l i n g were strengthened. Areas l e s s than 12O a r e back f i l l ed t o t he o r i g i n a l contour c r ea t ing , i n many cases , r e l a t i v e l y f l a t a r ea s f o r p lant ing . Also, t he contour method of b a c k f i l l i n g i s c r ea t ing b e t t e r p l an t ing a r eas . With these b e t t e r a r ea s , a t r e e p l an t ing machine can be used. The p l an t ing machine has very d e f i n i t e advantages, which include:

1. Fewer men a r e needed (however i t is imperat ive t h a t t h e p l an t ing machine i s fo l - lowed f o r co r r ec t ive p l an t ing where needed).

2. More t r e e s can be p lanted i n a given time.

A quick review of t h e most important po in t s t o succes s fu l t r e e p lant ing:

1. Plant ing s tock must be proper ly cared f o r from time of l i f t i n g u n t i l p lant ing . Do not recommend long s to rage per iods .

2. Proper supervis ion of t r e e ca re and p l an t ing techniques a t a l l l e v e l s .

3. P l an t a s e a r l y a s poss ib l e i n t he spr ing . Recommend no more than a fou r week p l an t ing season. Do not extend p l an t ing season.

4. Scalping approximately 12-18 diameter a r ea , where herbaceous ma te r i a l is planted.

I f any of t he above s t e p s a r e shortchanged, p l an t ing r e s u l t s w i l l s u f f e r .

3. Survival is b e t t e r .

4. P lant ing is cheaper. MARYLAND'S SEEDING MIXTURES

Disadvantages include: PART I11

1. Steepness of s lope .

2. Stoniness.

3. Breakdowns.

I. Seeding Mixtures (per ac re bas i s ) f o r Hay- land and Cropland.

1. 50# Kentucky 31 t a l l fescue 10# Birdsfoot T r e f o i l o r lo// Crown Vetch

Breakdowns could be somewhat el iminated 2. Other mixtures may be submitted and i f a t r e e p l an t ing machine e spec i a l l y designed evaluated a t t he time of t he tri-agency f o r s tr ip-mines would be purchased. review.

Steeper a r eas must s t i l l be p lanted by hand, and the Step Method is e s s e n t i a l l y the bes t p l an t ing method t o use.

PLAP.JTING CREW

Harmony of t h e p l an t ing crew and lead man importance have both been discussed. Our records of twelve years show t h a t t he average r a t e pe r man pe r e i g h t hour day is 625 t r e e s . Of course, indiv idual p l a n t e r r a t e s may vary from 400-1500 t r e e s pe r man Fer day.

CONCLUSION

Strip-mine t r e e p l an t ing seems t o be a simple process. However, i f t he opera t ion is ca re fu l ly analyzed, t he l i t t l e opera t ions with- i n t h e t o t a l opera t ion can be very important. Many people th ink t h a t digging a hole and put- t i n g the t r e e i n is a l l t h a t is needed. With

11. Mixture f o r Fores t ry where t r e e seedl ings w i l l be p lanted .

1. 25# Kentucky 31 t a l l fescue 10# Orchard Grass o r 10# Perennia l Rye

Grass . 5// Red Clover 5# Birdsfoot T r e f o i l

111. Mixtures f o r Fores t ry where t r e e seed w i l l be d i r e c t seeded wi th legume t r e e spec ies .

1. 25?/ Kentucky 31 t a l l fescue 10# Orchard Grass o r 10# Pe r r enn ia l

Rye Grass o r 10# Red Fescue o r 10# Red Top

58 Red Clover o r 5# Alsike + 1i/ Ladino Clover

2-3i/ Black Locust o r Black Alder seed o r Bicolor Lespedeza

I V . Mixtures f o r Fores t ry where t r e e seed w i l l be d i r e c t seeded f o r non-legume t r e e spec ies .

1. 25il Kentucky 31 t a l l fescue 10# Perennia l Rye Grass o r 10# Red

Fescue o r 10# Red Top 5# Birdsf oo t T r e f o i l 3# Red Clover

Non -legume t r e e spec ies t h a t w i l l grow i n Western Maryland:

Austr ian Pine White Pine Red Pine Scotch Pine White Spruce Norway Spruce P i t c h Pine Red Oak White Oak Sugar Maple Red Maple

Black Cherry Sumac Sycamore Cottonwood Tulip Poplar Japanese Larch Sweet Gum Yellow Birch White Ash Sawtooth Oak

V. Mixture f o r w i l d l i f e p l an t ing .

1. 15# Kentucky 31 t a l l fescue. 15# Orchard Grass 10il Perennia l Rye Grass

5# Birdsf oot T r e f o i l 5# Red Clover

With shrub p l an t ings . (Recommended p l an t - i ng i n blocks, rows, o r clumps not a s a s o l i d ' p l an t ing . Spacing w i l l be determined a t t h e time of p lant ing . )

1. Autumn Olive 2. Sawtooth Oak 3 . Rush Honeysuckle 4 . Hawthornes 5. Hybrid Poplar 6. Black and Speckled Alder 7. Crabapple 8. Silky Dogwood 9. Red Osier

10. Conifers i n 1 a c r e blocks o r s t r i p s 30 f e e t wide a t var ious lengths .

PART I V

MARYLAND'S PLANTING TIME AND SPECIES TABLE

L i s t e d below a r e s p e c i e s which have been used and good r e s u l t s have been ob ta ined . This l i s t w i l l be expanded when r e s u l t s a r e v e r i f i e d and does n o t mean o t h e r s p e c i e s a r e n o t accep- t a b l e .

SPRING (mid-March t o June) SUMMER (June t o Aug.) FALL (Aug. t o mid-Sept.)

Kentucky 31 Fescue (P) Kentucky 31 Fescue (P) Kentucky 31 Fescue (P)

Orchard Grass (P) Orchard Grass (P) Orchard Grass (P)

Red Fescue (P) Red Fescue (P) Red Fescue (P)

Timothy (P)

Red Top (P)

A l s i k e T-2 (L)

B i r d s f o o t T r e f o i l (P, L)

Crown Vetch (P, L)

I Hairy Vetch (T, L) I

A l f a l f a (P, L) (good s i t e s only)

Red Clover (T, L)

Sweet Clover (T, L)

F l a t Pea (L)

Ladino Clover (T, L)

Oats Japanese M i l l e t Balboa Rye

P e r e n n i a l Rye Grass Weeping Lovegrass Annual Rye Grass 1 I

Winter Wheat

Winter Oats

S. Lespedeza (L) (South s l o p e s on ly - Low e l e v a t i o n s below 2000 f e e t )

The t i m e of p l a n t i n g is t h e b e s t time and does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y mean t h a t o t h e r t imes f o r p l a n t i n g a p a r t i c u l a r s p e c i e s w i l l n o t produce good r e s u l t s .

P = Permanent T = Temporary L = Legume (meaning having t h e a b i l i t y t o f i x o r produce n i t r o g e n , t h u s reduc ing f e r t i l i z i n g

requirements and t o p d r e s s i n g ) .

REFORESTATION SPECIES STUDY ON A RECLAIMED SURFACE MINE I N WESTERN MARYLAND

Paper presented a t t he "Trees f o r Reclamation i n t he Eastern U. S." symposium on October 27-29, 1980 a t Lexington, Kentucky

Jay A. Engl e, Research Forester , Westvaco Research Center Box 608, Rupert, WV 25984

Abstract.--Westvaco Fores t Research es tab l ished a species comparison . t es t i n c l u d i n g e ighteen species o f t r ees i n t h e sp r i ng o f 1978 on a r e c e n t l y rec la imed sur face mine i n G a r r e t t County, Maryland. A f t e r two growing seasons he igh t growth o f a l l species has n o t been impressive. Seven species have b e t t e r than 75 percent su rv i va l w i t h p i t c h p ine be ing best. Seven o the r species have su rv i va l r a t e s between 50 and 75 percent. T a l l herbaceous vegetat ion, 1 i k e crown vetch, can be a major de te r ren t t o e s t a b l i s h i n g t r ees on re - c la imed surface mine s i tes .

INTRODUCTION

Westvaco Corporat ion i s a pu lp and paper company w i t h f o u r major m i l 1 s 1 ocated eas t o f t h e M i s s i s s i p p i River. One m i l l i s l oca ted i n Luke, Maryland and produces f i n e papers. The 1 and surrounding t h i s m i l 1 sup- p l i e s bo th wood f i b e r and coal f o r t he produc t ion process. Westvaco Resources Incor - porated, a subs id ia ry company, mines coal on company 1 and t o p rov ide t he ma i n energy source f o r t h e m i l 1. Obviously, Westvaco i s i n t e r e s t e d i n us ing t r ees f o r rec lamat ion on both company and o the r l a n d i n o rder t o prevent o r minimize reduc t ions i n l o c a l wood f i b e r supply t o t he m i l 1 .

Reforestat ion i n t h e Luke area i s n o t a new t o p i c t o Westvaco. V i r g i n i a p ine p lan ta- t i o n establ ishment on company l a n d has. been and i s a major p ro jec t . Many o f t he same p r i n c i p l e s and p rac t i ces used i n t h i s program a re a1 so appl i cab l e t o recla imed mine s i t es . We know t h a t we need good q u a l i t y seed1 ings t h a t have been c o r r e c t l y l i f t e d f rom the nursery and p rope r l y s to red and planted. We a1 so know t h a t we should match t he species p lan ted t o t he s i t e . However, rec la imed s i t e s a r e n o t r ep resen ta t i ve o f "normal" f o r e s t s i t e s s ince they have been d r a s t i c a l l y d is turbed. So the quest ion o f which species i s bes t s u i t e d t o t h e s i t e i s n o t always e a s i l y answered.

1 ished on a r e c e n t l y rec la imed surface mine s i t e l oca ted on Backbone Mountain i n G a r r e t t County, Maryland. P r i o r t o study es tab l i shment, a 1 i t e r a t u r e search was conducted t o determine which species have been p lan ted success fu l l y on mine s i t e s i n t he northeast. A 1 i s t f rom t h i s search and personal observa t i ons o f species growing we l l on mined s i t e s was prepared. Seed1 i n g sources f o r as many o f these species as poss ib le were 1 ocated. However, some species 1 i k e b ig too th and quaking aspens, and black, yel low, and gray b i r c h a r e n o t be ing grown commercial ly and cou ld n o t be inc luded i n t he study.

A t o t a l o f 18 species, 11 hardwood and seven con i f e r , were used i n t h e study and a r e shown on the f o l l o w i n g 1 i s t :

Hardwoods

1. Hybr id pop lar 2. Hybr id poplar* 3. Hybr id aspen 4. Paper b i r c h 5. European wh i t e b i r c h 6. Red oak 7. Red oak* 8, Black l o c u s t 9. Red map1 e

10. American chestnut 11. White ash 12. Chestnut oak 13. American sycamore

PROCEDURE Con i f e rs

1. Red p ine I n o rder t o ob ta in more in fo rmat ion 2. Red pine*

w i t h a v a r i e t y o f species a study was estab- 3. White p ine

Prodedure (cont inued) Resul t s (cont inued)

Con i fe rs (cont inued) Height growth has n o t been impressive. g4. White pine* European b lack a lder , which i s n o t l i s t e d on

5. V i r g i n i a p ine t h e t a b l e because i t was p lan ted on l y as a

6. Container ized V i r g i n i a p ine n i t r ogen f i x i n g nurse t ree, had the bes t

7. P i t c h p ine he igh t growth. A1 der was n o t p lan ted as a

8. Scotch p ine c rop t r e e because our pas t experience has

9. Japanese l a r c h shown t h a t a f t e r f a s t i n i t i a l growth t o a

10. Aus t r i an p ine s i z e o f 15 t o 20 f e e t i t d iscont inues growth and funnel s a1 1 i t s energy i n t o seed produc-

* I n t e r p l anted w i t h European b l ack a1 der t i on . Black l o c u s t i s t he t a l l e s t t e s t spe- c i e s averaging 2.3 fee t ,

Three r e p l i c a t i o n s o f these species- t reatments were planted. Hybr id pop1 ar , r e d Surv iva l r e s u l t s a t t h i s stage might be

oak, r e d p ine and wh i t e p ine were dup l i ca ted more important than he igh t r esu l t s . Seven

w i t h i n each r e p l i ca t ion : i n t e r p l a n t i n g one species have su rv i va l t h a t cou ld be r a t e d as

p l o t w i t h European b lack a lder . The purpose good (>75%) w i t h p i t c h p ine be ing best.

of t h e i n t e r p l a n t i n g t reatment i s t o deter- Seven o the r species have f a i r su rv i va l (50-

mine if the a l d e r can f i x enough n i t r ogen t o 75%), and n ine species would have t o be

be bene f i c i a l t o t he o ther species. V i r g i n i a c l a s s i f i e d as having poor ( ~ 5 0 % ) su rv i va l .

p i ne was a1 so dupl i ca ted by i nc lud ing seed- l i n g s grown i n conta iners t o see i f conta in - Some o f t he poor su rv i va l can be r e l a t e d

e r i z e d stock might have b e t t e r su rv i va l and t o poor seed1 i n g stock qual i t y . We d i d have

growth. t o go t o d i f f e r e n t nu rse r i es t o ob ta in t he v a r i e t y o f species used f o r t h i s study. Var i - a t i o n i n seed1 i n g stock qual i t y i s a l s o the

RESULTS probable cause o f t he l a r g e su rv i va l d i f f e r - ence between the two red p ine treatments.

He igh t and su rv i va l r e s u l t s a f t e r t he Most o f t he su rv i va l and he igh t growth prob-

second growing season s ince p l a n t i n g a r e lens, however, can be a t t r i b u t e d t o t he harsh

shown i n t he f o l l o w i n g tab le : s i t e and compet i t ion f rom herbaceous vegeta- t i on . Grass compet i t ion has c e r t a i n l y he1 d

Species- % Rank by back seed1 i n g growth, b u t i n p l o t s where

Treatment He igh t Surv iva l Surv iva l crown veteh i s present t he seedl ings have been complete ly smothered. Vetch i s a1 so

P i t c h p ine 1.1 94 1 spreading and we a n t i c i p a t e t he l o s s o f o the r Chestnut oak 1.2 88 2 seedl ings be fore they grow above t h i s compe- American t i t i o n . I f we a re t o e s t a b l i s h t r ees on our

chestnut 1.6 88 2 recla imed mines we w i l l have t o develop her- Aus t r i an p ine 0.9 85 3 b i c i d e t reatments t o a t l e a s t spot k i l l t he Hybr id pop lar 1.0 8 1 4 ground cover now being es tab l i shed i n t he Hybr id aspen 2.0 77 5 areas. Scotch p ine 0.8 77 5 White ash 0.8 71 6 Red pine* 1.1 6 9 7 CONCLUSION V i r g i n i a p ine 1.2 6 9 7 Hybr id poplar* 1.0 69 7 Our p re l im ina ry r e s u l t s show t h a t he igh t Red map1 e 1.6 6 9 7 growth has been slow f o r a l l species o the r Container ized than European b lack a1 der. Several species

V i r g i n i a p ine 0.6 65 8 have good su rv i va l a f t e r two years i n t he European wh i te f i e l d. T a l l herbaceous vegetat ion, 1 i ke

b i r c h 1.1 60 9 crown vetch, can be a major de te r ren t t o Red oak 0.6 46 10 es tab l i s h i n g t r ees on recla imed surface mine Red oak* 0.6 44 11 s i t es , Black l o c u s t 2.3 44 11 Paper b i r c h 1.1 42 12 Japanese l a r c h 0.9 42 12 Red p ine 0.9 2 9 13 White p ine 0.8 2 7 14 White pine* 1 .O 2 7 14 American

sycamore 0.4 6 15

* I n t e r p l anted w i t h European b lack a1 der

3 6

AN EVALUATION OF RECLAMATION TREE PLANTING I N SOUTHWEST VIRGINIA

PRESENTED AT

TREES FOR RECLAMATION I N THE EASTERN UNITED STATES

LEXINGTON, KENTUCKY

OCTOBER 27-29, 1980

DANNY R. BROWN, COMMISSIONER

DONALD L. BRANSON, AREA SUPERVISOR

DEPARTMENT OF CONSERVATION AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

DIVISION OF MINED LAND RECLAMATION

P. 0. DRAWER U

BIG STONE GAP, VIRGINIA 24219

S u r f a c e mining began i n Southwest V i r - g i n i a i n t h e mid-194OQs, however, few o r no r e c o r d s were k e p t b e f o r e 1950 and i t was n o t u n t i l 1966 t h a t t h e f i r s t V i r g i n i a rec lamat ion law was passed. Two y e a r s l a t e r i n 1968, t h e D i v i s i o n of Mined Land Reclamation was c r e a t e d and t r e e p l a n t i n g began on a uniform b a s i s i n V i r g i n i a s u r f a c e mines.

Table 1. --Tree S e e d l i n g In£ ormation Report c a l e n d a r

OpErat ing Perpita A c r e s Acres

B&r

P ~ 1 . h e d Tree

Year Issued Disturbed S e t d l i o ~ .

- 1966 Coal m

1967 Coal m c

1968 C a d m c

1969 C o a l m I c

1970 co.1 m c

1971 C a l l m c

1972 Coal mrc

H i s t o r i c a l l y , however, t r e e p l a n t i n g was one of t h e f i r s t g e n e r a l rec lamat ion techni - ques on c o a l s u r f a c e mined l a n d s and many p l a n t i n g s were done p r i o r t o 1968 by v a r i o u s c o a l o p e r a t o r s , S o i l Conservat ion S e r v i c e personne l , pe rsonne l of t h e V i r g i n i a D i v i s i o n of F o r e s t r y and o t h e r s . The much used prac- t i c e of sowing b l a c k l o c u s t seed on e a r l i e r rec lamat ion a r e a s should a l s o be noted.

1973 Coal m c

From a lowly beginning t h e n i n 1968 of 1,000 t r e e s e e d l i n g s p lan ted , t o a h igh of j u s t over f o u r m i l l i o n s e e d l i n g s p lan ted i n 1975, and 1980's t o t a l through June of 76,000 t r e e s e e d l i n g s p l a n t e d , t h e c o a l s u r f a c e min- i n g o p e r a t o r s of V i r g i n i a have cont inued t o p l a n t s e e d l i n g s . (Table 1 ) . The d e c r e a s e from 1975 t o 1980 c o i n c i d e s w i t h a c o r r e s - ponding d e c r e a s e i n ac reage d i s t u r b e d due t o decreased mining a c t i v i t y because of a depressed c o a l market and /or i n c r e a s e d re- g u l a t ion .

1977 Coal m c OL-IVA

1979 Coal m OL-IVA

Curren t permi t f i g u r e s a l s o r e f l e c t a r e c e n t t r e n d towards a p o s t mine land use of hay and/or p a s t u r e .

As of t he 58 su r f ace mine permits issued thus f a r i n 1980, f i f t e e n have requested a hay and/or pas tu re type pos t mine land use. This compares wi th twelve of 248 per- m i t s i s sued i n a l l of 1979.

During t h e pas t f i v e years , t h e V i rg in i a Divis ion of Mined Land Reclamation has a l s o pa r t i c ipa t ed i n t h e f ede ra l ly funded Aban- doned Land Reclamation Program wi th t h e Ten- nessee Valley Authori ty. This program was designed t o provide f o r i n t ens ive t r e e and shurb p lant ing , seeding and l imi t ed regrading of abandoned mine lands , mined and abandoned before t h e s t a t e s involved passed sur- f ace mining and reclamation laws. This would provide long term s o i l s t a b i l i z a t i o n , blend the "orphan" land with t he surrounding landscape and provide add i t i ona l b e n e f i t s of f o r e s t and w i l d l i f e production.

Thus from i t s i n i t i a t i o n i n 1975 u n t i l i ts termination on August 10, 1980, t h i s program provided f o r t he p l an t ing of approximately 3,650,000 t r e e and shrub seedl ings wi th an approximate pro jec ted 45-50 percent su rv iva l r a t e .

The Division of Mined Land Reclamation is indebted f o r t h e pas t cooperat ion of t h e Virg in ia Division of Fores t ry , t h e S o i l Con- s e rva t ion Service , coa l mine opera tors , t h e U. S. Fores t Service and t h e i r experimental s t a t i o n s , and o thers f o r t h e i r continued cooperat ion i n t h e t r e e p l an t ing program.

It is hoped a s t h i s cooperat ive e f f o r t continues on coa l su r f ace mined land where f o r e s t r y is designated a s t he post mine land use, we w i l l t r u l y be involved i n r e fo re s t a - t i on , not j u s t t r e e p l an t ing f o r reclamation on Vi rg in i a su r f ace mined lands.

REFORESTATION PROGRAM IN SOUTHWEST VIRGINIA'

Wallace F. Custard 2

The S t a t e Division of Fores t ry has been a c t i v e l y concerned wi th mined land reclamation f o r 25 years. The re- s u l t s show t h a t succes s fu l i n t roduc t ion of f o r e s t t r e e seedl- i ngs can be ca r r i ed out on those a r eas t h a t r equ i r e revegeta- t i o n . Early experimental work has a s s i s t e d i n developing s tandards and procedures f o r r e f o r e s t a t i o n work on these lands. Cooperative e f f o r t s between t h e Division of Fores t ry and the Division of Mined Land Reclamation and o the r S t a t e resource agencies has r e su l t ed i n exce l l en t f i e l d cooperat ion and applied techniques.

The Virg in ia Division of Fores t ry has been i n t e r e s t e d i n t he r e f o r e s t a t i o n of s t r i p mined a reas i n Southwestern Virg in ia s ince 1955. T r i a l p l an t ings , d i r e c t seeding and n a t u r a l seeding occurrences have been e s t ab l i shed and/or monitored. Grasses and shrubs a s w e l l a s t r e e spec i e s were evaluated i n cooperat ion with t he S o i l Con- s e rva t ion Service and the Division of Mined Land Reclamation.

Our current r o l e is t o provide a s s i s - tance t o t he Division of Mined Land Reclama- t i o n i n spec ies s e l e c t i o n , p l an t ing proced- u r e s and nursery production. Division nur- s e r i e s cont rac t t he production of f o r e s t t r e e seedl ings t o meet annual p lant ing requirements est imated by Division of Mined Land Reclamation. Grading, packing, s torage and de l ive ry of requested spec ies assures a supply of seedl ing s tock t o meet i nd iv idua l orders. Both Virg in ia Division of Fores t ry nu r se r i e s and the Abingdon D i s t r i c t Office coordinate f i e l d program needs.

The D i s t r i c t Office has a s s i s t e d Mined Land Reclamation i n developing p l an t ing guide l ines f o r s p e c i f i c spec ies . Recognition is a l s o given t o necessary eros ion con t ro l and s o i l s t a b i l i z a t i o n . Evaluation of t he e a r l y p l an t ings has provided exce l l en t guide l ines f o r successfu l p lant ing p ro j ec t s today. A knowledge of

'TREES FOR RECLAMATION IN THE EASTERN u . s . Lexington, Kentucky October 27-29, 1980

'State Fores ter Virg in ia Division of Fores t ry P. 0 . Box 3758 Cha r lo t t e sv i l l e , Virg in ia 22903

s o i l and site c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s has a l s o been use fu l i n determing proper spec i e s s e l e c t i o n . Demonstration and t r a i n i n g se s s ions have been ca r r i ed out f o r new plant ing crews and Mined Land Reclamation f i e l d supervisors . Well planted t r e e seedl ings a r e t he key t o good su rv iva l and hea l thy s tands .

The Divis ion ' s r o l e has been one of a consul tan t t o Mined Land Reclamation. It has been a very b e n e f i c i a l exposure f o r both agencies. We have learned something use fu l from our j o i n t d iscuss ions , f i e l d programs, and follow-up evalua t ions .

I have every reason t o be l i eve t h a t a sound r e f o r e s t a t i o n program can be ca r r i ed out on Vi rg in i a ' s mined land a reas .

REFORESTATION OF SURFACE MINES ON LANDS OF

V I C C LAND COMPANY

Paper Presented a t t h e "Trees For Reclamation i n t he Eas tern U. S." Symposium

Lexington, Kentucky, October 27, 1980

Thomas F. Evans, Fores ter , V I C C Land Company, P. 0. Drawer C , Coeburn, Va. 24230

. Abstract.--This Virg in ia coa l company's su r f ace mined lands show an adequate stocking of t r e e seedl ings i n terms of number per acre , but t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of seedl ings has been a f f ec t ed by p a s t reclamation p rac t i ce s . Natural re- seeding has been an important con t r ibu to r t o t he present seedl ing stock.

INTRODUCTION t h e outslopes. Bas ica l ly , t he se requirements ex i s t ed i n Virg in ia u n t i l t h e advent of t he

V I C C Land Company, o r V I C C a s r e f e r r ed t o f e d e r a l law. here in , is one of t h e l a r g e s t landowning com- I n t he pas t , VICC timber resources panies i n southwest Virg in ia , owning more than suf fered due t o t h e su r f ace mining a c t i v i t i e s 24,000 ac re s i n f ee , and coa l and o the r mineral and the l ack of a company timber management r i g h t s on an a d d i t i o n a l 50,000 o r more acres . pol icy . The company r e l i e d on l o c a l timber Approximately 8,000 a c r e s of f e e property and c u t t e r s t o salvage a s much timber ahead of 75,000 ac re s of mineral lands a r e a l s o owned mining a s poss ib l e , but t h e r e was l i t t l e i n southeas t Kentucky. The company has mined a t t e n t i o n pa id t o gostmining uses of t he i t s coa l reserves f o r nea r ly a century, p r i - land except t o meet t he requirements of t he mari ly by deep mining u n t i l r e l a t i v e l y recent ly . reclamation laws. Only i n 1977 d id t he com- Surface mining was i n i t i a t e d on V I C C property pany employ i t s f i r s t f o r e s t e r t o i n i t i a t e a i n t h e 1940's and during the 1970's was t he timber management plan. primary means of mining. The peak of su r f ace An e s s e n t i a l element of t he V I C C timber mining a c t i v i t y on V I C C lands was reached management p lan i s a permanent p l o t inventory during t h e coa l boom of 1974-75. of t he timber resources , which i s s t i l l i n

Un t i l t he passage of t he Federal Surface progress. This inventory w i l l s e t t h e l i m i t s Mining Act of 1977, coa l was su r f ace mined on on yea r ly timber ha rves t s and w i l l d e f ine t he VICC lands by removing the overburden from t h e a r eas on which timber management a c t i v i t i e s coa l and p lac ing i t over t h e h i l l , c r ea t ing a should take place. Through pe r iod ic remea- r e l a t i v e l y f l a t bench on the h i l l s i d e s , and surements, t he permanent p l o t s w i l l y i e l d outs lopes ranging i n l eng th from a few f e e t t o va luable information on timber growth and seve ra l hundred f e e t , depending on t h e degree f o r e s t s tand changes. of s lope. Since the t r e e s on su r f ace mined lands

P r i o r t o 1966, l i t t l e reclamation was done a r e expected t o add s u b s t a n t i a l l y t o f u t u r e t o t h e su r f ace mines except t h a t a few hundred al lowable timber ha rves t s , a random sample ac re s were p lanted wi th p ine seedlings. While inventory of t h e t r e e seedl ings present on these p ines d id a l o t of good on t h e a r eas t hese mined lands has been made a p a r t of t he where p lanted , most of t h e mined lands were timber inventory. l e f t t o become vegeta ted by n a t i v e grasses , shrubs and t r e e s . The Seedling Inventory

The S t a t e of Virg in ia passed i t s f i r s t su r f ace mining reclamation law i n 1966, The t r e e seedl ing inventory was.begun requi r ing t h e opera tors t o l e v e l t h e bench by de l inea t ing a l l su r f ace mined lands on a r eas , sow perennia l g r a s s mixtures, p l a n t V I C C t s Vi rg in ia proper ty on U.S.G.S. 1"=2000t t h r ee rows of white p ines on the ou te r edge . s c a l e topographic maps. The acreage i n a l l of t h e bench, and p l a n t black l o c u s t s on a l l t he se su r f ace mined a reas was est imated by

41

L

dot g r i d t a l l y . P l o t l oca t ions were chosen by Table 2.--VICC Surface Mine Tree Seedling Inventory Species Dis t r ibu t ion

randomly s e l e c t i n g a s t a r t i n g poin t on a mine, then tak ing a one-five-hundredth a c r e c i r c u l a r p l o t every one-tenth mile along the mine. Tota l Number Percent of Average.Number

Species T a l l i e d Tota l Ta l ly Trees Per Acre Because of t h e v a r i a b i l i t y i n condi t ions along these mines, p l o t s i t e s were divided i n t o t h e ca t ego r i e s of inner bench, middle bench, ou t e r :yc;rst 176 23.4 410 166 22.1 387 bench, upper outs lope , middle out s lope and lower Black Birch 157 20.9 366

Y e l l w Poplar 72 9.6 167 outslope. The placement of t he p l o t cen t e r was sourvooa 38 5.1 88

31 4.1 72 determined by randomly drawing a card spec i fy ing g:,, pine 20 2.7 46 Sassaf ras one of t h e s i x l oca t ions , then pacing t o t he Pine 1 9 2.5 44

1 8 2.4 42 proper spot . (Sbortleaf. ~ o b l o l l y )

P i t c h A t o t a l of 752 t r e e s and t r e e seedl ings Syeenore 1 7 2.3 40 was t a l l i e d on 215 sample p l o t s , f o r an average elow 9 1.2 21

7 0.9 16 of 3.5 t r e e s per p l o t o r 1,750 t r e e s per acre. sugarmaple 5 0.7 12

4 0. s An est imated 5,400 ac re s have been a f f ec t ed by :::$cebe,, 4 0.5 9 9

s u r f ace mining a c t i v i t i e s on V I C C proper ty i n E't;ay 3 0.4 7 2 0.3 5

Vi rg in ia . Xlack Cherry 2 0.3 s 1 0.1 Table 1 gives t h e number of seedl ings in- ~ ~ k ~ ~ ~ a r I 0.1 2 2

ventor ied on VICC su r f ace mines by pos i t i on on the mine (see Table 1 below). This t a b l e shows TOTALS 752 1.750

t he d i f f e r ence i n number of seedl ings present on t h e a r eas which have been p lanted compared t o t he i nne r and middle bench a r e a s which were Table 3, showing t h e diameter d i s t r i b u - not . However, few a reas were found on any p a r t t i o n of t he t a l l i e d t r e e s , and Table 4, of t he su r f ace mines which d id no t have an ade- showing t h e he ight d i s t r i b u t i o n , i n d i c a t e quate s tocking of t r e e seedl ings unless t h e r e t h a t t he average s i z e of t he t r e e seedl ings was a heavy s tand of s e r i c e a lespedeza, common on V I C C su r f ace mines is q u i t e small , w i th on many inne r and middle bench areas . about 60 percent of t he t r e e s being l e s s than

one inch i n diameter and about 80 percent ~dl t 1.--VICC Surface nine Tree Seedling Inventory being 10 f e e t o r l e s s i n height . Of course,

lumber of Trees By Position On Nine t h i s is t o be expected s ince most of t h e lands have been mined o r remined during the

Position on Surface Mine

Inner Hiddle Outer Upper Middle Lwer p a s t e i g h t years.

Bench Bench Bench Outslope Outslope Outslope Table 3.-VICC Surface Mine Tree Seedling Inventory

I d e r of Diameter Dis t r ibu t ion Plot. 29 38 38 36 '41 33

h a b e r of Trees Tallied 60 83 160 144 154 Diameter Class Number of Average Number

(Inches) Trees Ta l l ied Per Acre

Trees Per Plot 2.07 2.18 4.21 4.00 3.76 4.58

TreeaPerAere 1.035 1.090 2,105 2,000 1.880 2.290 Less than 1 455 1.058 1 95 223 2 88 205 3 50 116 4 20 46 5 7 16 6 8 19

The d i s t r i b u t i o n of t r e e spec i e s on V I C C ' s 7 6 14 8 7 16

s u r f ace mined lands is shown i n Table 2 ( s ee 9 4 9 1 0 6 14 Table 2 below). V i r t u a l l y a l l of t he p ine and 11+ 6 14

most of t h e b lack locus t seedl ings t a l l i e d were e s t ab l i shed by p lant ing , although some black TOTAL 752 1.750

l ocus t o r ig ina t ed from seed f requent ly included i n t h e g ra s s seed mixture. No known p l an t ing of hardwood seedl ings o t h e r than b lack locus t has taken p lace on VICC property. Only an est imated twenty-nine percent of t he t o t a l number of seedl ings t a l l i e d were t h e r e s u l t of p l an t ing o r d i r e c t seeding. However, on t h e avemge, t h e p lanted t r e e s have achieved a much l a r g e r s i z e over t h e period s ince mining, s ince more time is requi red f o r n a t u r a l seeding t o t ake place.

4 2

Table 4.-VICC Surface Mine Seedling Inventory Height Distribution

Height Class Number of Average Number (Feet) Trees Tallied Per Acre

less than 1 1 - 5 6 - 10 11 - 20 21 - 30 31 - 40 4 1 +

- TOTAL 752 1.750

Conclusions

VICC s u r f a c e mines have a n adequa te number of t r e e s e e d l i n g s p e r a c r e , a l though t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of s e e d l i n g s i s n o t uniform due t o p a s t rec lamat ion p r a c t i c e s . Provided t h a t s u i t a b l e c o n d i t i o n s e x i s t f o r s e e d l i n g es tab l i shment , n a t u r a l reseed ing of t r e e s can be expected t o r e f o r e s t most of t h e s e s u r f a c e mines where t r e e s a r e n o t p r e s e n t l y found.

P ioneer t r e e s p e c i e s comprise most of t h e t r e e s inc luded i n t h e s e e d l i n g inventory . Fu ture t r e e p l a n t i n g on s u r f a c e mined a r e a s should be aime.d a t i n c r e a s i n g t h e growing s t o c k of t h e more v a l u a b l e hardwood s p e c i e s , such a s t h e oaks, o r of p u r e s t a n d s of t h e more e a s i l y managed p ines .

LAND RECLAMATION WITH TREES IN IOWA^

Richard B. ~ a 1 1 ~

Abstract.--The most important cons idera t ions i n revegeta- t i n g reclaimed lands a r e s o i l pH, moisture a v a i l a b i l i t y , and the r e s t o r a t i o n of f e r t i l i t y and good n u t r i e n t cyc l ing . Green ash , cottonwood, a l d e r , Arnot b r i s t l y l ocus t , and seve ra l con- i f e r s a r e used most i n p l an t ings . Emphasis is placed on the use of symbiotic n i t rogen f i x a t i o n and mycorrhizae t o improve establishment and growth of t r e e s .

INTRODUCTION

A s an a i d t o reclamation e f f o r t s i n Iowa and surrounding a reas , t h i s paper reviews the f i nd ings of revegeta t ion s t u d i e s done on o l d s p o i l a r ea s , d iscusses cu r r en t work being conducted on t h e Iowa S t a t e Universi ty demon- s t r a t i o n mine s i t e , and p ro j ec t s some of t h e techniques l i k e l y t o be u se fu l once the necessary developmental research is completed. Most of t he r e s u l t s discussed a r e based on coa l mine reclamation work, b u t they a l s o should have genera l a p p l i c a b i l i t y t o o the r reclamation e f f o r t s .

A t o t a l of about 12,000 a c r e s of mined lands a r e i n need of reclamation i n Iowa. New mining a c t i v i t y has produced an average of only 400 add i t i ona l ac re s t o revegeta te each year , bu t t h i s f i g u r e could inc rease wi th changes t h a t may occur i n t he Iowa coa l indus t ry . A t p resent , only a small percentage of t he land reclamation e f f o r t s i n Iowa involves t h e p l an t ing of t r e e s ; most of t h e landowners have p re fe r r ed t o r e t u r n the land t o row crops o r pas ture . Recreation, a e s t h e t i c s , and w i l d l i f e h a b i t a t improvement have been the major reasons f o r t he t r e e p lant ing t h a t has been done. Future i n t e r e s t i n fuelwood p l an t a t i ons might i nc rease t he percentage of reclaimed land t o be r e fo re s t ed .

l ~ o u r n a l paper no. 5-9987 of t he Iowa Agr icul ture and Home Economics Experiment S t a t i on , Ames, Iowa. P r o j e c t s No. 2294 and 2210. Presented a t t h e Symposium on Trees f o r Reclamation i n t he Eas tern U.S., Lexing- ton, Kentucky, Oct. 27-29, 1980.

2 ~ s s o c i a t e Professor of Fores t ry , Iowa S t a t e Universi ty, Ames, Iowa 50011.

Although t h e su r f ace mining of sand, gravel , l imestone, gypsum, c l ay , and coa l a l l con t r ibu t e s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o land reclamation needs i n Iowa, coa l mining has drawn the most a t t e n t i o n . Iowa's coa l depos i t s a r e confined t o t he south-central and southeas tern po r t i ons of t he s t a t e , a r ea s charac ter ized by a r o l l i n g topography and s o i l s high i n c l a y content .

The coa l depos i t s a r e r e l a t i v e l y h igh i n s u l f u r content , a f a c t o r de laying cu r r en t use of t he resource. A s t he technology of s u l f u r removal improves and the p r i c e of coa l import- ed t o t h e s t a t e e sca l a t e s , s t r i p mining f o r Iowa coa l could r e t u r n t o i ts former l e v e l of 400-500 ac re s per year (80-100 ac re s per year cu r r en t ly ) .

The high s u l f u r content i n Iowa coa l depos i t s has c rea ted o the r problems. It has been est imated t h a t 38%, the h ighes t percentage i n t he c e n t r a l s t a t e s , of t he o l d mine s i t e s had tox i c s p o i l s with a pH of l e s s than 4.0 (Lorio e t a l . 1964). New mining p r a c t i c e s have el iminated most of t h a t problem, but t he " t ight" na tu re of t he s o i l s i n t he a r e a s t i l l makes t r e e establishment d i f f i c u l t . I n addi- t i on , t he more mechanical reclamation a s i t e has received, t he g r e a t e r is the s o i l compac- t i o n and the g r e a t e r t h e d i f f i c u l t y i n revegeta t ing wi th t r e e s . A second p o t e n t i a l problem on even t h e s i t e s reclaimed by new mining technology is the reestablishment of good nut r ien t -cycl ing r e l a t i onsh ips . Newly reclaimed s i t e s a r e l i k e l y t o have poor i n t e r - n a l drainage, low surface-soi l organic-matter content , and reduced microbial a c t i v i t y t o a i d i n t he breakdown and a v a i l a b i l i t y of s o i l nut- r i e n t s . There is l i k e l y t o be some d i f f i c u l t y i n g e t t i n g good mycorrhizae e s t ab l i shed on t r e e roo t s , and those t r e e spec ies capable of symbiotic n i t rogen f i x a t i o n may not encounter t he necessary microbial symbionts i n these

r econs t i t u t ed s o i l s . a s a n i t rogen-f ix ing shrub l aye r i n t r e e p l an t a t i ons .

OLD MINE SITES

Spoi l cha rac t e r i za t ion and revegeta t ion t r i a l s were s t a r t e d i n 1952, and seve ra l gen- e r a l summaries of t h a t work have appeared previously (Hansen e t a l . 1962; Lorio e t a l . 1964; Lorio and Gatherum 1965). On a few s i t e s , t he re has been a n a t u r a l re invas ion of cottonwood, boxelder, and American elm. However, on many s i t e s n a t u r a l revegeta t ion is extremely slow because of a combination of low pH, s t eep topography, i n f e r t i l i t y , and i n s u f f i c i e n t seed source o r germinaton condi- t i ons . A t o t a l of 1 5 t r e e spec ies was t e s t e d i n p l an t a t i ons on these s p o i l s and the following conclusions were drawn (Lorio e t a l . 1964) :

1. Green ash had the b e s t su rv iva l across a l l condi t ions , bu t is b e s t adapted t o more moist s i t e s wi th a pH near 7.

2. Cottonwood had good su rv iva l and the b e s t growth r a t e on a v a r i e t y of s i t e s . It had double t he he ight growth of green ash.

3. I f evergreens a r e des i red , only ea s t e rn redcedar should be used on ca lcar - eous s i t e s . On dry, low-pH s i t e s , jack and Virg in ia pine can be used. Red and eas t e rn white pine should be used only on moist , well-drained s i t e s wi th good f e r t i l i t y and s l i g h t l y ac id pH's.

One woody shrub spec i e s a l s o has shown considerable p o t e n t i a l f o r use. Arnot b r i s t l y l o c u s t , a c u l t i v a r of Rabirzia d ~ i X % h , can be e s t ab l i shed on low pH s p o i l s ( su rv iva l r a t e drops s i g n i f i c a n t l y only below a pH of 3.5), and i t w i l l subsequently spread a s a ground cover by means of roo t sprouting (Helgerson and Gordon 1978).

S o i l moisture and pH c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e the primary determinants of what t r e e spec ies can be e s t ab l i shed on a s i t e (Lorio and Gatherum 1965). Where t hese two cha rac t e r i s - t i c s a r e not extreme, t he next most important l i m i t a t i o n s a r e n i t rogen and phosphorus a v a i l a b i l i t y (Lorio and Gatherum 1966). Therefore, p l an t ing n i t rogen-f ix ing t r e e spec ies a lone o r i n combination with o the r spec ies is l i k e l y t o i nc rease growth r a t e s . European a lde r (Alnua g&.tinona) is a leading candidate f o r u se a s t he n i t rogen-f ix ing component of t r e e p l an t a t i ons (Dale 1963; P l a s s 1977), and a major research p ro j ec t on t h i s spec i e s is i n progress a t Iowa S t a t e Universi ty (Hall e t a l . 1979; Maynard and Hal l 1980). Black l o c u s t ( R a b i k phaufo- acacia) is another ni trogen-fixing t r e e spec ies t h a t might be used. The Arnot b r i s t - l y l o c u s t previously discussed could be used

The phosphorus-deficiency problem should be reduced i f t r e e s can be p lanted wi th appro- p r i a t e mycorrhizal fungi a l ready e s t ab l i shed on t h e i r roo t systems (see a r t i c l e by Marx elsewhere i n t h i s proceedings). We a l s o have evidence t h a t a t l e a s t one mycorrhizal fungus (Pi~5oRi/ thud ZincAaniun) o f f e r s a d i r e c t pro- t e c t i v e e f f e c t f o r roo t systems exposed t o low pH s o i l s where t ox i c l e v e l s of aluminum a r e i n so lu t ion (Cochrane and McNabb 1979).

NEW MINE SITES

Less experience is a v a i l a b l e on estab- l i s h i n g t r e e p l an t a t i ons on s i t e s mined with t he new technology. A few landowners have successfu l ly p lanted walnut and white pine. The author has e s t ab l i shed a research p l an t ing of European a l d e r and hybrid poplar (Pop(.&uA d b a X P. gaandideuctatcr) on a t e r r a c e a t t he Iowa S t a t e Universi ty Demonstration Coal Mine near Oskaloosa, Iowa. Af ter t h r ee growing seasons, t he su rv iva l is 37% f o r t h e a l d e r and 87% f o r t he hybrid poplar . I n i t i a l growth r a t e was b e s t f o r t he hybrid poplar , up t o 3.6 f t . i n t he f i r s t year. Once the a l d e r became es tabl i shed , rap id growth s t a r t e d , adding a t l e a s t 3 f t . of growth during the t h i r d growing season. Root excavations have shown t h a t t he a l d e r is capable of sending a "sinker-root" system down through the compacted, high-clay- content s o i l t o a depth of approximately 3 f t . , while t he r o o t s of t he hybrid poplar a r e con- f i ned t o a wide ho r i zon ta l spread i n t he upper 6 i n . of s o i l . Future evalua t ions of t h i s s tudy should provide i n s i g h t s on the a b i l i t y of a l d e r t o improve a reclaimed s i t e by breaking up compacted zones i n t he s o i l and supplying n i t rogen through l e a f f a l l and r o o t decomposition.

Other s t u d i e s a r e needed t o gauge the s u i t a b i l i t y of a range of o t h e r t r e e spec ies f o r use on reclaimed s i t e s and t o determine the b e s t s i t e prepara t ion and p l an t ing techniques. The establishment of t r e e p l an t a t i ons t h a t he lp t o r e s t o r e a n u t r i e n t balance t o mined s i t e s while providing fuelwood, w i l d l i f e , and r ec rea t iona l b e n e f i t s may then become an a l t e r n a t i v e t o t he more c o s t l y reclamation of s i t e s f o r row-crop production.

LITERATURE CITED

Cochrane, Carol E. , and Harold S. McNabb, Jr. 1979. Aluminum and pH e f f e c t s on growth and mycorrhizal r e l a t i onsh ips i n PdoRi;thuA Zin&oniun. (Abstract) p. 41. I n Proc. Fourth North American Conf. on Mycorrhiza. Colorado S t a t e Universi ty, F t . Col l ins , Colorado.

Dale, Martin E. 1963. Interplant alder to increase growth in strip-mine plantations. USDA For. Serv. Res. Note CS-14. 4 p.

Hall, R. B., H. S. McNabb, Jr., C. A. Maynard, and T. L. Green. 1979. Toward development of optimal A l W gihtinoaa symbioses. Bot. Gaz. 140 (Suppl.):S120-S126.

Hansen, N. J., G. E. Gatherum, P. L. Lorio, Jr., and W. D. Shrader. 1962. Reclaiming coal spoilbanks in southeastern Iowa. Iowa Coop. Ext. Serv. Publ. F-252. 5 p.

Helgerson, Ole T., and John C. Gordon. 1978. Coal-spoil performance of Arnot bristly locust and Crandon hybrid poplar. Iowa State J. Res. 52:299-305.

Lorio, P. L., Jr., G. E. Gatherum, and W. D. Schrader. 1964. Tree survival.and growth on Iowa coal-spoil materials. Iowa Agric. Home Econ. Exp. Stn. Spec. Rep. 39. 12 p.

Lorio, P. L., Jr., and G. E. Gatherum. 1965. Relationship of tree survival and yield to coal-spoil characteristics. Iowa Agric. and Home Econ. Exp. Stn. Res. Bull. 535: 394-403.

Lorio, P. L., Jr., and G. E. Gatherum. 1966. Growth of eastern cottonwood in relation to coal-spoil characteristics. Iowa State J. Sci. 41:41-53.

Maynard, C. A., and R. B. Hall. 1980. Early results of a range-wide provenance trial of keW g ~ n a a a (L.) Gaertn. Proc. 27th Northeastern Tree Improvement Conf. In press.

Plass, William T. 1977. Growth and survival of hardwoods and pine interplanted with European alder. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. NE-376. 10 p.

TREE PLANTING IN RECLAMATION

TREES FOR RECLAMATION LEXINGTON, KENTUCKY

OCTOBER 27 - 29, 1980

GLEN G. KIZER, ASSISTANT CHIEF OHIO DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES

DIVISION OF RECLAMATION BLDG. B-3 FOUNTAIN SQUARE

COLUMBUS, OHIO 43224

While f i f t e e n years ago we depended on t r ees as t he pr imary t o o l o f rec lamat ion, today regu la to rs , based on s o i l l oss s tud ies , hake determined t h a t t r ees are n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o prevent e ros ion by themselves. This i s p a r t i c - u l a r l y t r u e du r i ng the f i r s t 10-15 years a f t e r mining. While ten (10) years ago most permi t s l i s t e d f o r e s t as a postmining land use, today on l y t en (10) percent o f our permits conta in f o r e s t l and as a postmining l and use and a good many o f those may modify t h e i r rec lamat ion p lan t o e l im ina te t he t r ees these plans now contain.

The o the r two gentlemen represent ing t he grea t s t a t e o f Ohio have discussed some o f t he reasons t h a t t r ees are n o t the valuable t o o l they were f i f t e e n years ago. I am both an environmental lawyer and the ass i s tan t regu la to ry a u t h o r i t y f o r the adm in i s t ra t i on o f coal min ing regu la t i ons i n the Sta te o f Ohio. I w i l l t r y and o u t l i n e our p o s i t i o n on t h i s mat te r and discuss some o f t he t h i ngs we have done t o curb t h i s t r end away f rom t r e e p lan t i ng .

Now i n Ohio we operate a two- prong regu la to ry system. On the one s i de we operate an i ncen t i ve program. An opera tor posts cash o r bonds i n a l a rge sum and these funds are re tu rned on l y i f a l l regu la t ions are complied w i t h and the l and reclaimed. On the o the r s i de we run a penal system o f compl i ance. Non-compl i ance resu l t s i n c i v i l pena l t ies , c r im ina l f i nes , j a i 1 sentences, and/or the te rminat ion o f t he ope ra to r ' s business completely. One bond f o r f e i t u r e i n Ohio precludes any f u t u r e permits be ing issued t o the opera t ing company, o f f i c e r s o f t he corpora t ions , and even major stock- holders.

The penal aspects o f our program are on l y e f f e c t i v e i n the s i t u a t i o n s where an opera tor i s opera t ing under a p lan c a l l i n g f o r t r ees t o be p lan ted and he does n o t p l a n t t rees . It i s n o t a c r im ina l of fense t o t u r n a s t a t e , from a f o r e s t land t o a rangeland. The opera tor submi t s a r e c l amati on p lan when the opera t ion i s proposed and i t i s up t o the s t a t e t o p rov ide i ncen t i ves so t h a t the operators vol u n t a r i l y p l a n t t rees . As s ta ted above t r ees are n o t p lan ted f o r economic, techn ica l , and s o c i a l reasons. Without adequate i ncen t i ves we w i l l n o t f i n d t r e e p l a n t i n g - we must f i n d ways t o encourage t r e e p lan t i ng .

The f i r s t s tep we have taken i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n was a new standard f o r revegeta t ion when t rees are p lanted. When an area i s b a c k f i l l e d and graded we requ i re successful establ ishment o f a vegeta t ive cover. If grasses and legumes are p lan ted t he s i t e must conta in a seventy - f i ve per cent cover. However, if t rees are p lan ted the success r a t e i s reduced t o s i x t y per cent . We have the d i s c r e t i o n t o reduce t h i s t o f i f t y pe r cent . The obvious advantage being t he s u r v i v a l r a t e o f t r ees w i l l improve w i t h reduced vegeta t ive cover. This s tep was taken a t t he request o f a few operators i n Ohio who wanted t o p l a n t t r ees and i t i s p a r t i a l l y successfu l .

A second s tep we are t a k i n g i s r e q u i r i n g revegeta t ion t o remain successfu l f o r a f u l l f i v e year pe r i od a f t e r es tab l ishment. Operators i n some areas f i n d t h a t t h e i r grasses and legumes w i l l n o t always l a s t f o r t he necessary pe r i od

due t o t he poor qua1 i t y o f s p o i l below the t o p s o i l and o t h e r f a c t o r s mentioned by t he o the r speakers.

L a s t l y we face t he problem o f the opera to r who wants t o mine f o r e s t land, b u t r ec l a im the area f o r another l and use. 1 Recent ly we decided t o f i g h t on l y f o r those areas w i t h va l uabl e f o r e s t s and concentrate ou r e f f o r t s r a t h e r than t o r e s i s t any e f f o r t t o permanently e l i m i n a t e woody species. When i n doubt t he D i v i s i o n o f Fores t ry w i l l a s s i s t us i n eva lua t i ng a s p e c i f i c area. I f the t r ees are w i t hou t cgmmercial value, i t i s much e a s i e r n o t t o rep1 ace them. However, va l uabl e f o r e s t 1 ands must be rep laced o r undergo t ime consuming and expensive l and use change procedures. Pub l i c n o t i c e , 1 andowners consent and impact statements f rom coopera t ing agencies are t he key procedures. It i s a procedure t h a t t he operators want t o avo id where poss ib l e - thereby an i n c e n t i v e i s c rea ted f o r t r e e p l an t i ng . To g i ve you an idea how successfu l t h i s procedure i s I might note t h a t from 1972 t o 1977 when these requirements took e f f e c t on l y 1% o f our postmining l and uses were f o r e s t lands. Today we are l o o k i n g a t a 10% f i g u r e f o r f o r e s t s .

The i ncen t i ves descr ibed above are on l y impor tan t beginnings t o b r i n g t r e e p l a n t i n g back i n t o rec lamat ion. We are coopera t ing w i t h several agencies i n Ohio i n t he study o f t he problem o f t he d isappear ing f o res t s . Those s tud ies and meetings such as t h i s one may r e s u l t i n a d d i t i o n a l i ncen t i ves be ing developed t o so l ve t h i s very ser ious problem.

F i n a l l y , I must p o i n t o u t t h a t any ac t i ons on our p a r t must be discussed w i t h t he U.S. O f f i c e o f Surface Min ing pursuant t o t he Surface Coal Min ing Contro l and Reclamation Act o f 1977 P.L. 95-87. While we a t t he Ohio Department o f Natura l Resources are now and p l an t o con t inue t o be t he pr imary agency r e g u l a t i n g coal min ing i n Ohio, t h i s f ede ra l 1 aw prov ides us w i t h ove rs i gh t assis tance from t h i s federa l agency. We do n o t l ook a t these d iscuss ions as a major s tumbl ing b l ock b u t i t p o i n t s ou t the advantages o f t he type of organized concern we show here

today. I f Ohio argues f o r a procedure t o encourage t r e e p l an t i ng , i t wi 11 n o t c a r r y t he weight o f a group o f p ro fess iona l exper ts from concerned s t a t e s addressing a common problem. Th is type o f group i n p u t i s e s s e n t i a l t o t he implementat ion o f immediate and 1 ong range so l u t i ons .

TREES FOR OHIO

Ernes t J . Gebhart

Other members of t h i s p a n e l a r e going t o r e v e a l t h e b a s i c s t a t i s t i c s about t h e c o a l s t r i p mining i n d u s t r y i n Ohio s o I w i l l c o n f i n e my remarks t o t h e r e v e g e t a t i o n of t h e s p o i l banks. So i t d o e s n ' t appear t h a t Ohio con- f i n e d i t s t r e e p l a n t i n g e f f o r t s t o s p o i l banks a l o n e , I w i l l r e l y on a few s t a t i s t i c s .

The D i v i s i o n of F o r e s t r y s t a r t e d o p e r a t i n g t r e e n u r s e r i e s i n t h e e a r l y 1900 ' s a t Wooster and C h i l l i c o t h e . These e f f o r t s were con- s o l i d a t e d on t h e M a r i e t t a Nursery i n 1925. Spec ies grown were p r i m a r i l y c o n i f e r s w i t h some of t h e b e t t e r hardwoods which were d i s t r i b u t e d t o t h e s t a t e f o r e s t s and p r i v a t e landowners f o r p l a n t i n g on abandoned a g r i c u l t u r a l l and . The program was i n c r e a s e d i n 1948 w i t h t h e opening of t h e Green Spr ings Nursery i n Sandusky County. A new Ohio s t r i p mine law r e q u i r i n g some l i m i t e d grad ing and r e v e g e t a t i o n of s p o i l banks prompted t h e D i v i s i o n t o devote t h i s n u r s e r y e x c l u s i v e l y t o t h e growing of deciduous s p e c i e s . I n t h e e a r l y 195O's, t h e Z a n e s v i l l e SCS Nursery was t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e D i v i s i o n making t h e R e f o r e s t a t i o n S e c t i o n capable of producing 15 t o 17 m i l l i o n t r e e s . For a number of y e a r s , shipment of t r e e s t o s t r i p miners f o r p l a n t i n g d i s t u r b e d s o i l s absorbed about h a l f of t h e nurse ry produc t ion .

This a l l changed a b r u p t l y a f t e r t h e passage of t h e 1972 Ohio S t r i p Mine Law. This l e g i s l a t i o n provided t h e mine o p e r a t o r w i t h a n o p t i o n of r e v e g e t a t i n g w i t h a heavy s t a n d of g r a s s e s and legumes o r a l i g h t e r seed mix ture and t h e es tab l i shment of a s a t i s f a c t o h t a n d of t r e e s . Economical i n f l u e n c e s took over a t this p o i n t and most miners d i scont inued t h e use of t r e e s i n t h e i r p l a n t i n g p l a n s . There was some t a p e r i n g o f f a s p r e 1972 mined land was r e q u i r e d t o be p l a n t e d t o t r e e s . The end e f f e c t of t h i s change of t a c t i c s was t o reduce t h e demand f o r hardwood p l a n t i n g s t o c k by a b o u t . seven m i l l i o n t r e e s a year and t o c r e a t e v a s t a r e a s of g r a s s l a n d s . It should be recognized h e r e t h a t exper ience had shown t h a t t h e s u r v i v a l of t r e e s p l a n t e d i n an a r e a seeded t o g r a s s e s f o r e r o s i o n c o n t r o l was a t l e a s t d o u b t f u l .

We have n o t f e l t t h a t t h i s endeavor was l o s t f o r a l l t ime and have k e p t our n u r s e r y produc t ion c a p a b i l i t y i n t a c t f o r a rebound i n t o t h e f u t u r e when t r e e p l a n t i n g on mined l a n d s w i l l a g a i n come i n t o proper p e r s p e c t i v e . There

a r e s e v e r a l s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r s working toward t h i s end which g i v e u s encouragement. The 1977 f e d e r a l s t r i p mine law and accompanying r u l e s r e q u i r e o r encourage t h e p l a n t i n g of t r e e s on a r e a s t h a t b e f o r e mining supported t r e e cover . Recent amendments of Ohio 's law tend t o suppor t t h i s requirement . While p l a n t i n g t r e e s on rep laced t o p s o i l and w i t h e r o s i o n c o n t r o l g r a s s cover be ing a p o s s i b l e d e t e r r e n t is a new concept f o r u s , I am s u r e t h a t w i t h p roper s o i l amendment and seed ing p r a c t i c e s i t can be done. This is t h e a r e a where we s e e t h e f i r s t s i g n i f i c a n t r e t u r n t o t r e e p l a n t i n g .

A second a r e a t h a t we b e l i e v e w i l l , could o r should u t i l i z e t r e e s is t h e r e v e g e t a t i o n of unreclaimed mined l a n d s . Most of t h e s e l a n d s were mined p r i o r t o 1972 and t o p s o i l was n e i t h e r saved o r r e s t o r e d . I n most c a s e s , i t i s n o t now a v a i l a b l e t o t h e rec la imer . These s p o i l s , w i t h p roper g rad ing , can b e r e v e g e t a t e d w i t h t r e e s . This is apparen t from t h e many s u c c e s s f u l o p e r a t i o n s p r i o r t o 1972. With t h e magnitude of funding t h a t i s o r w i l l be a v a i l a b l e f o r t h i s type of rec lamat ion work, we s e e a c o n s i d e r a b l e demand f o r t r e e p l a n t i n g s t o c k developing, p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r legumes and q u a l i t y hardwoods.

A t h i r d a r e a i s one t h a t h a s n o t been explored t o any e x t e n t b u t w i l l be con- f r o n t i n g us i n Ohio i n t h e n o t t o o d i s t a n t f u t u r e . It h a s been w e l l demonstrated t h a t wi th t h e use of heavy a p p l i c a t i o n s of l ime and f e r t i l i z e r v a r i o u s t y p e s o f g r a s s e s can be e s t a b l i s h e d on q u i t e a c i d s p o i l s o r s o i l s . Frequent r e a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e s e amendments w i l l undoubtedly s u s t a i n them f o r long p e r i o d s . The obvious f l aw h e r e is t h a t t h e s t r i p miner is r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e r e v e g e t a t i o n on ly u n t i l h i s bond i s r e l e a s e d . I f he does n o t own t h e s u r f a c e a s w e l l a s t h e c o a l , h i s i n t e r e s t c e a s e s h e r e . It is then incumbent upon t h e landowner t o p rov ide t h e necessary c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s t o keep t h e g r a s s cover i n t a c t . H e w i l l on ly do s o i f h e is u t i l i z i n g t h e g r a s s and making a p r o f i t from i t . Otherwise, i t w i l l d e p l e t e t h e i n i t i a l a p p l i c a t i o n of l ime and f e r t i l i z e r and s t a r t t o t h i n ou t . Eventua l ly b a r r e n a r e a s w i l l develop and t h e once secured s p o i l

will be subject to further erosion and weathering. I am not predicting how rapidly this could or will take place but am proposing a solution when it does occur.

As the heavy foliage encouraged by the initial application of lime and fertilizer starts to dissipate, the landowner has an opportunity to reforest the area as he would any old field. If by this time he has not brought the mined area into his farm plan for annual crops or livestock pasture, he would be well advised to get it into a permanent tree cover. This will require a minimum of cost outlay to maintain and will have the potential of some future monetary return. It is difficult to predict when this will reach significant proportions but we anticipate having the capability of meeting the demand.

You can see from these remarks that we have not abandoned the idea of trees on spoil banks and do not intend to do so. Therefore, I have some suggestions for your consideration:

On selected mined areas, trees and grasses can be grown together if the rate of grass seeding is kept at the minimum necessary to prevent erosion. The grass becomes a nurse crop to reduce soil surface temperatures and aid tree survival. Rough grasses, such as Kentucky 31 tall fescue, orchard and rye grasses, are suggested at a rate of 20-25 pounds per acre. The trees should be spaced 7' x 7' with about 900 per acre.

3. We are suggesting two basic tree mixtures for your consideration:

A. Acid spoils or soils: Black locust, Rose acacia, European black alder, sweet gum, autumn olive, silver maple, and Norway spruce.

B. Alkaline spoils or soils: White and green ash, cottonwood, silver and sugar maple, red, white and black oak, tuliptree and white pine.

There are other species and combinations of species that will survive and do well on selected mine sites. Each revegetation plan must consider all the parameters involved and options available.

I feel strongly that the conversion of former woodland to grass, where the raising of livestock is not a viable industry, is a disservice to landowners and communities that will require considerable unnecessary expense in the future. There will never be a better time than at the conclusion of the mining process to establish tree cover if the mining and reclamation plan is tailored to the long term needs to permanently stabilize the land. The expedient release of a bond or the minor cost differential is not sufficient justification to leave this part of the job undone.

2 . Some upgrading of nursery stock quality will be necessary. We propose to retain the 2-0 conifer and 1-0 hardwood age classes with oversized stock being graded out. Large seedlings do not do well on spoil banks and are difficult to hand plant. No fall planting is recommended. Even though topsoil is replaced, I doubt if machine planting can be satisfactorily accomplished. Hand planting will still prevail.

~ I

HAS ANYONE NOTICED THAT TREES ARE

NOT BEING PLANTED ANY LONGER?'

Walter D . Smith 2

A b s t r a c t .--Trees provided t h e c o a l s u r f a c e mining i n d u s t r y w i t h a means of r e s t o r i n g t h e l a n d ' s p r o d u c t i v i t y a t a minimum expense. T r e e s may s t i l l be inc luded i n t h e rec lamat ion p l a n bu t t r e e p l a n t i n g i n Ohio was d r a s t i c a l l y reduced by t h e 1972 Ohio Sur face Mining and Reclamation Law. The b a s i c r e a s o n s a r e c a t e g o r i z e d a s t e c h n i c a l , s o c i a l and economic. The r e v e g e t a t i o n phase of c o a l s u r f a c e mined land i s most v i t a l t o s u c c e s s f u l r e c l a m a t i o n and h o p e f u l l y t r e e s w i l l con t inue t o c o n t r i b u t e t o such s u c c e s s .

I n Ohio, t h e h i s t o r i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e c o a l s u r f a c e mining i n d u s t r y and t r e e s h a s been of mutual b e n e f i t . Trees provided t h e i n d u s t r y w i t h a means of r e s t o r i n g t h e land 's p r o d u c t i v i t y a t a minimum expense. Where c a r e was taken i n t h e p l a n t i n g of t h e f r a g i l e t r e e s e e d l i n g on t h e h a r s h , mined land environment, t h e smal l t r e e s e e d l i n g s d i d won- d e r s . Sometimes w i t h t h e a s s i s t a n c e of n a t - u r a l herbaceous cover bu t o f t e n t imes a l o n e , t h e c o l l e c t i v e impact of t h e t r e e s e e d l i n g s amel iora ted t h e environment of t h e rec lamat ion a r e a t o t h e p o i n t t h a t a s t r a n g e r t o t h e s i t e would speak o n l y of t h e young f o r e s t t h a t i s growing t h e r e .

I f you wish t o p l a n t t r e e s i n your r e c l a - mation o p e r a t i o n , p l e a s e do. P l a n t one thousand t r e e s e e d l i n g s p e r a c r e . P l a n t a row of ni t rogen-f i x i n g t r e e s p e c i e s , i. e . , black l o - c u s t , b lack a l d e r , and /or autumnolive. P l a n t a row, maybe two, of your f a v o r i t e commercial deciduous and/or c o n i f e r o u s s p e c i e s , i . e . , r e d oak, whi te oak , w h i t e o r g r e e n a s h , sycamore, s i l v e r maple, maybe b l a c k walnu t , w h i t e p i n e , red p i n e , s h o r t l e a f p i n e , maybe A u s t r i a n p i n e and maybe Paulownia. Be s i t e s p e c i f i c , more s o t h a n i n t h e p a s t . P l a n your p l a n t i n g arrangements . And i f you need f u r t h e r in£ o r - mat ion , s t a r t w i t h Chapman (1944); Limstrom (1948); Lowry (1956) ; Knudsen (1952) ; and

'paper p resen ted a t t h e T r e e s f o r Recla- mation i n t h e E a s t e r n U.S. Symposium, Lexing- t o n , Kentucky, October 27-29, 1980.

2 ~ a l t e r D . Smith, (On Leave of Absence f o r Graduate Study, U n i v e r s i t y of Kentucky), C e n t r a l Ohio Coal Company, P.O. Box 98, Cumberland, Ohio 43732.

l a t e r Funk (1961); and today P l a s s (1968) and Vogel (1973). For b ib l iography sources s t a r t w i t h Limstrom (1953) ; Knabe (1958) ; Funk (1962) ; and today Czapowskyi (1976). Those r e f e r e n c e s a r e j u s t a v e r y few of much v a l u a b l e r e s e a r c h conducted of y e s t e r y e a r and cont inu ing today.

Having been a d i r e c t p a r t y t o t h e p l a n t i n g of some 19.4 m i l l i o n t r e e s e e d l i n g s i n f i f t e e n y e a r s and observ ing t h e r e s u l t s of t h e t o t a l p l a n t i n g of t h i r t y - e i g h t m i l l i o n t r e e s e e d l i n g s on bo th mined and unmined land over a t h i r t y year p e r i o d , I can look anyone i n t h e eye and say t h a t t h e trees w i l l grow and produce f o r - e s t s on c o a l s u r f a c e mined land .

But b e f o r e you r u n ou t and type " t r e e p l a n t i n g " i n t o your r e v e g e t a t i o n p l a n , look around. Has anyone n o t i c e d t h a t we a r e not p l a n t i n g a s many, i f any , t r e e s any longer? I c a t e g o r i z e t h e b a s i c r e a s o n s a s TECHNICAL, SOCIAL and ECONOMIC.

The 1972 Ohio Surf a c e Mining and Recla- mation Law had many of t h e mining and r e c l a - mation p r o v i s i o n s and most of t h e i n t e n t of P u b l i c Law 95-87. The e f f e c t s of t h e law ex- t inguished s lowly bu t a lmos t completely t h e u s e of t r e e s i n s u r f a c e mined land rec lamat ion r e v e g e t a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s . The Ohio law d r a s t i - c a l l y a l t e r e d t h e s i t e c o n d i t i o n s upon which t h e v e g e t a t i o n was t o be e s t a b l i s h e d . The law w i t h i t s mining-grading-topsoi l ing r e q u i r e - ments brought about h igher s o i l pH v a l u e s w i t h a t t e n d e n t improvement i n t h e t y p e s , a v a i l a b i l i t y and amounts of n u t r i e n t s and a d e c r e a s e i n tox- i c i t y l e v e l s . The topography became almost one hundred p e r c e n t t r a v e r s i b l e by rubber - t i red t r a c t o r v e h i c l e s and was complimentary t o t h e undis tu rbed lands . The long , u n i n t e r u p t e d s l o p e s posed problems, e s p e c i a l l y e r o s i o n and consequently sed imenta t ion , s o herbaceous

5 3

v e g e t a t i o n v e r s u s deciduous was r e q u i r e d t o combat t h e s e problems. P o l l u t i o n abatement played a major r o l e i n t h e 1972 Ohio law.

The t e c h n i c a l r e a s o n s t r e e s were e l imi - na ted from t h e rec lamat ion r e v e g e t a t i o n p l a n were (1) -compaction, (2) herbaceous competi- t i o n , and (3) e r o s i o n and s u r v i v a l r e p a i r work. The compaction problem voiced i n t h e e a r l y 1950 ' s by Deitschman (1950) ; Merz-Finn (1951) ; Finn (1952); and Limstrom (1952) were com- pounded by t h e grad ing requi rements of t h e 1972 Ohio law. Compaction i s a problem both from g e t t i n g t h e t r e e s e e d l i n g p lan ted i n t h e s o i l and i n g e t t i n g growth and s u r v i v a l .

Competi t ion from herbaceous v e g e t a t i o n i s f i e r c e . I n t e n s e f e r t i l i z a t i o n r e q u i r e d t o q u i c k l y e s t a b l i s h herbaceous v e g e t a t i o n f o r s o i l s u r f a c e p r o t e c t i o n from impact and r i l l e r o s i o n and consequent ly sed imenta t ion pre- v e n t s s e e d l i n g e s t a b l i s h m e n t i n a t l e a s t t h e e a r l y phase of t h e r e v e g e t a t i o n e f f o r t . And f i n a l l y t h e r e comes t h e reclamat i o n super- v i s o r s nightmare -- r e p a i r work. Repair work of herbaceous v e g e t a t e d a r e a s is a n anytime j o b . But t r e e p l a n t e d a r e a s can o n l y be r e - p a i r e d each s p r i n g .

As a n example, we p lan ted i n t h e s p r i n g of 1974 us ing h e r b i c i d e s and i n t h e s p r i n g of 1975 u s i n g eighteen-inch d i a m e t e r , f i b e r g l a s s , weed chek d i s c s , two hundred a c r e s of 1972 Ohio law graded s p o i l banks t o t r e e s . I n quick summary, t h e combined impacts of com- p a c t i o n , herbaceous compet i t ion and r e p a i r e f f o r t s , e f f e c t i v e l y s topped any t r e e p l a n t - i n g on a c t i v e , bonded l i c e n s e s f o r C e n t r a l Ohio Coal Company. I n 1977, on bond-released b u t s i m i l a r l y reclaimed a r e a s upon which t h e v e g e t a t i o n was now two t o t h r e e y e a r s o l d , we band sprayed w i t h h e r b i c i d e s and p l a n t e d t u l i p p o p l a r , r e d oak , w h i t e oak, w h i t e a s h and r e d gum. R e s u l t s were decen t c o n s i d e r i n g t h e s p e c i e s used bu t no t a c c e p t a b l e . We have no t p l a n t e d a n o t h e r t r e e s e e d l i n g from t h a t d a t e .

The s o c i a l r e a s o n i s more s u b t l e b u t v e r y much r e a l . The approximate o r i g i n a l contour g rad ing requirement of t h e Ohio law coupled w i t h t h e u s e of herbaceous v e g e t a t i o n made f o r l and t h a t was a t l e a s t t o p o g r a p h i c a l l y b e t t e r than t h e o r i g i n a l . The s l o p e s were l e s s s t e e p - t h e y could no t ever be s t e e p e r : were more uniform: and were e a s i l y t r a v e r s i b l e . To t h e

, p r i v a t e landowner, h e l i k e d what he saw and demanded t h a t t h e r e v e g e t a t i o n p l a n s t a t e "grass cover f o r p a s t u r e and f o r a g e product ion1' even i f t h e r e had been t r e e s growing on t h e s i te p r i o r t o s u r f a c e mining. C e n t r a l Ohio Coal Company i s p r e s e n t l y approaching t e n thousand a c r e s i n s u r f a c e mined g r a s s l a n d acreage . Much of i t is p r e s e n t l y under l e a s e a r range- ment f o r l i v e s t o c k p a s t u r e and hay produc t ion . T r a v e l eastward from Z a n e s v i l l e , Ohio, on 1-70 t o Wheeling, West V i r g i n i a , and view t h e

v a r i o u s s u r f a c e mining o p e r a t i o n s and observe t h e v e g e t a t i o n cover being used . It w i l l be g r a s s .

Economically speaking t r e e p l a n t i n g i s now a n a d d i t i o n a l expense t o t h e o p e r a t o r , no t a necessary expense. T r e e p l a n t i n g i s a n addi - t i o n a l expense i n terms of t h e (1) o r i g i n a l p l a n t i n g ; (2) of r e p a i r p l a n t i n g ; and (3) i n d e l a y - r e l a t e d expense a s s o c i a t e d w i t h com- p l i a n c e t ime and bond r e l e a s e . To t h e oper- a t o r , such d e l a y s have many i m p l i c a t i o n s . The m u l t i p l i c i t y of s t a n d a r d s which t h e o p e r a t o r must comply-with f o r c e s t h e o p e r a t o r t o adopt t h o s e rec lamat ion procedures t h a t i n t h i s day of s p i r a l i n g c o s t s g e t t h e job done t h e most e f f i c i e n t and most e f f e c t i v e .

E a r l i e r t h i s year I was somewhat o p t i - m i s t i c t h a t f o r e s t r y and t r e e p l a n t i n g f o r rec lamat ion purposes was on t h e upswing. I f e l t t h a t land u s e s t a t u t e s of P u b l i c Law 95- 87 would have a p o s i t i v e impact on rec lamat ion t r e e p l a n t i n g on p r i o r f o r e s t e d a r e a s . But now, f o r t h e s h o r t term, v a l i d f o r c e s a r e a t work which j u s t p revent t r e e p l a n t i n g . For t h e long term, I am most concerned t h a t t h e neces- s a r y and proper management of t h e g r a s s l a n d s w i l l be implemented. Inadequa te o r improper management of t h e g r a s s l a n d s w i l l impart a v e r y n e g a t i v e impact t o t h e p u b l i c eye. The s u r f a c e mining image i s always a t b e s t t o l e r a b l e .

I n conc lus ion , some sugges t ions . It would appear a t f i r s t g l a n c e t h a t a t r e e s e e d l i n g of g r e a t e r than u s u a l h i s t o r i c a l h e i g h t and s i z e , and one t h a t had a se l f -con ta ined growing environment t h a t would l a s t f o r a t l e a s t t h e f i r s t t o maybe t h r e e y e a r s of i t s l i f e , would prove h e l p f u l t o s u c c e s s f u l p l a n t a t i o n es tab l i shment . Furthermore, p l a n t i n g s t echniques necessary t o overcome mined land s o i l p h y s i c a l problems may a l s o r e q u i r e a s e e d l i n g package t h a t a f f o r d s t h e s e e d l i n g ' s r o o t s and t o p g r e a t e r p r o t e c t i o n from p h y s i c a l damage. I f e e l t h a t g i v e n a "wooden" n i c k e l ou t of every d o l l a r spen t on t o t a l rec lamat ion compliance c o s t s , t r e e p l a n t - ing on mined banks would become a v i a b l e e n t e r - p r i s e .

I f and whenever I r e t u r n t o t h e rec lamat ion b u s i n e s s , I would s lowly bu t d e f i n i t e l y i n s t a l l t r e e p l a n t i n g a s a n i n t e g r a l p a r t of t h e r e c l a - mat ion p l a n . As t h e t e c h n i c a l problems a r e solved w i t h a t t endent enforcement agency e d i f i- c a t i o n , t h e economic problem w i l l d i s s o l v e . I n my op in ion , t r e e p l a n t i n g c o s t s would be t h e l e a s t expensive of a l l r ec lamat ion requi rements f o r long t e r m b e n e f i t s rece ived but t h e revege- t a t i o n phase - b o t h herbaceous and deciduous - i f most v i t a l t o s u c c e s s f u l r e c l a m a t i o n . The s o c i a l problem w i l l c o n t i n u e t o e x i s t and be i n f l u e n t i a l . F o r e s t r y and t r e e p l a n t i n g have always played a n important p a r t i n c o a l s u r f a c e mining rec lamat ion . Given t h i s s h o r t i n t e r - miss ion , i t is my hope t h a t t h e h i s t o r i c a l

b e n e f i c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p p r e v i o u s l y expressed would cont inue .

LITERATURE C ITED

Chapman, A.G. 1944. F o r e s t p l a n t i n g s on strip-mined l a n d s w i t h s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e t o Ohio. U.S.D.A., U.S.F.S. C e n t r a l S t a t e s For . Exp. S t a . Tech. Paper 104. 2 5 ~ ~

Czapowskyi, M.M. 1976. Annotated b i b l i o - graphy on t h e ecology and r e c l a m a t i o n of d r a s t i c a l l y d i s t u r b e d a r e a s . U.S.D.A., U.S.F.S. Nor theas te rn For . Exp. S t a . Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-21, 98pp.

Deitschman, G.H. 1950. Seed l ing s u r v i v a l and h e i g h t growth on graded and ungraded s tr ip-mined land i n sou thern I l l i n o i s . U.S.D.A, U.S.F.S. C e n t r a l S t a t e s For . Exp. S t a . Note 62, 2pp.

F inn , R.F. 1952. The n u t r i e n t c o n t e n t of l e a v e s and t r e e growth a s a f f e c t e d by grad ing on t h r e e s t r i p - m i n e d a r e a s . U.S.D.A., U.S.F.S. C e n t r a l S t a t e s For . Exp. S t a . Note 70, 2pp.

Funk, D .T., and Mar t in E. Dale. 1961. European a l d e r ; a promising t r e e f o r s t r ip -mine p l a n t i n g . U . S .D .A., U .S.F. S. C e n t r a l S t a t e s For . Exp. S t a . Note 151, ~ P P

Funk, D . T . 1962. A r e v i s e d b ib l iography of s t r ip -mine rec lamat ion . U . S.D .A., U . S.F. S. C e n t r a l S t a t e s For . Exp. S t a . Misc. Re- l e a s e 35 , 19pp.

Knabe, W. 1958. ~ e i t r g g e zur B i b l i o g r a p h i e Uber Wiederurbarmachung von Bergbauflachen. (Cont r ibu t ions t o t h e b ib l iography on

rec lamat ion of mined a r e a s . ) W i s s . Z t schr . Humbolt -Univ . B e r l i n 7 : 291-304. ( I n German, Engl i sh , Russ ian and Franch Summaries.)

Knudsen, L .L. and P.H. S t r u t h e r s . 1952. T r e e s and p a s t u r e p o s s i b l e on land former ly used i n s t r i p - m i n i n g . Ohio Farm and Home Res., Sep t . -Oct . , 52:72-73.

Limstrom, G .A. 1948. Exten t , c h a r a c t e r , and f o r e s t a t i o n p o s s i b i l i t i e s of l and s t r i p p e d f o r c o a l i n t h e C e n t r a l S t a t e s . U.S.D.A., U.S.F.S. C e n t r a l S t a t e s F o r . Exp. S t a . Tech. Paper 109, 79pp. . 1952. E f f e c t s of g rad ing s t r i p - mined l a n d s on t h e e a r l y s u r v i v a l and growth of p lan ted t r e e s . U.S.D.A., U.S.F.S. en- t r a l S t a t e s For . Exp. S t a . Tech. Paper 130, 3 5 ~ ~ . 1953. A bib l iography of s t r i p - mine rec lamat ion . U . S .D .A. , U . S .F . S . Cen- t r a l S t a t e s For . Exp. S t a . Misc. Re lease 8 , 2 5 ~ ~

Lowry, G.L . 1956. Five-year s t u d y e v a l u a t e s f o r e s t t r e e v a r i e t i e s f o r s p o i l banks. Ohio Farm and Home Res. 41:70-71.

Merz, R.W., and R.F. Finn. 1951. D i f f e r e n c e s i n i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e s on graded and ungraded s t r ip - ined lands . U.S.D.A., U.S.F.S. Cen- t r a l S t a t e s For . Exp. S t a . Note 65, 2pp.

P l a s s , W.T. 1968. Tree s u r v i v a l and growth i n f escue-covered s p o i l banks. U .S .D .A., U. S. F.S. Nor theas te rn For . Exp. S t a . Res. Note NE-90, 4pp.

Vogel, W.G. 1973. The e f f e c t of herbaceous v e g e t a t i o n on s u r v i v a l and growth of t r e e s p lan ted on coal-mine s p o i l s . Res. And Appl. Tech. Symp . on Mined-Land Reclam. Proc . : 197-207.

REVEGETAT ION OF SURFACE-MINED LAND s IN PENNSYLVAIJIA~

G. Nevin Strock 2

BACKGROUND wi th in t he s t a t e . S t a t e land-use s t u d i e s in- d i c a t e t h a t fo re s t l and management p o l i c i e s

The r e f o r e s t a t i o n of su r f ace mines i n should a s su re a continuous and adequate supply Pennsylvania became prevalent i n t h e middle of timber t o meet pro jec ted demands. Penn- 1940's wi th enactment of s t a t e l e g i s l a t i o n sy lvania is expected t o experience about a t o r egu la t e su r f ace mining of bituminous 50% inc rease i n demand f o r timber by t h e year coal . Though t h i s e a r l y l e g i s l a t i o n d id not 2000. Pennsylvania recognizes t he importance provide f o r i n t ens ive environment p ro t ec t ion of fo re s t l and f o r timber, f o r p ro t ec t ion of s tandards i n comparison t o s t a t e l e g i s l a t i o n o the r f o r e s t r e l a t e d resources including water which followed i n t he e a r l y 1960's and e a r l y and w i l d l i f e , and f o r t he b e n e f i t s derived 1970's and i n con t r a s t t o today's s tandards, from fo re s t l and f o r a e s t h e t i c s and recrea- i t d id e s t a b l i s h t he beginning of l a r g e t i o n a l purposes. s c a l e su r f ace mine reclamation a c t i v i t i e s . The p l an t ing of t r e e s became a s i g n i f i c a n t Most of t h e mine land reclamation i n p a r t of t h e reclamation process. Tree Pennsylvania is performed i n conjunction with p l an t ing continues t o be a land reclamation the a c t i v e su r f ace mining of coa l under t h e p r a c t i c e f c r providing permanent, long-term l e g a l requirements which r egu la t e such mining. vegeta t ion f o r watershed pro tec t ion , Pennsylvania has had an abandoned mine land w i l d l i f e h a b i t a t and timber production. reclamation program s ince 1968 fol lowing the

enactment of t h e Land and Water Conservation The trend wi th regard t o changes i n and Reclamation Act. This Act provided fund-

land use a s a r e s u l t of sur face mining a r e ing f o r ac id mine drainage abatement, ex t in- not r e a d i l y d iscernable because of t he un- guishing of underground mine f i r e s and burning a v a i l a b i l i t y of s t a t i s t i c s f o r making such r e fuse banks and b a c k f i l l i n g of open mine a determination. However, a s ta tewide sha f t s . The acreage reclaimed i n t h e s t a t e ' s land use r epo r t f o r Pennsylvania showed abandoned mine land reclamation program is t h a t f o r t he period from 1950 t o 1974 small i n comparison t o acreage reclaimed on the re was a 9.7% inc rease i n woodland a c t i v e su r f ace mining opera t ions a s requi red acreage whi le pas ture land and cropland by t h e Pennsylvania Surface Mining Conserva- acreage showed decreases of 26.6% and 15.7X, t i o n and Reclamation Act and t h e Federal respect ive ly . Though these f i g u r e s do no t Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of d i r e c t l y r e f l e c t changes i n land use 1977. The requirements wi th r e spec t t o re- pa t t e rns a s a r e s u l t of su r f ace mining, vegeta t ion of a c t i v e su r f ace mine opera t ions t he f i g u r e s do i n d i c a t e t h e genera l t rend is t o revegeta te wi th grasses , legumes, t r e e s , f o r land use changes i n Pennsylvania. shrubs o r any combination of t he se which pro- Over 17 mi l l i on ac re s o r more than 60% of v ides permanent vegeta t ion capable of s o i l t he land su r f ace i n Pennsylvania i s covered s t a b i l i z a t i o n , con t ro l of e ros ion and sedi - by f o r e s t growth. A l a r g e por t ion of t h e mentation and support ing t h e postmining land mineral resource i n Pennsylvania is over- use. The accepted revegeta t ion p r a c t i c e f o r l a i n by f o r e s t s , so it is reasonable t o s o i l s t a b i l i z a t i o n and eros ion and sedimen- assume t h a t e x t r a c t i o n of t he se minerals t a t i o n con t ro l is t o e s t a b l i s h a herbaceous by su r f ace mining would have a s i g n i f i c a n t vege t a t i ve cover. Consequently, a l l su r f ace impact on the o v e r a l l f o re s t ed acreage mine s i t e s a r e i n i t i a l l y e s t ab l i shed wi th

herbaceous spec i e s and t r e e and/or shrub p l an t ing i s accomplished i n combination wi th

'paper presented a t t he symposium - herbaceous vegeta t ion i f requi red f o r s o i l Trees f o r Reclamation i n t he Eas tern U.S.: s t a b i l i z a t i o n , e ros ion and sediment con t ro l , Lexington, Kentucky, October 27-29, 1980. permanent vege t a t i ve cover, o r f o r develop-

ment o r improvement of land f o r commercial 'surf ace Mine Program S p e c i a l i s t , fo re s t l and , w i l d l i f e h a b i t a t , r ec rea t iona l

Pennsylvania Department of Environmental land uses o r any o t h e r land use r equ i r ing Resources, Bureau of Mining and Reclamation, t r e e s and shrubs i n t he p l an t community. Harrisbutg, PA.

57

The sources of t r e e seedl ings f o r plant- Since p l an t ing requirements and p r a c t i c e s i ng on su r f ace mine s i t e s has been pr imar i ly changed t o r equ i r e t he i n i t i a l p l an t ing of t he s t a t e f o r e s t t r e e nu r se r i e s and p r i v a t e herbaceous vegeta t ion fol lowing b a c k f i l l i n g nu r se r i e s loca ted wi th in t he s t a t e . The and grading, t h e r e were concerns t h a t those g r e a t e r po r t i on of t h e t r e e seedl ings s i t e s which would a l s o be planted wi th t r e e s planted on mine s i t e s a r e obtained from would be adversely a f f ec t ed by t h e competi- t he s t a t e f o r e s t t r e e nurser ies . During t i venes s of t h e herbaceous vegetat ion. We the pas t t h r e e years , t he number of t r e e i n i t i a l l y shared these concerns. Currently, seedl ings , from t h e s t a t e nu r se r i e s and we do not s e e t h i s a s a s i g n i f i c a n t problem planted on su r f ace mine s i t e s , has i f herbaceous spec ies and r a t e s of applica- ranged between 2 and 2% mi l l i on seedl ings t i o n a r e c a r e f u l l y s e l ec t ed and t imely per year. During t h i s same t h r e e year p l an t ing of t h e t r e e s is accomplished. We

I

period the demand f o r t r e e seedl ings from recommend low-growing, non-agressive herba- t he s t a t e f o r e s t nu r se r i e s has exceeded ceous spec ies and p l an t ing of t he t r e e spec ies t he supply. It has been d i f f i c u l t f o r t h e a t t he sane time o r a s soon a s p lant ing con- s t a t e nu r se r i e s t o determine t h e demand d i t i o n s and the p l an t ing season permits

I f o r t r e e seedl ings from year t o year and fol lowing seeding of t h e herbaceous spec ies . t o e s t a b l i s h production l e v e l s accordingly. Some of t he p lanted herbaceous spec ies we The standard app l i ca t ion form f o r order ing have observed which a r e extremely competi t ive seedl ings from t h e s t a t e f o r e s t t r e e ~ ~ i t h t r e e s inc ludes crownvetch (Cornonil la nu r se r i e s f o r p l an t ing on su r f ace mine s i t e s v a r i a ) , s e r i c e a lespedeza (Lespedeza cuneata), has been revised t o provide more information f l a t pea (Lathyrus s y l v e s t a i s ) , whi te sweet by t h e landowner a s t o acreage an t i c ipa t ed c lover (Meli lotus a lba ) , and yellow sweet t o be p lanted i n t he f u t u r e and the pro- c lover (Xel i lo tus o f f i c i n a l i s ) . Weeping love- jec ted year of planting. g ra s s (Eragros t i s curvula) when seeded i n

excess of 2 l b s . / ac re can become competi t ive with t r e e seedlings. Of t h e herbaceous

REVEGETATION PRACTICES legume species , b i rd s foo t t r e f o i l (Lotus co rn i cu l a tu s ) , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e lower-growing

Tree p l an t ing p r a c t i c e s w i th regard t o empire va r i e ty , has been commonly p lanted i n spec ies s e l ec t ion , establishment techniques conjunction wi th t r e e seedlings. and recommended t iming of p l an t ing have changed somewhat over t he years. It was The establishment of t r e e s on su r f ace once t h e recommended p r a c t i c e t o p l a n t t r e e mines by i n t e r p l a n t i n g wi th b lack l o c u s t seedl ings during t h e Spring and F a l l (Robinia pseudoacacia) , European a l d e r seasons. The U.S. Fores t Serv ice research (Alnus g l u t i n o s a ) and Autumn o l i v e (Elae- conducted during t h e 1960's evaluated F a l l agnus umbellata) appears t o have some and Spring p l an t ing of t r e e and shrub seed- s i g n i f i c a n t bene f i t s . Such leguminous t r e e l i n g s on su r f ace mine s p o i l i n t h e Bitumi- and shrub spec i e s planted a s nurse t r e e s has nous region of Pennsylvania (Davis 1973). improved the growth r a t e of t h e o the r t r e e Resul t s of t h a t research s tudy showed con- spec i e s i n t e rp l an t ed wi th t h e nurse t r ee s . s i s t e n t l y higher su rv iva l r a t e s of seed- A 7 year o ld p lant ing of b lack locus t l i n g s when p lanted during the Spring season. (Rob i n i a pseudoacacia) and hybrid poplar The advantages of Spring p l an t ing were (Populus x.) i n a l t e r n a t e rows a t a spacing g rea t e r on the s i t e s wi th t he more ac id of 8 f e e t w i th in t h e row and 10 f e e t between spo i l . Current s t a t e r egu la t ions r equ i r e rows has been documented wi th having hybrid seedl ings t o be p lanted during t h e Spring poplar (Populus -) with dbh's a s l a r g e a s p l an t ing season and no l a t e r than May 15 9.5 inches and 60 f e e t i n he ight . The p lant - except where cold s to rage nursery s tock is ing was performed on ac id mine s p o i l without u t i l i z e d . The p l an t ing season may be ex- t h e b e n e f i t of s o i l amendments. tended t o June 1.

The t r e e spec i e s commonly planted on Most r e f o r e s t a t i o n on su r f ace mine su r f ace mined land i n Pennsylvania inc lude

s i t e s has been wi th p lanted seedlings. red p ine (Pinus r e s inosa ) , Eas tern whi te Nursery s tock is gene ra l ly 1-0, 2-0 o r 3-0 pine (Pinus s t robus ) , Japanese l a r c h (Larix bare-rooted seedl ings with t he exception of l e p t o l e p s i s ) , Austr ian p ine (Pinus n ig ra ) , hybrid poplar which is planted a s an un- Norway spruce (Picea a b i e s ) , European a l d e r rooted cut t ing . Some e f f o r t s have been (Alnus g lu t inosa ) , b lack l o c u s t (Robinia made t o e s t a b l i s h t r e e s by d i r e c t seeding. pseudoacacia) , hybrid poplar (Populus x.) However, wi th t h e exception of b lack locus t and nor thern red oak (Quercus rubra) . (Robinia pseudoacacia) , d i r e c t seeding has been unsuccessful. There is s u b s t a n t i a l I n summary, Pennsylvania recognizes t he i n t e r e s t among wood-using i n d u s t r i e s which importance of t r e e spec ies f o r su r f ace mine own su r f ace mined land t o e s t a b l i s h land reclamation and the p o t e n t i a l t he se commercial hardwood species by d i r e c t seeding. r e fo re s t ed lands have f o r timber and

58

TREES FOR RECLAMATION IN THE EASTERN UNITED STATES

A WEST VIRGINIA PERSPECTIVE

BY: James E. Pitsenbarger, Chief Division of Reclamation

West Virginia Department of Natural Resources

Traditionally, in West Virginia, trees have been an integral and important part of the reclamation program. Moreover with the advent of Public Law 95-87, it certainly would appear that trees are destined to play increasingly diverse and important roles in the field of reclamation.

This symposium presents a unique opportunity for a state regulatory agency to present its problems and views with regard to the utilization of trees for reclamation.

A chronological evaluation in West Virginia of reclamation laws and regulations show that trees were the primary revegetation and stabilization tool utilized in the era prior to 1967. In 1967, the State Legislature passed a completely revamped surface mining act which recognized the value of quick stabilization and mandated increased emphasis on grass species toward this end. Tree species, however, remained an important utility revegetation tool.

The passage of the 1971 Surface Mining and Reclamation Act saw increased importance placed on fast growing, effective and permanent vegetative species which would enhance and promote effective stabilization. Obviously, an increased emphasis on grasses and legumes resulted. In fact, trees were only required on slopes that were generated in excess of 20° at which point dual grass and tree treatment were required. This is not to say that trees were disapproved of, they were merely deemphasized in favor of promoting quick stabilization of disturbed lands.

The Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 passed by Congress in August of that year, places renewed interest in tree species for reclamation. The Act and the myriad of regulations subsequently promulgated placed new mandates on land use restoration, post mining land uses and the establishment of vegetative cover of the same

seasonal variety native to the area.

The apparent result of this federal legislation will be increased demand for tree seedlings and seed in greater numbers and varieties than ever before. Therein, however, lies some of the problematical factors involved in mandates such as those suggested by the Federal Surface Mining Act.

With this in mind and as a state regulator facing imminent deadlines and fully realizing that trees are a very important and integral portion of any effective reclamation program, we in the West Virginia Division of Reclamation would like to detail problems we foresee or have experienced and request research where appropriate and also to offer our assistance wherever it may be helpful.

The planting of tree seedlings has been the most proven technology of establishing a viable stand. Beyond traditional species (black locust, pines sp., black alder, etc.) it is difficult to find sources for additional and perhaps, more beneficial species. It remains difficult for state nurseries to provide additional stocking species unless specific commitments are established. Many other states probably share this problem.

West Virginia would like to suggest that further research be established which would promote and define additional species which would be economical and adaptable for reclamation usage in the Appalachian Region. The Division of Reclamation, in concert with the Division of Forestry, will also be working on this problem with hopes of obtaining a vigorous program of forest restocking beneficial to all concerned.

Direct seeding of tree species is becoming an increasingly interesting concept which is not new to West Virginia. Direct seeding of some species, particdarly black locust, has been used for several years with good success.

Direct seeding of most other species has met with mixed success, unfortunately, most have resulted in failures. Largely due, most experts feel too intense competition with the grass species which must be planted.

West Virginia again would like to suggest that research be intensified in this regard which would provide additional seed sources and provide an economical and efficient method of obtaining a viable tree stand through direct seeding methodology. West Virginia is also currently exploring direct seeding techniques in cooperation with the Steering Committee on Surface Mining which is made up of the Department of Natural Resources, United States Forest Service and West Virginia Surface Mining and Reclamation Association under a tripartite agreement for surface mining research.

West Virginia is also exploring through new regulations the concept of commercial forest lands as a viable alternate post mining land use for mountain-top removal operations. We anticipate considerable resistance on this

course of action from the Office of Surface Mining. However, West Virginia feels the intent of the federal law was not to negate a very valuable resource, particularly in a timber producing state such as West Virginia. West Virginia solicits any support, both from the research or experience standpoint, that any agency or state may be able to provide.

The results of this symposium should provide many opportunities to renew old research or establish new avenues for research and West Virginia's Department of Natural Resources is ready to avail its expertise towards this end and to provide whenever possible support for research activities which would enhance the art or as we prefer, the science of reclamation.

We would also like to commend the organizers of this symposium for their farsightedness and look forward to more regular gatherings where we can advance the State of the art through cooperation to everyone's mutual benefit.

THE ROLE OF WEST VIRGINIA'S DIVISION OF FORESTRY

Paper p resen ted a t t h e T r e e s f o r Reclamation i n E a s t e r n U.S. Symposium i n Lexington, Kentucky, October 27-29, 1980

Asher W. K e l l y , Jr. , S t a t e F o r e s t e r West V i r g i n i a S t a t e Department of N a t u r a l Resources

D i v i s i o n of F o r e s t r y 1800 Washington S t r e e t , E a s t

C h a r l e s t o n , West V i r g i n i a 25305

Abstract . - -Trees a r e b e s t s u i t e d f o r rec la iming s t r i p p e d a r e a s w i t h a v a l u a b l e p roduc t . W i l d l i f e and f o r e s t r y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s should be t h e concern of o p e r a t o r s , landowners, f o r e s t e r s , and w i l d l i f e b i o l o g i s t s w i t h an o b j e c t i v e of r e t u r n i n g t h e d i s t u r b e d land t o i t s most capable p r o d u c t i v i t y . I n West V i r g i n i a , t r e e s a r e t h e most l o g i c a l and r e a l i s t i c product of t h e l and .

M r . Moderator, members of t h e p a n e l , d i g n i t a r i e s , l a d i e s and gentlemen. As S t a t e F o r e s t e r of West V i r g i n i a , t h e h e a r t of Appa- l a c h i a and t h e c o a l mining r e g i o n , I must p o i n t o u t t h a t t h i s so-ca l led pocket of pov- . e r t y i s v e r y r i c h bo th i n renewable and non- renewable resources . More than 75% of our 1 5 m i l l i o n a c r e s is f o r e s t l a n d . The D i v i s i o n of F o r e s t r y (DOF) of t h e Department of N a t u r a l Resources (DNR) h a s w i t h i n i t s j u r i s d i c t i o n and s u p e r v i s i o n woodland a r e a s , t h e p r o t e c t i o n of f o r e s t a c r e s from damage by f i r e and o t h e r f o r c e s , t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of compacts and agreements r e l a t i n g t o f o r e s t r y a r e a management and husbandry and t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and enforcement of a l l laws p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n , development, p r o t e c t i o n , u s e and enjoyment of a l l f o r e s t l a n d a r e a s of t h e s t a t e . Herein l i e s some of t h e reasoning f o r t h e DOF t o be concerned i n t h e rec lamat ion work.

Much of t h e a r e a h a s been s u r f a c e mined and much more w i l l be. It s o happens t h a t most of t h e a r e a s u r f a c e mined o r could b e , is , o r h a s been f o r e s t l and and i s b e s t s u i t e d f o r f o r e s t p roduc t ion . I n f a c t , most of t h e mined a r e a s have an unaccep tab le low v a l u e f o r any land use o t h e r than f o r e s t p roduc t ion .

r e t u r n and s t i l l hold t h e s o i l . On t h e s t e e p s l o p e s , p r o p e r l y s e l e c t e d t r e e s a r e t h e most reasonable and p r a c t i c a l cover .

One of t h e problems encountered is t h e r e s i s t a n c e of some o p e r a t o r s t o go f u r t h e r than t h e immediate quick cover r o u t e of g r a s s wi th some seed producing sedges , e t c . t h a t appear t o b o l s t e r t h e w i l d l i f e theory . F o r e s t r y h a s no q u a r r e l w i t h t h i s . I n f a c t , we suppor t t h e qu ick cover p rocedure , bu t know t h a t i t is n o t adequate f o r t h e long range needs nor w i l l i t produce a crop commensurate w i t h t h e c a p a b i l i t y of t h e s o i l .

The DOF b e l i e v e s t h a t qu ick cover , fol lowed by t r e e p l a n t i n g , is t h e most reasonable and e q u i t a b l e procedure. Im- mediate s o i l ho ld ing a c t i o n can be e f fec- t i v e and t h e long range produc t ion of a merchantable crop is launched.

D i r e c t seed ing can b e s u c c e s s f u l w i t h c e r t a i n s p e c i e s on a c c e p t a b l e s o i l s ; how- e v e r , each type and s i t e should be evalu- a t e d by a f o r e s t e r t o de te rmine t h e b e s t method of e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e b e s t l and use. The DOF h a s t h a t e x p e r t i s e .

I n most c a s e s , t h e phi losophy of g r a s s Of c o u r s e , t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of t h e and legumes is n o t t h e b e s t permanent s u r f a c e recommended s p e c i e s can be a problem, bu t cover f o r t h e a r e a . The landowner should be w i t h t h e r e s u l t s of r e s e a r c h a l r e a d y pub- helped t o g e t h i s p r o p e r t y back i n t o produc- l i s h e d and/or c u r r e n t l y i n p r o g r e s s , t h e t i o n of a c rop t h a t w i l l p rov ide a monetary

In another project we hired 32 high school students for a planting crew. In a three-month period, they planted 700,000 Virginia pine (1.0) seedlings. That effort was quite successful. The problem with that sort of effort today is the availability of manpower, however, in West Virginia, we are fortunate in that the Soil Conservation Districts maintain planting crews, although their capacity may be limited. Nevertheless, these crews are available for planting trees where they are needed or desired.

These two projects were undertaken in the late 60ts and early 70's. During that period, the use of trees in reclamation in West Virginia was at an all time high. The methods of mining, regrading, and overall overburden handling techniques made the use of trees more desirable than concentrating on ground cover.

Since that time, an intertwining change in laws, methods of mining, equipment, and reclamation standards have caused the emphasis to shift from trees to ground cover. Although trees were still encouraged on slopes, grasses and legumes provided a quicker means of stabilizing disturbed lands.

As the decade proceeded, increased attention was placed on erosion and sediment control. The logical tool to enhance control was grass and legume cover. Of course, with a permanent cover of grasses and legumes being acceptable for bond release, the shift was accelerated because ground cover was effectively established before direct seeded trees could ever be evaluated for survivability, much less long-term success. This meant the bond could be released in shorter time. That was an advantage to the industry.

With all the changes in every aspect of the surface mining industry, there has been a considerable refinement of technology and methods of operation. Such refinement has provided a more acceptable medium for plant growth, both grasses and trees. Today, I feel that any herbaceous or woody species suitable to the area and its climate will have a high rate of survival under normal conditions.

This improved medium provides an advantage to tree planting. For instance, we have found that three pounds of locust seed, instead of the six pounds we used to apply, is more than adequate. Also, we have been able to introduce

other seedling species into West Virginia with a good rate of livability. For example, we have had good success with 2.0 Aspen seedlings from Minnesota. Although not alien to West Virginia, the local source of supply is non- existent. That is why we had such a difficult time obtaining the stock.

While discussing refinement and the advantages it has offered to revegetation, I will mention one other matter which has enhanced tree life on modern surface mining operations. That is, we have found that tall growing legumes such as sericea lespedeza inhibit tree growth and development through undue competition. Therefore, in areas where we plant trees, we use a lower growing species such as birdsfoot trefoil. The result has been noticeably good.

Recent Agricultural Research Service in- vestigators have noted a possible problem relating directly to this increased refinement. That is particularly true in steep slope areas, where compaction of the "backstack" is required or on a mountain-top operation where compaction is inherent to the haulage of material, tree growth may be inhibited by this overcompaction. It is not overcompacted from a stability standpoint, but it may be from a tree planting, growth, and development standpoint. Our problem--how do you resolve the stability question v. optimum tree growth conditions and satisfy the regulatory agencies? If compaction continues to be noted as an in- hibitor to tree growth, it is one area that should warrant the immediate consideration of the forestry profession in concert with the regulatory agencies.

As the methodologies have changed and the refinement of soil manipulation has progressed, so have the types of equipment organic to a surface mine operation. There are those which practically every surface mine operator has, such as a hydroseeder, and there are those which are unusual, but seem to have a place in surface mine reclamation.

Throughout the decade, the use of the hydroseeder has increased substantially. Be- cause of more emphasis on concurrent reclamation and the availability of water, it has been a logical means of applying seed, fertilizer, and mulch. It is quick, cost effective, and highly mobile. The results with hydro- seeding have been most successful, particularly with the grassllegume mixtures. The

disconcerting factor with such increased hydroseeder use is the availability of seed stocks which can be effectively applied with this machine. Other than the typical, i.e., locust and a few species of pines, there are few that can be direct seeded successfully. This is an area in which we need to also direct our concerted research efforts. If a greater variety of seed stock was available and proven successful with hydroseeder application, there would be greater tree usage in surface mine reclamation. It is a question of adaptability and it is incumbent on all of us to provide such information.

There is one other method of tree planting that I recently experimented with on mountain-top operations near Beckley in Raleigh County, West Virginia. It was the "tree spade." It is an unusual piece of equipment to find on a surface mine operation, but it seems that it might certainly have a place in the reclamation community. It would be particularly effective in areas which are to be developed for a more intensive use, such as housing or industrial development. The "spade" is a hydraulically powered inverted cone which cuts (or digs) a cone of earth from the place designated for tree planting. The soil is then removed from the area. Once the hole is prepared, the "spade" moves to the local surrounding woodland, which is usually near a surface mine, and the tree is removed in the same manner as the hole was dug. The inverted cone comprises the root ball for the tree and the size of the cone governs the size of the tree which can be effectively transplanted. The tree, with root ball or cone, is then transported to the original hole and placed in the ground. Of course, more expensive nursery stock can be used if local sources are not available.

As I mentioned, I feel the "tree spade" has a place in today's refined reclamation industry. It permits the use of native species which are generally readily available from the adjacent woodland. Also, it prepares a planting hole and root ball of the same dimensions so that it can be used on an area already stabilized with grasses and legumes without fear of destroying the vegetation. Although unique to the mining industry today, we may see more of these "spades" in the next few years. Our experiment was successful.

Additionally, there are two other points I feel worthy of mention in the context of

this paper. One is discouraging and relates more to a by-product use of trees than to tree planting. The other is encouraging and is related to the new West Virginia Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act's recognition of woodland as an acceptable post-mining land use. Both of these,issues erupted with the enactment of the federal surface mining enforcement program.

The first point is the federal program's prohibition of placing trees on the outside edge of the lowest coal seam being mined. For years, we "windrowedf1 this woody material along the outside perimeter of the haulroads for enhancement of sediment and drainage control, protection and encouragement of new growth, as well as providing escape habitat and browse for wildlife. It had been pio- neered by the U.S. Forest Service in the mid- sixties, yet the Office of Surface Mining, in their regulations, prohibit the placement of this cleared material below the haulroad. That prohibition disturbs me because they are neglecting a most beneficial use of non- merchantable timber and woody material without any justifiable explanation. It is my hope that OSM will consult with the Forest Service and resolve this matter to the benefit of the industry and the environment.

The other point is "upbeat" in that it recognizes woodland as an acceptable postmining land use. The federal government's program (OSM) would not permit private woodland as a goal of reclamation capable of bond release. West Virginia's new law, which was written to achieve primacy of the federal program, recognizes commercial woodland as an acceptable post-mining land use for surface mine reclamation in our state. To do otherwise would have been a total disregard for many people and agencies, such as the University's College of Forestry, the Depart- ment of Natural Resources' Division of Forestry, the state's hardwood forestry industry, the U.S. Forest Service, the Soil Conservation Service, as well as years of beneficial experience in stabilizing our state's lands. That inclusion in our state law is being opposed by the federal government. Why? The only reason we can find is that it does not read the same as the federal law because the federal law does not specify that particular use. We feel that its silence on the subject should not be interpreted as a prohibiting it, particularly when history has reflected such an effective use of trees

in reclamation. As the state holds firm in its position, I am encouraged that it will increase the use of and attention to trees.

Through the years, we have had vast experience with tree planting on Eastern U.S. reclamation projects. Since the mid-fifties, the West Virginia surface mining industry has cooperated with practically every agency involved in the use of trees for land stabilization. Those years have proven beneficial toward improved technology.

In spite of the beneficial experiences of the past years, much has changed in the surface mining and reclamation history. Trees are no longer the prominent ingredient in a reclamation effort. Many things have contributed to this decline in prominence, as I have briefly described. However, there are many things which we, the industry, in concert with you, the professional foresters and regulators, must do to regain the significance of trees in reclamation.

Above all, we must concentrate on adapt- ing trees, their souces, and their use to the revised and refined methods of reclamation now practiced in the East. Although still in use, we must move from the "planting mattock1' and "dibble bar" era to the age of the hydroseeder and automatic machines. We must make tree planting as economical and available as it once was. We must research and experiment with alternatives to increase the availability of planting methods which are cost competitive. We must provide adequate seed sources of differing species which have been proven successful by automatic application in our region. And, there must be greater planning and direction to insure that tree survivability and growth are enhanced, not inhibited through unnecessary competition or inappropriate soil preparation.

It can be done. We did it before and, with all the technological armament we have today, we can do it again.

INTRODUCTION TO PINE REFORESTATION ACTION PLAN

(SLIDE TAPE PRESENTATION)

George N. Brooks

Trees for reclamation can mean many things to different people. Understandably, the pri - mary thrust of th is symposium i s the use of trees in the reclamation of lands formerly and currently mined for coal. This i s a worthy goal, one that the Southeastern Area, State and Private Forestry, earnestly supports. My di s- cussion today, however, will not focus specifi- cally on the reclamation of coal (other minerals) mined lands, but wi 11 include them as a part of the potential forest land base in need of reclamation which can contribute to the nation's growing appetite for wood fiber.

The 1980 Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resource Assessment ( R P A ) projects a 2 billion cubic feet supply defici t by 1990, increasing to 3.5 billion cubic feet by the year 2030.1 The South's projected share indicates 1.0 and 2.2 billion cubic feet defici ts for these same periods. Non-industrial acres of private lands (NIPF) in the South occupy 71 percent of the 63,700,000 acres of forestland capable of growing 85 cubic feet or more of wood per year and offer opportunity for meeting future softwood demand.

What i s alarming has been the trend in reforestation on private, non-i ndustrial 1 ands. Between the years of 1970 and 1977, the acreage of pine seedling and sapling size classes on private, non-industrial ownerships declined by nearly eight mill ion acres. When sawtimber and poletimber size classes are included, the total

In a moment, we will see a slide-tape presentation of the Pine Reforestation Action Plan developed by the Southeastern Area Office of State and Private Forestry. This Action Plan focuses on the 1977 Pine Refofestation Task Force Report recommendati ons . The Task Force Report para1 lel s and complements other efforts to stimulate non-industrial private forest (NIPF) landowner participation in reforestation such as the South's Third Forest Report and the Society of American Forestry Task Force Report on "Improving Outputs From Non-industri a1 Pri - vate Forests", Forest Industries ' Counci 1 ' s productivity studies, and the findings of five non-industrial landowner conferences s onsored by the Associati on of State forester^.^,^ 9 5 y 6

Much concern i s expressed today that our nation must increase i t s level of productivity. The reforestation of mined and harvested land can contribute significantly to the formation of capital for increased productivity and for meeting the projected needs of the nation for wood fiber.

(Sl i de-Tape Presentati on--Southern Pi ne Refor- estation--An investment for the Future).

' ~ i l l is ton, H . L . , 1977, Pine Reforestation Task Force Report, SA, State and Private Forestry, p. 40.

net loss in yellow pine and ~ a k - ~ i n e - t ~ ~ e s was 3~nonymous, 1969. The South's Third Forest, over four mi 11 ion acres, an average of more than A report of the Southern Resource Analysis 625,000 acres per year. To continue this trend would result in a loss of over 30 million acres 111'

~ U S D A - RPA As se ssmen t p.

41979, Improving Outputs from nonindustri a1 private foresters. Report of a task force, Society of American Forester, Journal of For- estry, 77 (3) : p. 11, insert.

'1979, State Forest Productivity Reports, Forest Industries Counci 1 .

6~owel 1 , W.E. , 1980, Bl ueprint for Private Forestlands, American Forests 86 CS; p. 30-33, 44-46, 49, 50.

Thomas G. Zarger 2

-

Abstract--This report reviews TVA program efforts to promote the use of wildlife shrubs in mined-land reclamation including work on plant materials development, demonstrations to acquaint landowners with a variety of food and cover plants, and action programs to incorporate wildlife plants into postmining land use. It deals briefly with wildlife considerations under Public Law 95-87 and the wildlife seedling needs and supply problem.

INTRODUCTION

The remoteness of most Appalachian surface mines logically dictates these lands be returned to their original forest and wildlife condition. While there may occasionally be other land-use options--agriculture, housing, or other community uses--the long- term reclamation goal for most sites should be to ensure their productivity for forestry, fish, and wildlife.

There will be disagreement between resource groups--foresters and wildlifers-- as to what portion of the stripped land (and water) should be devoted to each resource. In looking at forest management from a wildlifer's point of view, Ripley (1973) states:

Conflicts will arise but our mutually shared resource, the forest, is not and should not be the sole concern or property of any group or profession. As long as we, as functional specialists, can accept production realities that are submaximal (we cannot maximize both timber objectives and wildlife target species at one time), progress is possible. . . . It does mean single resource objectives will be subordinate to other multiple goals.

Determining whether disturbed acreage should be managed primarily to yield forest products or provide wildlife habitat will depend on landowner objectives. Resource professionals can help the landowner design an overall management plan for the land, but

'paper presented at Symposium on Trees for Reclamation in the Eastern U.S., Lexin~ton, Kentucky, October 27-29, 1980.

Program Manager, Land Reclamation/ SCOAP Program, Tennessee Valley Authority, Division of Land and Forest Resources, Norris, Tennessee 37828.

one of the resource objectives must be given importance over the other. The kind of vegetation that performs well on the site could influence the landowner in making the final selection.

Some will call the title of this paper ambiguous and even question how one can conduct "reforestation for wildlife." The term "forestationff implies a planting action is being carried out either to convert land into a forest or to replant with trees. Funk and Wagnall s New ~raitical Standard Dictionary defines "forest coverft as the sum total of vegetation in a forest--more especially trees, shrubs, and all the litter on the forest floor. Presumably, this would include all biological activity. And, one of several definitions for a "forester" is a person in charge of a forest, its timber, and its game. Under English law, the forest is wild land belonging to the Crown and kept forthe protection of game. Based ont.hese definitions, we feel comfortable with our title, "forestation for wildlife," and consider it appropriate terminology when applied to the planting of trees and shrubs for the benefit of wildlife populations.

This paper reports on Tennessee Valley Authority program efforts to develop and promote the effective use of wildlife food and cover plants in surface mine reclamation as a site restorative measure and for habitat improvement. A plea is also made to the State and private nursery sector to provide an adequate and dependable supply of seedlings to meet current and future revegetation needs.

WILDLIFE PLANT SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT

An enormous body of literature covers research dealing with problems encountered in mined-land reclamation. A glance at bib- liographies spanning the period of formal

and informal research emphasizes the importance of vegetation in the reclamation scheme. While studies on the performance of forest tree.species predominate, the more recent literature shows an expanding interest in wildlife shrub development and use. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service guide (Rafaill and Vogel 1978) for vegetating surface-mined lands for wildlife in eastern Kentucky and West Virginia reflects this interest .

Most plant materials improvement has been by the U.S. Soil Conservation Service (SCS). Ruffner (1965) and Ruffner and Steiner (1973) summarized shrub evaluations on strip mines and provided species recommendations. Among the SCS's more successful shrub selections are the familiar Cardinal autumn olive (Elaeannus umbellata). Arnot . , bristly locust (~obynia fertilis) , and Remred amur honeysuckle (Lonicera maackii). Studies by the U.S. Forest Service (Plass 1975) and Pe~sylvania State University (Horn 1968) involved comparisons on the performance of different shrub species. Several species with good reclamation potential were identi- f ied.

Plant research by TVA covers efforts to: (1) provide a wide variety of species for reclamation and (2) develop improved strains through progeny testing and selection. Fowler and Adkisson (1980) studied the survival and growth of 17 species--both trees and shrubs--over a range of acid spoil conditions at two locations near the eastern slope of the Cumberland Plateau in east Ten- nessee. They recommended autumn olive,

Selections of the best families and individu- als in the other tests can be initiated at any time. Through selection, gains in food production of 100 percent or more may be realized.

PLANTING DEMONSTRATIONS

A brief historical account of TVA's efforts to promote the use of wildlife shrubs through the demonstration approach is presented to illustrate the growing interest in improvirlg habitat for wildlife. In 1963, food and cover plants were included in the planting plans of four reclamation demonstrations--three in Tennessee and one in Virginia--dealing with the abandoned mined land problem. Holland (1973) reported on how the combination of planting and natural plant succession worked to provide a productive wildlife habitat. Another early 1960 demonstration established on a 300-acre tract of TVA land near the Para- dise Steam Plant in western Kentucky showed that when surface mined lands are well reclaimed, biological productivity develops in a relatively short time (TVA 1969).

These early demonstrations included cooperative plantings in southwestern Virginia with the P e m Virginia Corporation and the Commonwealth of Virginia. During 1970-72 over 135,000 wildlife trees and shrubs were set out on surface mined sites within a 10,000-acre area devoted to wildlife management (Fowler and Perry 1973). The mined areas either predated reclamation legislation or had been legally reclaimed under State provisions. Management planning and practice were geared

elaeagnus cherry (Elaeagnus multif loria), to maximize- wildlife benefits. Arnot bristly locust, sawtooth oak (Quercus acutissima), red maple (Acer rubrum), and All these demonstrations have provided Toringo crabapple (Malus sieboldi) for quick valuable input helping to assess wildlife improvement of wildlife habitat. Autumn potential of surface mined lands and improve olive was given the highest habitat index rating in a ranking of mast, browse, and cover parameters.

Genetic improvement research at TVA is aimed at providing selections for food for a diversity of wildlife, both birds and animals (Scanlon 1979). The selection and evaluation involve 31 tests of 15 species established from 1974 to 1978. Species include the shrub dogwoods (Cornus), shrub oaks (Quercus) , wild grape (Vitis) , cherries and plums (Prunus), and American elder (Sambucus). The payoff from these tests in terms of seed production is only two or three years away. Selections already completed for silky dogwood (C. amonum) are now in nursery propagation for seed orchard use.

reclamation technology. Results on planting performance have application in planning postmining land use for abandoned lands and current and future mining as well.

ACTION PROGRAMS

Considerations for wildlife have played a significant role in two major action programs. One dealt with the reclamation requirements built into the Agency's coal purchase contracts. The other dealt with the Orphan Land Reclamation Demonstration conducted in four Valley coal States (Alabama, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia) between 1976 and 1979.

Coal purchase contracts

TVA coal purchase contrac s let between i January 1971 and November 1978 contained very demanding revegetation requirements. Unless the postmining land use was for agriculture, mine operators were required to revegetate the disturbed acreage with trees, shrubs, and herbaceous ground cover. The planting requirement included wildlife shrubs--some 225 on each acre. These plantings represent perhaps the first large-scale "forestation for wildlife" in southern Appalachia.

TVA used the planting opportunity to acquaint mine operators with a variety of wildlife plants suitable for mine planting and to show landowners how their use improves existing habitat structure and enlarges the food base available to wildlife. TVA provided the seedlings, and mine operators did the planting as part of the revegetation required by State and TVA standards. The improvement plantings ranged from 5 to 10 acres each and involved species selected for their tolerance to acid mine conditions and for their habitat diversity. Some 88 plantings, totaling 503,000 wildlife trees and shrubs, were set out over a range of site conditions between 1973 and 1979. The extensive plantings are available to biologists for monitoring and evaluation and can provide a ready source of seed when needed for nursery production of seedlings in future planting programs.

Orphan Land Reclamation

This Federal-State-landowner action program carried out in a 38-county area over three planting seasons--fall 1976 through spring 1980--involved extensive "forestation for wildlife." The cooperative effort was designed to alleviate offsite impacts by reclaiming orphan mines in a demonstration of techniques and ad- ministrative arrangements that could be applied on old minesites elsewhere in Appalachia.

In treating 14,514 acres, more than 4.6 million of the 10.4 million seedlings planted were wildlife shrubs. The wildlife resource should benefit significantly in years to come from the establishment of these food and cover plants. Game enthusiasts will share immeasura- bly in the wildlife recreational opportunities presented on thousands of acres of land.

WILDLIFE FORESTATION AND PUBLIC LAW 95-87

Regulatory Program (Public Law 95-87) should alert biologists to the opportunity for further developing this resource. Major beneficial impacts are predicted and will come about if biologically sound reclamation considerations are integrated into the mining process.

Under the Act and its supporting regulations, the back-to-contour provision should favor wildlife habitat development. The land configuration resulting from steep-slope mining limits land use, except for forestry and wildlife. The proper selection and placement of wildlife food and cover plants on these sites can contribute significantly to habitat improvement. Permissible land surface modifi- cations to provide water, which animals need along with food and cover, would assure successful development of this resource as a postmining land use. Even fish can be in- corporated if provisions for ponded water are allowed.

WILDLIFE PLANT NEEDS AND SUPPLY

A dependable future supply of wildlife plants and seed is a requisite to meeting reclamation needs throughout southern Appalachia. The demand for seedlings will become more pre- ssing as planting programs visualized under Public Law 95-87 get underway.

Needs

Any projection of needs must consider estimates of abandoned land acreage that can be improved through planting of wildlife food and cover plants and acreage that is disturbed annually in current mining. The SCS (1978) estimates some 160,000 of the 227,000 abandoned acres in southern Appalachia (five Valley States) is suitable for wildlife habitat development. Also, TVA estimates some 9,000 acres is disturbed annually in the Tennessee Valley coalfield by active mining. Another 15,000 to 20,000 acres can be added for active surface mining in the eastern Kentucky and southern West Virginia fields. To translate these land requirements into seedling production, a base production rate of 10 million wildlife plants per year will be required. This estimate is subject to change depending on emphasis given to wildlife in State regulatory programs under OSM's Permanent Regulatory Program.

Generally, there has been a shortage of the kinds of wildlife plants needed for mined-

Frequent references to wildlife in the Federal Office of Surface Mining's Permanent 'contracts let after this date require

operators to comply with all State and Federal regulations.

land reclamation. In 1971 when TVA first required its coal suppliers to include wildlife shrubs in their reclamation plans, there was a short supply and very limited species diversity of planting stock for revegetation. A similar condition prevailed in fall 1976 when TVA initiated the orphan land reclamation demonstration. State nurseries respond- ed by increasing forest tree and wildlife shrub production by some 4.9 million seedlings. Shrubs made up about 40 percent of this production.

While the States expanded production in response to these needs, seedling supply is still short of demand. Increases in production are limited by a shortage of nursery bed space at some of the nurseries. Signifi- cant increases of wildlife plants are also unlikely because of the prior emphasis on production of timber species for general reforestation. Commercial nurseries can be relied on to produce some of the planting stock, but mine operators find many of the private nurseries cater to the ornamental trade, and the cost of seedlings reflects these values.

When apprised of the need, the State and private nursery sectors should respond and . provide much of the required production. Some incentives to producers may be required, but this will help ensure the availability of planting stock needed in the region's planting programs.

LITERATURE CITED

Fowler, D. K. and C. H. Perry, 111. 1973. Three years' development of a public use wildlife area on a mountain coal surface mine in southwest Virginia. Proc. Re- search and Applied Tech. Symp. on Mined- Land Reclamation. Pittsburgh, Pa. March 7-8. p. 319-332.

Fowler, D. K. and L. F. Adkisson. 1980. Survival and growth of wildlife shrubs and trees on acid mine soil. TVA Tech. Note B37. 49 p.

Holland, F. R. 1973. Wildlife benefits from strip mine reclamation, Hutnik and Davis (ed.). Ecology and Reclamation of Devastated Land. Vol. I. Gordon and Breach, Science Publishers, Inc., New York. p. 377-388.

Horn, M. L. 1968. The revegetation of highly acid spoil banks in the bituminous coal region of Pennsylvania. M.S. thesis. Pennsylvania State University. 65 p.

Plass, W. T. 1975. An evaluation of trees and shrubs for planting surface-mined

spoils. USDA Northeast. For. Exp. Stn. Res. Paper NE-317. 8 p.

Rafaill, B. L. and W. G. Vogel. 1978. A guide for vegetating surface-mined lands for wildlife in eastern Kentucky and West Virginia. USDI Fish and Wildlife Service Biological Services Program. FWS/OBS-78/ 84. 89 p.

Ripley, T. H. 1973. A wildlifer looks at forest resources management. J. For. 71(7):405-406.

Ruffner, J. D. 1965. Adaptation and performance of shrubs in mine spoil reclamation. In Proceedings: Coal Mine Spoil Reclama- - tion Symposium. October 11-14. Penn. State Univ., University Park, Pa. p. 117- 123.

and W. W. Steiner. 1973. Evaluation of plants for use on critical sites. In R. j. Hutnik and G. Davis (ed. ) . Ecology and Reclamation on Deva- stated Land. Vol. 11. Gordon and Breach, New York. p. 3-12.

Scanlon, D. H. 1979. Genetic improvement of wildlife shrubs for disturbed sites. In Abstracts of Papers, American Council - for Reclamation Research. Reclamation Rev. 2:43-45.

TVA. 1969. Reclamation brings wildlife back to Paradise strip mine. Brochure. 5 p.

US-SCS. 1978. Draft Environmental Impact Statement, Rural Abandoned Mine Program. USDA Soil Conservation Service, Washington, DC. 48p.

REVEGETATION FOR AESTHETICS l

Bernard M. s l i c k 2

Abstract . - -Surface mining is changing t h e landscape c h a r a c t e r of f o r e s t s i n t h e E a s t . A e s t h e t i c v i s u a l a s p e c t s of t h e landscape a r e cons idered i n t h e a n a l y s i s , p lann ing , and d e s i g n of r e v e g e t a t i o n s t r a t e g i e s . Appl ica t ion of landscape a r c h i t e c t u r a l d e s i g n techniques i n t h e revegeta- t i o n of surface-mined l a n d s , a s w e l l a s knowledge of b io log- i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , w i l l enhance t h e v i s u a l c h a r a c t e r of t h e mined landscape.

--

INTRODUCTION i n t h e r e j e c t i o n o r a p p r e c i a t i o n and accep t - ance of a p r o j e c t by t h e p u b l i c . Because of

From t h e t ime t h e f i r s t c o l o n i s t s a r r i v e d t h e s e concerns r e c e n t n a t i o n a l p o l i c i e s and i n t h e E a s t , n a t u r a l p rocesses ( s o i l and c l i - l e g i s l a t i v e a c t i o n s have l e g i t i m a t e l y recog- mate, f i r e , and i n s e c t s ) and man (axes , p l m s , n i z e d formal c o n s i d e r a t i o n of a e s t h e t i c s and b u l l d o z e r s ) have shaped t h e l a n d , f o r e s t a long w i t h o t h e r environmental v a l u e s i n plan- v e g e t a t i o n , and openings i n t o p a t t e r n s which n ing and decision-making. today lend v a r i e t y t o t h e landscape. These e v e n t s have v a r i e d i n l o c a t i o n , t ime , and in - t e n s i t y b u t most of t h e landscape h a s been LANDS CAPE CHARACTER impacted by man a t one t i m e o r a n o t h e r . Al- t e r a t i o n s i n t h e v i s u a l c h a r a c t e r of t h e land- A e s t h e t i c s involves a l l of t h e senses-- scape i n t h e decades ahead w i l l b e a r e s u l t sound, s m e l l , touch, t a s t e , s i g h t , and move- of man's con t inu ing u s e , management and m i s - ment. However, i t is most o f t e n equated i n management of t h e l and . a v i s u a l s e n s e t o denote q u a l i t y and a t t r a c -

t i v e n e s s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e appearance o r The landscape h a s t aken on meaning be- v i s u a l appea l of t h e landscape be ing viewed.

cause of t h e v a r i e t y and composition of pa t - t e r n s t h a t e x i s t . Landscapes r i c h i n v a r i e t y Regard less of t h e s i z e o r segment of t h e a r e l i k e l y t o have more v i s u a l a p p e a l and aes- landscape be ing viewed, i t h a s a n i d e n t i f i - t h e t i c v a l u e than ones t end ing toward monot- a b l e c h a r a c t e r . The landscape c h a r a c t e r i s ony. I n r e c e n t y e a r s man's a c t i v i t i e s have d e s c r i b e d i n terms of l a n d and rock forms, had a profound e f f e c t on t h e f a c e of our f o r - v e g e t a t i v e p a t t e r n s , wate r forms, and s t r u c - e s t e d landscapes. More and more l a n d h a s t u r e s a s seen by an observer i n terms of f o u r been v i s i b l y a f f e c t e d . The American people b a s i c elements--form, l i n e , c o l o r , and tex- have become i n c r e a s i n g l y aware of and con- t u r e . These a r e components of t h e v i s u a l r e - cerned about t h e a e s t h e t i c q u a l i t y of t h e i r s o u r c e t h a t when s e e n i n vary ing combinations environment. Among t h e s e concerns h a s been can be used t o e v a l u a t e a e s t h e t i c s o r v i s u a l t h e v i s u a l e f f e c t s of s u r f a c e mining which q u a l i t y of a n a r e a . I n prov id ing r e s o u r c e s a r e o f t e n immediate and n o t i c e a b l e from a f o r t h e ati ion's economy, we o f t e n have no d i s t a n c e . Often t h e s e e f f e c t s weigh h e a v i l y cho ice b u t t o c r e a t e a l t e r a t i o n s from t h e

surrounding landscape. Acceptable a l t e r a t i o n is based upon t h e degree of change, measured i n terms of v i s u a l c o n t r a s t , allowed i n t h e form, l i n e , c o l o r , and t e x t u r e of t h e char-

'paper p resen ted a t t h e "Trees f o r Rec- a c t e r i s t i c landscape. l amat ion i n t h e E a s t e r n U. S . I' symposium, Lexington, Kentucky. October 27-29, 1980.

2 ~ a n d s c a p e A r c h i t e c t , USDA-Forest Serv- i c e , Nor theas te rn F o r e s t Experiment S t a t i o n , 204 Center S t r e e t , Berea, Kentucky 40403.

7 5

An examinat ion of t h e l andscape c h a r a c t e r of t h e c o a l r e g i o n s of t h e e a s t e r n United S t a t e s r e v e a l s one of t h e i r most v a l u a b l e re - s o u r c e s is t h e s c e n i c q u a l i t y of t h e i r r u r a l l andscape i n each of t h e phys iographic regions. The a t t r a c t i v e n e s s i s d e r i v e d from a v a r i e t y of f e a t u r e s w i t h t h e i n t e g r a l s c e n i c element be ing t h e v e g e t a t i v e cover and pa t - t e r n s t h a t g i v e c h a r a c t e r t o t h e v i s u a l resource . Cropland and g r a s s l a n d a r e t h e dom- i n a t i n g v e g e t a t i o n of t h e I n t e r i o r r e g i o n s w h i l e t h e Appalachian r e g i o n i s dominated by mixed hardwoods i n t h e n o r t h and pine-hardwood f o r e s t s i n t h e south. There is consid- e r a b l e range i n v e g e t a t i v e types i n bo th deciduous and c o n i f e r o u s s p e c i e s . Unders tor ies i n c l u d e a wide v a r i e t y of shrubs , f o r b s , and g r a s s e s . There a r e s e a s o n a l c o l o r c o n t r a s t s which g r e a t l y c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e i n t e r e s t . Each of t h e s e r e g i o n s is r e l a t i v e l y w e l l de- f i n e d n o t only i n terms of t e r r a i n and vege- t a t i o n p a t t e r n s b u t a l s o i n terms of v i s u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

More than one- th i rd of t h e t o t a l of t h e E a s t and South is f o r e s t e d . It has been es- t imated 90 percen t of t h e s u r f a c e mining h a s been o r is being conducted on f o r e s t e d a r e a s where 65-85 p e r c e n t of t h e landscape is s t e e p . The removal of v e g e t a t i o n d u r i n g mining and i ts rees tab l i shment d u r i n g rec lamat ion c r e a t e s s i g n i f i c a n t changes i n t h e v i s u a l p a t t e r n s of t h e cover types and open spaces. This is es - p e c i a l l y n o t i c e a b l e when t h e r e is a cont inuous f o r e s t cover .

P r i v a t e l a n d s prov ide 94 p e r c e n t of t h e t o t a l t imber i n t h e Eas t and accommodate in- t e n s i v e r e c r e a t i o n a l and w i l d l i f e use and development. However, much of t h i s f o r e s t l a n d i s poor ly managed and s tocked w i t h t r e e s of poor q u a l i t y due t o e a r l i e r "highgrading" o r removal of q u a l i t y t r e e s . Many opportu- n i t i e s w i l l b e a v a i l a b l e t o improve p l a n t community c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t w i l l p rov ide r e c r e a t i o n , w i l d l i f e p o t e n t i a l , and landscape c h a r a c t e r through pre-planning of rec lamat ion on t h o s e l a n d s s u b j e c t e d t o s u r f a c e and underground mining impacts .

PLANNING PROCESS

Evalua t ion of t h e v i s u a l resource in- v o l v e s inventory , a n a l y s i s , and de te rmina t ion of o b j e c t i v e s o r s t a n d a r d s , and i n c o r p o r a t e s a l l of t h e s e ( t o g e t h e r w i t h o t h e r r e s o u r c e informat ion) i n t o t h e r e s o u r c e p lanning process . It should a l s o i n c l u d e post-eval- u a t i o n of p lanning and p r o j e c t accomplish- ments concerning t h e v i s u a l resource .

VISUAL INVENTORY

"When needed" t o suppor t c o n d i t i o n s a t t h e pre-mine p lanning s t a g e , a v i s u a l inven- t o r y is u t i l i z e d t o i d e n t i f y , c l a s s i f y , eva l - u a t e , and map t h e v i s u a l resource accord ing t o v a r i e t y c l a s s e s and d i s t a n c e zones and t o d e l i n e a t e p h y s i c a l landscape q u a l i t y i n r e l a - t i o n t o u s e r concern o r p re fe rence . This b a s e l i n e in format ion is used f o r :

1. I d e n t i f y i n g t h e e x i s t i n g v i s u a l con- d i t i o n of t h e landscape a t a g iven t ime .

2. Judging landscape q u a l i t y .

3. Determining t h e a b i l i t y of t h e land t o absorb change.

4. P r e d i c t i n g t h e v i s u a l impacts and consequences of a proposed p r o j e c t .

5. Determining t h e need f o r modif i ca - t i o n of p roposa l s .

6. Monitor ing t h e e f f e c t s of t h e ap- p l i e d rec lamat ion t rea tment over t ime .

I n a d d i t i o n t h e d a t a can b e very u s e f u l i n i d e n t i f y i n g a r e a s a e s t h e t i c a l l y u n s u i t a b l e f o r mining and e x i s t i n g reclaimed a r e a s i n need of r e h a b i l i t a t i o n and/or enhancement. Also, i t may be used f o r ga in ing suppor t of p roposa l s t o change p r i o r land uses t o a l - t e r n a t i v e p o s t mining u s e s which may c o n t r i b - u t e more t o improving landscapes than r e t a i n - i n g pre-mining use.

Vege ta t ive d a t a needed by t h e reclama- t i o n i s t g e n e r a l l y w i l l be s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r v i s u a l a n a l y s i s . Th is i n c l u d e s such f a c t o r s a s e x i s t i n g on and o f f s i t e s p e c i e s of t r e e s , age and s i z e of t r e e s , mix ture of d i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s , even aged o r uneven aged s t a n d s , p r o d u c t i v i t y , cover d e n s i t y , ground cover , unders to ry c o n d i t i o n , l a y e r i n g , shrub and t r e e r a t i o , d i v e r s i t y of s t a n d s , and openings, and p r i o r use. A d d i t i o n a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n must be given t o n a t i v e v e r s u s in t roduced s p e c i e s , t h r e a t e n e d and endangered p l a n t s , animals suppor ted by t h e v e g e t a t i o n , y e a r l y and sea- s o n a l v a r i a b i l i t y , exposure of s t a n d s , wind- f i rmness , i n s e c t and d i s e a s e c o n d i t i o n , po- t e n t i a l f o r r e v e g e t a t i o n , and o t h e r r e l e v a n t in format ion of t h e a r e a .

VISUAL ANALYSIS

The l e v e l of t h e a n l a y s i s should be commensurate wi th t h e l e v e l of v i s u a l r e s o u r c e s e n s i t i v i t y and t h e magnitude of proposed im- p a c t s . The a n a l y s i s must be s u f f i c i e n t t o

ensure a reclamation scheme t h a t b e s t s a t i s - f i e s t h e environment, postmining, l o c a l , and regional land use ob jec t ives , o r a r e a development plans.

The a r e a used t o s tudy t h e landscape and the v i s u a l impacts of a c t i v i t y a l t e r a t i o n i s ca l l ed a viewshed. It i s t h e t o t a l landscape seen o r p o t e n t i a l l y seen from a l l o r a logi - c a l p a r t of s cen ic a r e a s , t r a v e l co r r ido r s , use a r eas , and water bodies which a r e £re- quented by and r ead i ly v i s i b l e t o l a r g e numbers of u se r s and v i s i t o r s .

In p red i c t i ng and monitoring the v i s u a l e f f e c t s of mining i n t h e viewshed i t is de- s i r a b l e t o e s t a b l i s h an app rop r i a t e number of on and off s i t e view po in t s , e i t h e r moving o r non-moving, wi th t y p i c a l views of a c t i v i t y . These po in t s a r e documented on a map with l i n e s drawn t o t h e a c t i v i t y from those views which a r e deemed important t o a r ea r e s iden t s and p o t e n t i a l l y obvious t o v i s i t o r s t o t h e region. It is t h e views from t h e c r i t i c a l poin ts (o f t en loca t ions from which a c t i v i t y i s most seen) which w i l l i d e n t i f y p o t e n t i a l f o r v i s u a l concern. P ro j ec t l oca t ion , observer pos i t i on , and d i s t ance zones a r e recogni t ion f a c t o r s which w i l l he lp t o determine what t he a e s t h e t i c p i c t o r i a l o r v i s u a l e f f e c t of changes i n t h e landscape w i l l be from the view po in t s due t o viewer l oca t ion and pos i t i on , a r e a and angle of view, length of view, number of viewers, dura t ion of view, times seen , and f o c a l poin t s e n s i t i v i t y . Observations a r e supported by topographic maps, ske tches , photos, and computer p r in tou t s .

Locat ion

This is a very important f a c t o r because the re a r e r e a l l y few places i n t h e landscape where excess ive vege t a t i ve c l ea r ing can go unnoticed. Mining, because of t he a r e a d i s - turbed, r e s u l t s i n a focus of a t t e n t i o n . Lo- ca t ion is c r i t i c a l because of varying capabil- i t i e s of t h e land t o withstand modificat ion and varying degrees of v i s u a l s e n s i t i v i t y f o r each area . Some p a r t s of t h e landscape w i l l be recognized a s being more s e n s i t i v e t o i m - pac ts than o thers . Changes on s t eepe r upland s lopes a r e more conspicuous than on f l a t t e r ground. The higher t h e depos i t l oca t ion on a s lope o r r i dge , t he more extens ive t he view po in t s and g r e a t e r t h e d i s t ance from which mine a c t i v i t y can be seen.

Topographic o r i e n t a t i o n can be associa ted wi th d i f f e r e n t v i s u a l e f f e c t s . South-facing s lopes usual ly have g rea t e r v i s i b i l i t y than those fac ing no r th because they r ece ive more d i r e c t and g r e a t e r amounts of sun l igh t . Pat- t e r n s i n vegeta t ion vary due t o e l eva t ion and o r i en t a t i on . Conifer hardwood pa t t e rns i n

p a r t i c u l a r a r e t raced t o o r i e n t a t i o n con- t r a s t s .

Many primary t r anspor t a t i on co r r ido r s fol low old mine haul road loca t ions . Often they pass by o r through the center of t he mining d i s t r i c t wi th many aspects of mining i n t h e viewshed v i s i b l e t o highway t r a v e l e r s .

Distance Zones

These a r e d iv i s ions of a p a r t i c u l a r landscape being viewed. They a r e used t o de- s c r i b e t he p a r t of a landscape t h a t is being inventor ied o r evaluated from key viewing poin ts . These varying zones of d i s t ance a r e concerned more wi th t he ho r i zon ta l r e l a t i on - sh ip of t h e observer t o t he a c t i v i t y and a r e c l a s s i f i e d and quan t i f i ed i n d is tances a t which d e t a i l s can be seen a s :

foreground ( 0 - 1/2 mile) middleground (1/2 - 3-5 miles) background (3-5 miles - i n f i n i t y )

One o r more of these v i s u a l zones may be r e a d i l y perceived i n most landscapes.

Distance zones e s t a b l i s h a d i s t i n c t i v e re la t ions l i ip between the viewer and the seen landscape. An a c t i v i t y o r scene may be viewed from any one of a number of d i s t ances . A s these d i s t ances d i f f e r t he observers i m - p ress ion of t h e v i s u a l con t r a s t w i l l vary a s perception decreases with increas ing distance. For example, t he s i z e and shape of a reclaimed a r e a appears l a r g e r t o an observer who is r e l a t i v e l y c lo se t o i t and smaller when they a r e some d i s t ance away.

Observer Pos i t ion

This i s t h e e l eva t ion of t h e observer r e l a t i v e t o t h e a c t i v i t y being viewed i n t he landscape. It focuses on t h e v e r t i c a l re la - t i onsh ip between observer and a c t i v i t y .

Slope angle and i ts aspect r e l a t i v e t o t he observer pos i t i on af f e c t s t he v i s i b i l i t y of t h e s lope and the development or a c t i v i - t i e s t h a t take p lace upon t h e s lope . This range of pos i t i ons i s c l a s s i f i e d a s :

1. Observer below ( i n f e r i o r )

2. Observer l e v e l (normal)

3. Observer above (super ior )

View pos i t i on inf luences perception. The apparent s i z e of mine d is turbance is d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e angle between t h e viewer 's l i n e of s i g h t and t h e s lope being

viewed. As t h i s a n g l e n e a r s 90' t h e s i t u a - t i o n reaches i ts maximum c o n t r a s t and becomes more c r i t i c a l . A change i n apparen t s i z e and/or shape a l s o occurs when d i s t u r b a n c e is viewed from d i f f e r e n t h o r i z o n t a l a n g l e s and t h e observer remains a t t h e same e l e - v a t ion.

LANDSCAPE DESIGN

The e x i s t i n g v i s u a l elements--form, l i n e , c o l o r , and t e x t u r e of v e g e t a t i o n and landforms nrov ide t h e b a s i s f o r des ign ing t h e v i s u a i a s p e c t s of rec lamat ion . The degree t o which t h e s e elements a r e a l t e r e d by an a c t i v i t y a r e measured i n terms of v i s u a l c o n t r a s t w i t h t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c landscape a s t o q u a l i t i e s of s i z e , s c a l e , amount, i n t e n s i t y , d i r e c t i o n , p a t t e r n , e t c .

The fo l lowing g u i d e l i n e s , w h i l e by no means complete, a r e in tended t o provide d i - r e c t i o n f o r measuring t h e v i s u a l r e s o u r c e change t h a t w i l l be in t roduced by t h e a c t i v - i t y and t h e a n t i c i p a t e d viewer response t o t h a t change. They may be a p p l i e d n o t only i n s e n s i t i v e a r e a s o r unusual c i rcumstances , bu t r o u t i n e l y i n a l l a c t i v i t i e s , and by a l l d i s c i p l i n e s .

Cont ras t

When we view t h e v i s u a l r e s o u r c e a s we move from one p o s i t i o n t o ano ther we r e a l i z e t h a t t h e r e is an apparen t harmony and u n i t y of t h e n a t u r a l f e a t u r e s . When man manipu- l a t e s t h e f e a t u r e s he a l t e r s t h e elements and produces many a r t i f i c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which modify t h e landscape c h a r a c t e r i n ac- c e p t a b l e o r unaccep tab le degrees of c o n t r a s t .

Cont ras t i s t h e r e s u l t of d i f f e r e n c e s r a t h e r than s i m i l a r i t i e s between a d j a c e n t p a r t s . A c t i v i t i e s t h a t c r e a t e no v i s u a l con- t r a s t a r e simply n o t n o t i c e d . Those t h a t c r e a t e e x t e n s i v e c o n t r a s t , such a s a b r u p t edges, u n n a t u r a l form, and v e g e t a t i v e pa t - t e r n s , c a n be picked out i n s t a n t l y even by t h e most inexper ienced observer . I n most c a s e s we want t o reduce c o n t r a s t s b u t t h e r e a r e cases where purposefu l c r e a t i o n of s h a r p con- t r a s t s (such a s t h e a d d i t i o n of f lower ing p l a n t m a t e r i a l ) can be b e n e f i c i a l .

Visua l q u a l i t y is o f t e n reduced t h e more an a c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t s w i t h o r v i s u a l l y domi- n a t e s t h e landscape. Therefore , t h e more an a c t i v i t y r e p e a t s o r borrows from t h e b a s i c elements (form, l i n e , c o l o r , and t e x t u r e ) t h e l e s s v i s u a l c o n t r a s t and t h e more i t becomes v i s u a l l y p l e a s a n t . Landscapes w i t h unaccept- a b l e c o n t r a s t can u s u a l l y be designed t o ach ieve v i s u a l l y a c c e p t a b l e v a r i e t y .

It i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e q u a l i t y of sur - rounding landscape is s o low o r l a c k i n g i n v a r i e t y t h a t a lmost any a c t i v i t y would i m - prove v i s u a l q u a l i t y and r e l i e v e monotony by prov id ing v a r i e t y and v i s u a l l y a c c e p t a b l e c o n t r a s t . Conversely, surroundings could be of h i g h q u a l i t y and an a c t i v i t y could be very d e s t r u c t i v e t o v i s u a l q u a l i t y .

Form

Vegeta t ive form is expressed i n t h e shape of i n d i v i d u a l , groups, o r masses of p l a n t i n g s and c l e a r i n g s . Di f fe rences i n h e i g h t , d e p t h , and w i d t h promote changes i n shape and s i z e o r s i l h o u e t t e which c r e a t e c o n t r a s t . Light shades and shadows accen t form.

The shape of an opening c r e a t e d by sur - f a c e mine c l e a r i n g is one of t h e most impor- t a n t a s p e c t s i n t h e v i s u a l landscape. I f t h e shape of t h e opening can b e r e l a t e d t o t h e sur rounding landscape s o t h a t i t appears n a t - u r a l , a minimal c o n t r a s t w i l l be t h e end product . I n some a r e a s t h e r e may be an absence of n a t u r a l openings t o s imula te . The problem then of making a c l e a r i n g appear n a t - u r a l i s very d i f f i c u l t . It can be overcome though, by r e p e a t i n g t h e d i r e c t i o n a l emphasis of p a t t e r n s i n t h e landscape forms from r i d g e l i n e s and dra inages .

Shape of v e g e t a t i v e p a t t e r n s , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e l a r g e and geometr ic o r u n n a t u r a l i n form, can dominate a landscape. I r r e g u l a r and free-f o m shapes expose l e s s a r e a t o view, s o f t e n t h e v i s u a l c o n t r a s t between p l a n t i n g s and openings, and s i m u l a t e n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s o r t r a d i t i o n a l forms of l and u s e i n t h e v i c i n i t y . S t r a t e g i c a l l y l o c a t e d is- l a n d s , clumps, groups, o r f i n g e r s of vegeta- t i o n h e l p t o a l t e r t h e shape and apparen t s i z e of openings.

Where a l a r g e a r e a is t o b e d i s t u r b e d i n a s e r i e s of c l e a r i n g s over a per iod of y e a r s t h e e f f e c t must be considered n o t on ly from t h e f i r s t c l e a r i n g bu t from t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of subsequent ones. The cumulat ive e f f e c t is impor tan t .

S c a l e r e f e r s t o t h e r e l a t i v e s i z e of c l e a r i n g s o r openings i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e sur - rounding landscape be ing viewed. For aes- t h e t i c improvement, s i z e of openings o r p l a n t i n g s should be v a r i e d accord ing t o t h e viewing d i s t a n c e . The s c a l e of many mining

a c t i v i t i e s is expressed i n under tak ings of d i f f e r i n g c h a r a c t e r o r d i r e c t i o n . The forms c o l l o s a l s i z e even i n t h e expansiveness of of con tour mine c l e a r i n g s o f t e n have a l i n e a r t h e i r surroundings. A l l a r e on a s c a l e to - c o n f i g u r a t i o n w i t h l i n e s t h a t may l e a d t h e t a l l y d iv ided from our v a r i e d and i n t i m a t e l y o b s e r v e r ' s eye toward f o c a l p o i n t s of i n t e r - humanized landscape. There is no doubt t h a t e s t o r draw a t t e n t i o n t o incongruous elements. l a r g e acreages of d i s t u r b a n c e a t t r a c t a t t e n - t i o n and have t h e p r o p e r t i e s of be ing aes- t h e t i c m i s f i t s . Edge--

S c a l e i s a v i t a l f a c t o r i n t h e absorp- t i o n of s u r f a c e mine c l e a r i n g s i n t o t h e view of t h e landscape. When t h e s i z e o r amount of c l e a r i n g i s e x t e n s i v e i t may q u i c k l y adverse- l y change t h e landscape c h a r a c t e r beyond ac- c e p t a b l e l i m i t s . Because of t h e i r s i z e , c l e a r i n g s a r e v i s i b l e from g r e a t d i s t a n c e s , a r e obvious through a l l seasons of t h e y e a r , and show up under p r a c t i c a l l y a l l a tmospheric c o n d i t i o n s .

Proper s i z e i s dependent upon t h e n a t u r e , q u a l i t y , and c h a r a c t e r of t h e sur rounding landscape. Small s c a l e p r o j e c t s may s t a n d ou t due t o t h e i r form, l i n e , c o l o r , and tex- t u r e . When t h e wid th of a c l e a r i n g i s no more than s e v e r a l t i m e s t h e h e i g h t of t h e surrounding t r e e s t h e space i t s e l f becomes s h a r p l y d e l i n e a t e d i n an a l l e y - l i k e enclosure. The wider t h e opening t h e l e s s e n c l o s u r e and t h e g r e a t e r t h e f e e l i n g of space .

Large elements r e q u i r e a s u f f i c i e n t amount of space t o permit r e t e n t i o n of na t - u r a l n e s s . As soon a s t h e p r o p o r t i o n of man- made form is g r e a t enough t o cha l lenge na- t u r & supremacy t h e s p e l l of n a t u r a l sur - roundings is broken.

Ground form--

The b a s i c form of topography (mountains, p l a i n s , h i l l s ) i s r e p e a t e d i n t h e form (coni- c a l , h o r i z o n t a l , rounding) of n a t i v e p l a n t s . The e f f e c t s of reclaimed mine landforms can be modif ied by p l a n t i n g s . P l a n t s can be used t o a c c e n t u a t e o r t o mask s u r f a c e changes. Po in ted p l a n t i n g masses a c c e n t u a t e ; rounded masses b lend and merge. P l a n t i n g s can cause a s l o p e t o merge w i t h a p lane such a s a bench and may be used t o v i s u a l l y i n c r e a s e o r de- c r e a s e h e i g h t of a s l o p e .

Line

Lines d i s t i n g u i s h i n g v e g e t a t i v e forms may be cont inuous o r i s o l a t e d o b j e c t s o r p o i n t s a long t h e s u r f a c e which a r e connected by our eyes t o form a l i n e a r p a t h of v i s i o n . Lines may be r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e s i l h o u e t t e of a t r e e , t h e edge of a meadow, a f o r e s t e d r i d g e l i n e , con tour , o r a t r e e t runk . A l l l i n e s have d i r e c t i o n - h o r i z o n t a l , v e r t i c a l , o r ob l ique . Cont ras t r e s u l t s from l i n e s of

Edges where d i s s i m i l a r f e a t u r e s come t o g e t h e r a r e e s p e c i a l l y conspicuous tochange. A t t e n t i o n i s d i r e c t e d t o t h e maximum con- t r a s t s . For i n s t a n c e , skyl ine-- the s i l h o u - e t t e where sky meets f o r e s t o r l and ; water- line--where wate r meets t h e f o r e s t o r l a n d ; and v e g e t a t i v e edge--where g r a s s and f o r e s t meet, o r where c o n i f e r meets hardwood.

Skyl ine edge--Frequently mine c l e a r i n g s a r e prominent ly d i s p l a y e d a g a i n s t o r n e a r t h e s k y l i n e . The d a r k e r c o l o r of t h e t e r r a i n is i n s h a r p c o n t r a s t t o t h e l i g h t e r c o l o r of t h e sky and c louds . Ridge l ine j u n c t u r e s can be s k y l i n e but a r e u s u a l l y viewed a g a i n s t o t h e r s u r f a c e backgrounds.

Vege ta t ive edge--Changes i n v e g e t a t i o n a l types o f t e n c r e a t e abrup t v i s u a l c o n t r a s t due t o d i f f e r e n c e s i n s o i l o r v e g e t a t i o n c o l o r . For example, i n Appalachia many contour sur - f a c e mines a r e l o c a t e d i n f o r e s t s . Reclama- t i o n w i t h herbaceous m a t e r i a l c r e a t e s an abrup t s h a r p boundary l i n e o r edge between t h e s t a r k openings and t h e surrounding w a l l of dense undis tu rbed woods which s t o p s eye movement and draws a t t e n t i o n . This u n n a t u r a l s t r o n g l i n e c o n f i g u r a t i o n can b e modif ied by p l a n t i n g s h r u b s and s m a l l t r e e s t o undula te o r f e a t h e r t h e edge between t h e g r a s s opening and t h e f o r e s t . The edge of t h e woods should be maintained a s an i r r e g u l a r l i n e and gen- e r a l l y fo l low t h e con tour .

Thinning of edges exposed a s a r e s u l t of c l e a r i n g is important i n some s e n s i t i v e s i t u - a t i o n s . Unprotected exposed edges have g r e a t e r p o t e n t i a l f o r wind damage and v i s u a l - l y have a "raw" impene t rab le w a l l - l i k e appearance.

S e l e c t i v e removal of v e g e t a t i o n back 50 t o 100 f e e t o r s o from new edge reduces t h e impact of wind by f i l t e r i n g movement and d i s - r u p t i n g i t s f o r c e , reduces t h e abrup t edge, and ex tends t h e boundaries of t h e perce ived space. E x i s t i n g ground and shrub v e g e t a t i o n should be r e t a i n e d a s i t prov ides a g r a d u a l s l o p e o r d r i f t t r a n s i t i o n i n s i z e from g r a s s t o t r e e s and i s e s s e n t i a l f o r e r o s i o n con- t r o l . V i s u a l l y t h e r e s u l t a f t e r a per iod of t ime w i l l a l low a more n a t u r a l appearing h e a l t h y f o r e s t edge which w i l l a l s o b e n e f i t w i l d l i f e .

During c l e a r i n g o p e r a t i o n s new edges t h e landscape t h e e a s i e r it i s t o des ign f o r should be upgraded by removing weak r o o t e d , t e x t u r e . dead, broken, l e a n i n g , hung, o r v i s u a l l y un- a t t r a c t i v e t r e e s and c u t t i n g and d i s t r i b u t i n g s l a s h ( i f n o t removed) c l o s e t o t h e ground. V a r i e t y

Water l ine edge--This edge i s a v e r y dominant f o c a l p o i n t due t o t h e f l a t n e s s of t h e s u r f a c e of t h e wate r which is s e e n a s a d e f i n i t e l i n e a g a i n s t t h e l a n d . P l a n t i n g s which border t h e s h o r e s o r banks of l a k e s , ponds, o r s t reams should b e a r much t h e same r e l a t i o n t o t h e wate r s u r f a c e t h a t t r e e p l a n t i n g s surrounding an opening might have t o a g r a s s s u r f a c e .

P l a n t i n g i r r e g u l a r masses t o t h e w a t e r ' s edge produces harmony between p l a n t i n g and wate r and masks t h e h a r s h s h o r e l i n e edge. Also, s h o r e l i n e p l a n t i n g s a r e mi r rored i n form by t h e i r r e f l e c t i o n on t h e wate r . P l a n t - i n g ~ n e a r w a t e r can prov ide an i n t e r e s t i n g and n a t u r a l d i v e r s i t y of view e s p e c i a l l y f o r a r e a s which a r e s u b j e c t t o p u b l i c use .

Color and L i g h t i n g

Color and l i g h t i n g enab le us t o d i s t i n - gu ish between o b j e c t s of i d e n t i c a l form, l i n e , c o l o r , and t e x t u r e . They can a l s o be used t o subdue man-made and n a t u r a l o b j e c t s .

Color c o n t r a s t s a r e expressed a s hue o r chroma ( r e d , b l u e ) i n t e n s i t y o r b r i l l a n c e ( p u r i t y of c o l o r ) and a s v a l u e ( l i g h t , d a r k ) . C o n t r a s t s may v a r y s i g n i f i c a n t l y w i t h t h e t ime of day, wea ther , d i s t a n c e , and season of t h e y e a r . I n o r d e r t o use c o l o r s u c c e s s f u l l y i t must be s t u d i e d under l o c a l a tmospheric condi t ions . Cons idera t ion must be given t o how i t w i l l b e seen from c r u c i a l view p o i n t s .

Color and l i g h t i n g c o n t r a s t is o f t e n t h e most n o t i c e a b l e r e s u l t of s u r f a c e mine opera- t i o n s a s a d j a c e n t c o n t r a s t i n g c o l o r s and shadows s t o p t h e eye. The removal of p l a n t m a t e r i a l and exposure of t h e s u r f a c e es tab- l i s h e s a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r a s t w i t h d a r k e r a d j o i n i n g undis tu rbed v e g e t a t i o n .

Texture

Texture r e s u l t s g e n e r a l l y from t h e pa t - t e r n c r e a t e d upon t h e t e r r a i n by v e g e t a t i o n and o t h e r s u r f a c e elements. Tex ture ranges from f i n e o r smooth t o c o a r s e o r rough. Smooth and d u l l s u r f a c e s a f f e c t l i g h t re- f l e c t i o n and absorp t ion . The p e r c e p t i o n of t e x t u r e and p a t t e r n s v a r i e s w i t h observer p o s i t i o n and d i s t a n c e zones. C o n t r a s t s between t e x t u r e s r e s u l t from smooth elements a g a i n s t coarse and l i g h t and d a r k d i f f e r e n c e s i n c o l o r tone. The more v a r i e t y t h e r e is i n

V a r i e t y i s an assor tment of d i f f e r e n t p a r t s of t h e l andscape . "Richness" o r d i - v e r s i t y bo th c a r r y t h e same concept . How- e v e r , q u a n t i t y of v a r i e d p a r t s is no as- surance of q u a l i t y . Landscapes ranking h igh i n v i s u a l v a l u e a r e u s u a l l y those of above average v a r i e t y .

Landscapes r i c h i n v a r i e t y a r e d e s i r - a b l e . Vege ta t ion can enhance an a r e a where l i t t l e v a r i e t y now e x i s t s . For example, spe- c i e s can be in t roduced t o p rov ide s p r i n g c o l o r , h i g h l i g h t f a l l c o l o r , and t o c r e a t e c o n t r a s t i n form, f o l i a g e growth h a b i t , and s i z e . Openings can add v a r i e t y t o a f o r e s t e d landscape t h a t o therwise might be a monotonous cover of t r e e s . The same can be s a i d f o r t h e a d d i t i o n of t r e e s t o l a r g e openings.

Ordinary o r minimal ' v a r i e t y landscapes w i t h s imple and uniform t e x t u r e of v e g e t a t i o n a r e weak landscapes . There is l i t t l e v a r i a - t i o n i n s p e c i e s o r v e g e t a t i v e p a t t e r n s and openings i n t o which changes can be incorpo- r a t e d . The very f i n e v e g e t a t i v e t e x t u r e of Appalachian hardwoods exp l a i r s i n p a r t why v e g e t a t i v e c l e a r i n g f o r mining i s s o v i s i b l e .

I n any e c o l o g i c a l system, a d i v e r s e assor tment of p l a n t m a t e r i a l is a p o s i t i v e a t - t r i b u t e . It enhances a e s t h e t i c s , p rov ides a d i v e r s i t y of h a b i t a t , r e f l e c t s s t a b i l i t y , and promotes r e s i s t a n c e t o adverse c o n d i t i o n s such a s d i s e a s e , d raught , and f i r e .

V i s t a s and Views

A view is an unobs t ruc ted s i g h t of a s p e c i f i e d landscape (panorama). This d e f i - n i t i o n d i f f e r s s i g n i f i c a n t l y from a v i s t a which may be def ined a s an enframed s i g h t of a s p e c i f i e d landscape. I n t h i s sense a v i s t a h a s g r e a t e r v i s u a l impact a s w e l l a s more in- t e n s e focus on a given landscape.

V i s t a s and views a r e d e s i r a b l e where worthwhile o p p o r t u n i t i e s e x i s t . I n d i v i d u a l s o r groups of t r e e s such a s c o n i f e r s and f lower ing t r e e s a r e used t o a c c e n t u a t e , fo- c u s , enframe, and g i v e s c a l e and dimension t o o u t s t a n d i n g v i s t a s of p h y s i c a l f e a t u r e s such a s rock o u t c r o p s , l a k e s , s t reams , ponds, and f a l l s . Unobstructed openings a r e re- t a i n e d o r v e g e t a t i o n is removed t o p rov ide panoramic views i n t h e landscape.

S t r u c t u r e s

The impacts of v e g e t a t i v e cover and pat- t e r n s d u r i n g mining and rec lamat ion o p e r a t i o n s u s u a l l y a r e g r e a t e s t i n foregrounds and mid- dlegrounds most o f t e n v i s i b l e from p u b l i c roads n e a r o r a d j o i n i n g mining proper ty . In- t e n s i v e p lanning and management p r a c t i c e s a r e needed most i n t h e s e v i s u a l zones of a viewshed t o c o n t r o l t h e composi t ion, q u a l i t y , and growth f o r v i s u a l impacts and wi thout adding unreasonable c o s t s t o rec lamat ion .

Time

Time o r d u r a t i o n of v i s u a l impact of min- i n g i s long-term when compared t o o t h e r a c t i v - i t ies t h a t a l t e r t h e l and . Although one of t h e g o a l s of rec lamat ion i s t o reduce adverse v i s u a l impac ts , t h e v i s u a l c o n t r a s t between reclaimed a r e a s and surrounding undis tu rbed a r e a s can remain f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s . However, r e c e n t emphasis i n concur ren t rec lamat i o n w i l l go a long way i n reducing and l i m i t i n g t h e amount of a r e a d i s t u r b e d a t any one time. This w i l l p rov ide f o r a n e a r l y u s e and f o r woodlands being on t h e i r way t o m a t u r i t y by t h e t ime e x t r a c t i o n o p e r a t i o n s have been com- p l e t e d .

VEGETATION PLAN

Much emphasis is p laced on prompt use of herbaceous v e g e t a t i v e cover and i t s a b i l i t y t o c o n t r o l runoff and e r o s i o n b u t i t a l o n e w i l l no t always make a s i t e v i s u a l l y compatible . However, l i t t l e is known about t h e i n f l u e n c e of o t h e r v e g e t a t i o n o r t h e a b i l i t y of t h e most e f f e c t i v e r e v e g e t a t i o n methods and s p e c i e s i n r e l a t i o n t o v i s u a l q u a l i t y o b j e c t i v e s . I n ad- d i t i o n t o s u c c e s s f u l l y s t a b i l i z i n g a d i s t u r b e d a r e a , v e g e t a t i o n can have vary ing v i s u a l e f - f e c t s depending on t h e s p e c i e s s e l e c t e d . Guide l ines f o r maximizing v e g e t a t i v e charac- t e r i s t i c s t o improve t h e v i s u a l c o n d i t i o n t h a t a r e compatible w i t h cover es tab l i shment and e r o s i o n c o n t r o l a r e e s s e n t i a l .

Because of b e t t e r placement of overburden, s e g r e g a t i o n of a c i d and t o x i c s p o i l s , use of t o p s o i l o r a c c e p t a b l e growth medium and s o i l amendments, t h e qu ick es tab l i shment of a vege- t a t i v e cover i n mine rec lamat ion is less of a problem. However, t h e long term e f f e c t and s t a b i l i t y needs cont inuous e v a l u a t i o n espe- c i a l l y a s a n a i d t o l and u s e , d e s i r a b l e p l a n t success ion , w i l d l i f e b e n e f i t s , and a e s t h e t i c s . With b e t t e r p l a n t i n g c o n d i t i o n s more emphasis is needed on improving p l a n t m a t e r i a l s e l e c - t i o n . Repeated use of p l a n t s p e c i e s such a s b lack l o c u s t , l e spedeza , and autumn o l i v e a r e making them a s common and a s monotonous a s t h e over-used and banned m u l t i f l o r a rose .

Revege ta t ion t r e a t m e n t s and a e s t h e t i c d e s i g n must be respons ive t o l a n d use objec- t i v e s and a n e v a l u a t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c l andscape . The d e s i g n should b e based upon and respond d i r e c t l y and s p e c i f i c a l l y t o bo th v i s u a l and f u n c t i o n a l needs. Revegetat ion f o r a e s t h e t i c s is concerned w i t h r e e s t a b l i s h - ment of t h e v i s u a l l andscape c h a r a c t e r by in- t e g r a t i n g t h e post-mining land u s e ( s ) of t h e reclaimed a r e a w i t h sur roundings . Vege ta t ion should be planned t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e customary p o t e n t i a l l a n d uses of range , f i s h and wild- l i f e h a b i t a t , r e c r e a t i o n , f o r e s t , c rop and p a s t u r e l a n d s , r e s i d e n t i a l , i n d u s t r i a l , and commercial. Having e s t a b l i s h e d t h e post-min- i n g land use and w i t h t h e d e t a i l e d descr ip - t i o n and d e s i g n p l a n f o r rec lamat ion i n d i c a t - i n g how t h e t o t a l s i t e w i l l b e u t i l i z e d , veg- e t a t i v e t r e a t m e n t s can b e developed.

The c h o i c e of p l a n t i n g schemes f o r aes- t h e t i c enhancement of s u r f a c e mined l a n d s is based on t h e o b j e c t i v e s of t h e person o r agency r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e p l a n t i n g . The op- t i o n s a v a i l a b l e and t h e s u c c e s s of a program depend on t h e p l a n n e r ' s and d e s i g n e r ' s a b i l - i t y t o recognize t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s and l i m i - t a t i o n s of each s i t e .

P l a n t i n g d e s i g n is a complex t a s k . Con- s i d e r a b l e s t u d y i s r e q u i r e d t o ach ieve t h e maximum f u n c t i o n a l and a e s t h e t i c e f f e c t . There is no p r e c i s e formula o r procedure f o r d e v i s i n g a v e g e t a t i o n p l a n which w i l l e f f e c - t i v e l y encompass a l l t h e land use p o t e n t i a l s of a reclaimed s i t e . The p o s s i b l e s o l u t i o n s a r e a s many a s t h e r e a r e l and use types . However, one t h i n g i n common t o a l l i s t h a t they i n v o l v e a t r a n s i t i o n i n land use from t h e o r i g i n a l landscape. I f t h e s i te e x h i b i t s v e g e t a t i v e f e a t u r e s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e i n h e r e n t i n t h e proposed land use i t w i l l be e a s i e r t o p l a n and c o r r e l a t e rec lamat ion and land use .

Planning f o r r e v e g e t a t i o n r e q u i r e s t h e a b i l i t y t o e n v i s i o n t h e m a t u r i t y of t h e p l a n t i n g scheme y e a r s ahead. The d e s i r e d c h a r a c t e r o r e fEec t does n o t e x i s t when p l a n t i n g s a r e f i r s t e s t a b l i s h e d b u t a r e r e a l - i z e d only wi th t h e passage of t ime. Many y e a r s a r e o f t e n r e q u i r e d t o c u l t i v a t e and develop a s t a n d of t r e e s t o a l t e r t h e appearance of t h e landscape. Designers o f t e n w i l l n o t be around t o observe t h e outcome of t h e i r v i s i o n .

To a s s u r e a h igh q u a l i t y l andscape , es- p e c i a l l y i n h i g h l y s e n s i t i v e a r e a s , s u r f a c e mine rec lamat ion personne l should c o n s i d e r t h e fo l lowing p l a n t m a t e r i a l s c r i t e r i a i n de- ve lop ing a v e g e t a t i o n p lan .

S e l e c t i o n

S e v e r a l f a c t o r s may i n f l u e n c e t h e se- l e c t i o n of p l a n t s p e c i e s f o r a given job. These i n c l u d e an a n a l y s i s of t h e predomi- nan t r e g i o n a l v e g e t a t i o n , l and use objec- t i v e , f u n c t i o n a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , p l a n t i n g arrangements , f u t u r e maintenance, and eco- l o g i c a l f a c t o r s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c l i m a t e , season , geographic l o c a t i o n , s p e c i e s , and i n d i v i d u a l s i t e c o n d i t i o n s .

I n s e l e c t i n g p l a n t s , c o n s i d e r a t i o n must be given t o t h e i r a b i l i t y t o adap t t o t h e c l i m a t i c and edaphic f a c t o r s which i n f l u e n c e t h e p l a n t ' s a b i l i t y t o s u r v i v e and grow. A e s t h e t i c reasons f o r s e l e c t i o n a r e a s s o c i - a t e d w i t h t h e growth h a b i t s of p l a n t mate- r i a l wi th due c o n s i d e r a t i o n given t o s i z e (height, wid th) form (columnar, pyramidal shapes) and c h a r a c t e r ( t e x t u r e , dense o r open, c o a r s e o r f i n e ) needed t o ach ieve de- s i r e d v i s u a l e f f e c t .

Rate of growth is important where e a r l y r e s u l t s r e q u i r e maximum e f f e c t from t h e i n i - t i a l p l a n t i n g . Growth r a t e s v a r y cons ider - a b l y , e s p e c i a l l y f o r t r e e s . Care should be e x e r c i s e d i n s e l e c t i o n , a s many r a p i d l y grow- i n g p l a n t s a r e u s u a l l y b r i t t l e and s h o r t l i v e d . Perhaps a well-conceived mix ture of f a s t and s lower growing s p e c i e s is b e s t .

Although sometimes l e s s important than t h e h a b i t and r a t e of growth, t h e e f f e c t s of f o l i a g e , f r u i t , b a r k , c o l o r , and t e x t u r e n e v e r t h e l e s s can add a s i g n i f i c a n t f i n i s h e d e f f e c t t o i n d i v i d u a l p l a n t s o r groups of p l a n t s . Th is is p a r t i c u l a r l y important w i t h deciduous p l a n t s which change d r a m a t i c a l l y w i t h seasons.

A wide range o r mix ture of v e g e t a t i o n should be used t o avoid a monoculture e f - f e c t . Likewise n a t i v e s p e c i e s o r t h o s e t h a t have v i s u a l s i m i l a r i t y t o s p e c i e s i n surrounding unmined a r e a s can be used t o minimize form, l i n e , c o l o r , and t e x t u r e c o n t r a s t s .

P l a n t s p e c i e s s e l e c t e d should g e n e r a l l y have been proven s u c c e s s f u l i n t h e a r e a over t h e years . However, exper imenta t ion w i t h o t h e r s p e c i e s o r new v a r i e t i e s is encouraged. Avoid e x o t i c s o r e x t e n s i v e p l a n t i n g s of un- t r i e d s p e c i e s . New i n t r o d u c t i o n s must have a t o l e r a n c e f o r s u r f a c e mine environment and should have s u f f i c i e n t s i m i l a r i t i e s t o t h e e x i s t i n g v e g e t a t i o n i n t h e a r e a t o a s s u r e t h a t t h e d i s t i n c t i v e c h a r a c t e r and s e n s e of l o c a l i d e n t i t y a r e n o t l o s t .

A e s t h e t i c a l l y d e s i r a b l e s p e c i e s do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y mean d e s i r a b l e t imber . They may i n c l u d e unmerchantable t r e e s such a s ironwood o r beech and t r e e s t h a t a r e t w i s t e d o r low

branched w i t h a p i c t u r e s q u e q u a l i t y . Many c o l o r f u l shrubs and smal l t r e e s have s p e c i a l v a l u e f o r w i l d l i f e food and cover .

Funct ion

I n meeting rec lamat ion and pos t mining land u s e v e g e t a t i o n o b j e c t i v e s p l a n t mate- r i a l s a r e used t o s e r v e d e f i n i t e f u n c t i o n s o r t o s o l v e s p e c i f i c problems. I n a d d i t i o n t o p rov id ing a permanent s t a b i l i z i n g cover f o r c o n t r o l l i n g e r o s i o ~ p l a n t m a t e r i a l s of vary ing h e i g h t and c o n f i g u r a t i o n a r e used t o s e p a r a t e a r e a s , s c r e e n unpleasan t views, g ive pr ivacy o r e n c l o s u r e , enhance d e s i r a b l e fea - t u r e s and s t r u c t u r e s , and enframe views. P l a n t s a r e o f t e n used t o p r o t e c t a d j a c e n t l a n d v a l u e s , c o n t r o l s i t e c i r c u l a t i o n , b u f f e r hazardous a r e a s , c o n t r o l g l a r e , reduce s c a l e , augment s p a r s e o r inadequa te cover , and pro- v i d e w i l d l i f e s h e l t e r . Stands of t r e e s c re - a t e micro c l i m a t e s t h a t a r e of g r e a t impor- t a n c e t o r e s i d e n t i a l and r e c r e a t i o n a l developments by a c t i n g a s windbreaks, f i l t e r i n g d u s t and n o i s e , and prov id ing shade f o r var - i o u s a c t i v i t i e s .

Arrangement

The proposed l o c a t i o n and arrangement of p l a n t s s e l e c t e d t o ach ieve planned o b j e c t i v e s a r e shown i n a g e n e r a l way on t h e v e g e t a t i o n p lan . The d e s i r e d v i s u a l e f f e c t w i l l depend upon how w e l l t h e proposed composition and p a t t e r n s of openings i n f o r e s t e d l a n d s o r p l a n t i n g s of t r e e s , s h r u b s , c rop lands , o r o t h e r v e g e t a t i o n i n open non-forested l a n d s r e l a t e t o t h e n a t u r a l p a t t e r n s of sur rounding e x i s t i n g v e g e t a t i o n .

Vege ta t ion is normally n o t seen a s in- d i v i d u a l p l a n t s . What is seen a r e masses, forms, t e x t u r e s , s i l h o u e t t e s . The c o n t r a s t of l a r g e masses and v o i d s , openness and en- c l o s u r e , o r an i r r e g u l a r f lowing mass of shapes a r e c o n s t a n t l y changing a s t h e observ- e r moves around. It is a d i v e r s i t y of f o r e s t t y p e s and v e g e t a t i v e cover , maximizing f o r e s t edge through optimum r e l a t i o n s h i p between f o r e s t cover and f o r e s t openings. P l a n t i n g masses should be e x p r e s s i v e of t h e l a n d use f u n c t i o n y e t n o t convey an a r t i f i c i a l physi- c a l appearance. Some p l a n t i n g s w i l l be permanent f o r e s t s of e x t e n s i v e s i z e , o t h e r s w i l l be a l t e r n a t e d wi th g rass land openings l o c a t e d s o a s t o accen t a t t r a c t i v e v i s t a s and some w i l l s e r v e a s s c r e e n .

The composi t ion of t h e p l a n t i n g v a r i e s i n two p r i n c i p a l ways, pure p l a n t i n g of a s i n g l e s p e c i e s and mixed p l a n t i n g s of two o r more s p e c i e s . S i n g l e s p e c i e s p l a n t i n g s a r e u s u a l l y e a s i e r t o e s t a b l i s h , manage, and

h a r v e s t b u t they a r e more s u s c e p t i b l e t o f i r e , i n s e c t s , d i s e a s e , wind, and o t h e r n a t u r a l damage. An example a r e t h e decadent s t a n d s of b l a c k l o c u s t t h a t have been d i s f i g u r e d by b o r e r s and l e a v e miners . When and where pos- s i b l e t h e s e should be underplanted w i t h more d e s i r a b l e s p e c i e s . Pure p l a n t i n g s a r e usu- a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a s i n g l e s p e c i e s such a s pine. Trees a r e normally p l a n t e d on a g r i d o r row system w i t h l i t t l e v a r i a t i o n i n spacing . I f p i n e mix tures a r e d e s i r e d , s m a l l groups o r rows o r b locks w i t h v a r i a b l e spac- i n g of p l a n t i n g s a r e recommended.

Based on p a s t and p r e s e n t exper ience and observa t ion mix tures o f f e r t h e b e s t p a t t e r n s and b e t t e r p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r r e g e n e r a t i o n . Mixtures p rov ide v i s u a l v a r i e t y and w i l d l i f e d i v e r s i t y , accommodate v a r i a t i o n s i n topography o r i e n t a t i o n and s o i l mois tu re , promote s t a b i l i t y , and e n s u r e a g a i n s t r i s k of l o s s t h a t may be encountered i n pure s t a n d s .

Each type of mix ture has p a r t i c u l a r ap- p l i c a t i o n f o r c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s which should be i d e n t i f i e d and cons idered i n planning an a rea . I f a p l a n t i n g g o a l i s t o e s t a b l i s h a f o r e s t s t a n d w i t h v a r i e t y , mixed p l a n t i n g s of f i v e o r more s p e c i e s should be used. With few except ions deciduous p l a n t i n g s should be mixed.

Shrub p l a n t i n g s u s u a l l y a r e made i n block o r clump p l a n t i n g s of a s i n g l e spe- c i e s . I f more than one s p e c i e s is used they a r e p laced i n d r i f t s ( s h o r t e r p l a n t s i n f r o n t o r on edge) t o avoid over topping due t o d i f f e r e n c e s i n growth.

P a t t e r n s of mix tures which may be used i n p l a n t i n g o r seed ing an a r e a a r e random, s i n g l e row, and m u l t i p l e row mix tures . For v i s u a l harmony rows should run p a r a l l e l wi th t h e con tours , r a t h e r than a t r i g h t ang les .

Openings and p l a n t i n g s t h a t a r e uniform and regimented i n s i z e , shape, and spac ing seldom a r e v i s u a l l y p l e a s i n g and l e a d t o monotony and l a c k of u n i t y i n t h e landscape. D i s p e r s a l and i r r e g u l a r spac ing can be used t o minimize c o n t r a s t .

CONCLUSION

Regardless of how s u c c e s s f u l revege ta - t i o n f o r a pos t -min ing land use may be i n terms of e r o s i o n c o n t r o l and good s o i l cover , t h e a r e a should a l s o be developed w i t h con- s i d e r a t i o n of i t s s u c c e s s i n e x h i b i t i n g ap- p r o p r i a t e v i s u a l q u a l i t y . By apply ing t h e preced ing p r i n c i p l e s , p rocesses can be de-

veloped by which t h e p o s i t i v e v i s u a l a t t r i - b u t e s of rec lamat ion can b e enjoyed w h i l e minimizing t h e n e g a t i v e v i s u a l a s p e c t s of s u r f a c e mining.

The c r i t e r i a a r e new i n approach w i t h r e g a r d t o mined land r e v e g e t a t i o n and can h e l p prov ide a n a l y s i s of t h e landscape on ly a s they a r e researched and t e s t e d through ap- p l i c a t i o n . The purpose i n d i s c u s s i n g t h e s e c r i t e r i a now is t o s e e k t h e i r r e c o g n i t i o n by t h o s e who w i l l be working w i t h landscape a r c h i t e c t s i n i n t e g r a t i n g rec lamat ion and landscape q u a l i t y .

There is more t o r e v e g e t a t i o n f o r aes- t h e t i c s than mere cosmetic b e a u t i f i c a t i o n . The key t o a b e t t e r end product i s coordi- n a t e d d e s i g n based upon r e s e a r c h and a c l e a r unders tand ing of t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p of a l l v a r i a b l e s of t h e r e v e g e t a t i o n a c t i v i t y .

A e s t h e t i c s o r landscape q u a l i t y is a shared r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t e n mandated by law. It i s a concern t h a t must be shared by everyone and t h e q u e s t f o r improvement must be t h e job of a l l of us . W e need t o e s t a b l i s h gen- u i n e unders tand ing and c o n s c i e n t i o u s coopera- t i o n between r e g u l a t o r y a u t h o r i t i e s , opera- t o r s , and p u b l i c i n managing and p r o t e c t i n g landscape q u a l i t y . W e a l l must l e a r n t o recognize a e s t h e t i c v a l u e s and i n c o r p o r a t e and apply c r i t e r i a and p r i n c i p l e s r o u t i n e l y i n our everyday work and a c t i v i t i e s . As a r e s u l t t h e l and w i l l be developed and managed w i t h due c o n s i d e r a t i o n of i t s landscape q u a l i t i e s .

Success w i t h a e s t h e t i c s w i l l depend mainly upon t h e s e n s i t i v e a p p l i c a t i o n of fun- damental p r i n c i p l e s by o p e r a t o r s who have recognized and accepted t h e b e n e f i t s t o be der ived from implementation of t h i s concept .

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Brush, Robert 0. 1976. Spaces w i t h i n t h e woods: managing f o r e s t s f o r v i s u a l e n j oy- ment. J. For., Vol. 74, No. 11. November.

Crowe, S y l v i a . 1966. F o r e s t r y i n t h e landscape. For. Comm. B u l l . No. 18. London. Her Majes ty ' s S t a t i o n e r y Off ice .

Hough, S tansbury , and Assoc ia tes Limited. No Date. Design g u i d e l i n e s f o r f o r e s t management. Onta r io , Canada, Min is t ry of N a t u r a l Resources.

Hubbard, Henry V. and Theodora Kimball. 1917. An i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e s tudy of landscape des ign . New York. The Macmilliam Co.

L i t t o n , R. Burton, Jr. 1968. F o r e s t landscape d e s c r i p t i o n and i n v e n t o r i e s - a b a s i s f o r l and p lanning and des ign . USDA For. Serv. Res. Paper PSW-49. 64 p . , i l l u s . P a c i f i c Southwest F o r e s t and Range Exp. S t n . , Berkeley, C a l i f .

L i t t o n , R. Burton, Jr. 1978. Landscape con- t r o l p o i n t s , a procedure f o r p r e d i c t i n g and moni tor ing v i s u a l impacts . USDA For. Serv. Res. Paper PSW-91. 22 p . , i l l u s . P a c i f i c Southwest F o r e s t and Range Exp. S t n . , Berkeley, C a l i f .

L i t t o n , R. Burton, Jr. 1974. Visua l vul- n e r a b i l i t y of f o r e s t landscape. J. For. .72 (7) : 392-39 7.

L i t t o n , R. Burton, Jr. 1977. River landscape q u a l i t y and i t s assessment . River Recrea t ion Management and Research Sym- posium Proceedings. USDA F o r e s t S e r v i c e North C e n t r a l F o r e s t Exp. S tn . Gen. Tech. Report NC-28.

L i t t o n , R. Burton, Jr. and Robert J. Tetlow. 1978. A landscape inventory framework : s c e n i c a n a l y s e s of t h e Northern Great P l a i n s . USDA For. Serv. Res. Paper PSW- 135. P a c i f i c Southwest F o r e s t and Range Exp. S t n . , Berkeley, C a l i f .

L i t t o n , R. Burton, Jr. , R. J. Tetlow, J. Sorenson, and R. A. Bea t ty . 1974. Water and landscape: an a e s t h e t i c overview of t h e r o l e of wate r i n t h e l andscape . Water I n f . Cent. Huntington. 314 p . , i l l u s .

Noyes, John H. 1969. Woodland, highways, and people. U n i v e r s i t y of Massachuset ts Cooperat ive Extension S e r v i c e Publica- t i o n No. 33.

Shands, Wil l iam E. and Robert G. Healy. 1977. The l a n d s nobody wanted. A Conservat ion Foundation Report . Washington, D. C.

United S t a t e s Department of A g r i c u l t u r e . 1979. Nat iona l f o r e s t systems l a n d and r e s o u r c e s management p lanning P a r t I V . Federa l R e g i s t e r , Vol. 44, No. 181. Mon- day, September 1 7 , 1979. Rules and Regu- l a t ions .

United S t a t e s Department of A g r i c u l t u r e , For- est Serv ice . 1974. N a t i o n a l f o r e s t landscape management Vol. 2, Ch. 1 (The v i s u a l management sys tem) . U. S. Dep. Agr ic . , Agric. Handbook 462, 47 p . , i l l u s . U. S . Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , Washington.

United S t a t e s Department of A g r i c u l t u r e , For- e s t S e r v i c e . 1975. Nat iona l f o r e s t landscape management Vol. 2 , Ch. 2 ( U t i l i t i e s ) . U. S. Dep. Agric . , Agric . Handbook 478, 147 p., i l l u s . U. S. Government P r i n t i n g Off i c e , Washington.

United S t a t e s Department of A g r i c u l t u r e , For- e s t Serv ice . 1977. Nat iona l f o r e s t landscape management Vol. 2 , Ch. 3 (Range). U. S . Dep. Agr ic . , Agric. Handbook 484, 43 p . , i l l u s . U . S. Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , Washington.

United S t a t e s Department of A g r i c u l t u r e , For- e s t Serv ice . 1977. N a t i o n a l f o r e s t land- s c a p e management Vol. 2, Ch. 4 (Roads). U. S. Dep. Agr ic . , Agric. Handbook 483, 62 p . , i l l u s . U. S . Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , Washington.

United S t a t e s Department of A g r i c u l t u r e , For- e s t Serv ice . 1980. Nat iona l f o r e s t landscape management Vol. 2 , Ch. 5 (Timber). U . S . Dep. Agr ic . , Agric. Handbook ( I n P r e s s ) .

United S t a t e s Department of A g r i c u l t u r e , For- e s t S e r v i c e . 1979. Our n a t i o n a l landscape. A conference on a p p l i e d techniques f o r a n a l y s i s and management of t h e v i s u a l r e s o u r c e . Proceedings. P a c i f i c Southwest For. Exp. S tn . Gen. Tech. Report PSW-35.

Zube, Erv in H. 1972. North A t l a n t i c Region water r e s o u r c e s s tudy . Appendix N . is- u a l and c u l t u r a l environment. Research Planning and Design Consu l tan t s Inc . Amherst, Mass.

United S t a t e s Department of A g r i c u l t u r e , For- est S e r v i c e . 1973. N a t i o n a l f o r e s t landscape management Vol. 1. U. S. Dep. Agr ic . , Agric. Handbook 434, 77 p. , i l l u s . U . S. Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , Washington.

TREE PLANTING EXPERIENCES IN THE EASTERN INTERIOR COAL PROVINCE

Paper Presented at the Symposium on Trees for Reclamation in the Eastern U.S.

Lexington, Kentucky October 27-29, 1980

Charles Medvick

Land Reclamation Specialist, Illinois Department of Mines and Minerals, Land Reclamation Division

Route 6, Box 140-A, Marion, Illinois 62959

Abstract.--Fruit trees were planted successfully in 1918 and organized afforestation began in 1928. Profes- sional foresters had a hand in some of the very earliest planting projects. Formal reclamation research played an important role in applying science to early reclamation technology; however, considerable work has preceded the scientists. Some success has been experienced with tree planting on coal waste slurry, a problem site with uniquely adverse conditions. Some indications were found showing early Chinese Chestnut tree plantings developing into timber form trees, under some conditions. It was also observed that Chinese Chestnut trees are reproducing naturally from trees planted on mine spoils as young as 12 to 15 years of age.

INTRODUCTION common to this area is generally thick unconsolidated overburden materials lying above

Subject of this paper deals with the shale, sandstone; limestone, or a combination Eastern Interior Province (E.I.P.). Though of the three, which form the balance of the the bulk of this region is in Illinois, the overburden above coals in this area. E.I.P. area extends over Southwestern Indiana and the northern part of Western Kentucky. There is considerable similarity between All of the coal mining activity in Illinois surface mining conditions in the Illinois and and Indiana is within the E.I.P.; however, Indiana unglaciated regions. Unconsolidated Kentucky occupies parts of two coal provinces materials layers are generally thinner than of which only Western Kentucky is within the in the glaciated region, with about three feet E.I.P. to ten or twelve feet of unconsolidated mate-

rial commonly occurring. Generally, the E.I.P. geographically is

characterized by relatively low relief to level The E.I.P. of Kentucky resembles the un- or nearly level land topography. Lesser por- glaciated coal region of Southern Illinois and tions of all three states within this province Southern Indiana to some degree; however, have commercial coal mining operations on topographic relief is somewhat greater and steeper topography which occasionally also existing natural soils are part of the total may include steep (over 37%) slopes. Unlike unconsolidated materials layer which is sig- steep slope areas of Appalachia; however, nificantly thinner. The more undulating topo- steep slopes of the Eastern Interior Coal graphy and thinner soils of the unglaciated Province tend to be relatively short in slope region stand as a striking contrast to the length. level to nearly level topography and thick

soils (up to 16 inches of A-horizon soil) in Bulk of the surface mining in Illinois the prairie region of West Central and North-

and about half of that in Indiana occurs ern Illinois, which comprises some of the within the glaciated region, with relatively nation's most productive agricultural lands. low relief topography. Another feature

85

Rainfall generally is about 40 inches or more annually in the E.I.P., decreasing slightly as latitude increases northward. Climate in the entire province is favorable for a wide variety of commercial crop production and also favorable for commercial forest production.

RECLAMATION HISTORY

Some of the oldest, if not the oldest, land reclamation effort in the country occurred in the E.I.P. This would seem not too surprising, since the earliest commercial coal surface mining in the country is reported to have occurred near Danville, Illinois in 1866 (Illinois Blue Book 1971-1972).

Peach, apple and pear trees were successfully planted on mine spoils in Clay County, Indiana in 1918. Though some small forest plantings occurred earlier, an organized afforestation program on mine spoils in Indiana started in 1928 (Medvick 1973).

An interesting early influence in Illi- nois involved the tree nursery program developed in connection with the Civilian Conservation Corps program. Discontinuation of that program in the late 1930's made sur- plus trees available which were purchased by coal operators and planted on strip mine spoils (Illinois Blue Book 1971-1972).

A land reclamation law in Indiana came about in 1941 (the second one in the nation). Kentucky came out with a land reclamation act in 1954, and Illinois passed their first effective law in 1962, after an act passed many years earlier was declared unconstitu- tional.

There were numerous common traits among the early state land reclamation laws. Both pre-law and during early periods under these laws, land reclamation and tree planting were almost synonymous terms.

RECLAMATION TECHNOLOGY

Very little if anything was known ini- tially about tree planting methodology on mine spoils. There was obviously a lot of guess work; however, it is known that professional foresters had a hand in some of the very earliest planting projects as early as 1928 (Medvick 1973).

planting stock. Tree planting stock was shipped by rail from eastern tree nurseries, prior to the time tree nurseries were established locally.

Under these conditions, both planting success and planting failures were experienced. To those who came along on the scene later, these early successes and failures became laboratories from which to learn. As such, results preceded the science.

Eventually individual state coal operator associations enlisted the aid of forestry researchers from the U.S. Forest Service and from the various university agricultural experiment stations. The science of land reclamation began to take shape. Some tree species selection began to emerge and some recognition of different spoil conditions permitted some unsophisticated -- yet real effort to include or exclude certain species on some generally specific sites (Limstrom and Deitschman 1951).

By around 1950, afforestation was no longer a hit and miss situation. Trying to establish a "preferred" type forest on varying sites became the major objective. Tech- nically, afforestation on mine spoils, in a rough fashion, at least, was a known practice and this fledgling science preceded statutory requirements calling for mandatory planting of disturbed lands in all three states of the Eastern Interior Coal Province (Arnott 1950).

Probably the 1950's and 1960's were the big "growth years" in surface mining land reclamation - just as it was in surface mining afforestation. Following are some highlights of this period:

(1) There were about a handful of "experts" across the country and these people all knew each other and, by keeping in close communication, they learned from each other's mistakes -- and successes.

(2) Development of technology on strip mine forage establishment brought about opportunity to choose another land use option. It was this fact which caused a sharp decline in afforestation in Illinois (Grandt and Lang 1958).

Tree "wildlings" were used prior to availability of nursery grown planting stock. Walnuts were direct seeded possibly because there was no tree nursery growing such

l~rnott, Donovan, Jr. 1950. Initial survival of planted hardwoods on strip mine spoil banks of Indiana. Purdue University, Dept. of For. Unpublished Thesis.

(3) Exposure to repeated failures helped discerning land reclamationists to learn where options were real and where they were just imaginary. The trend from afforestation to forage reclamation in Illinois was followed in Indiana; however, in Indiana, this did not come about until the late 1960's.

( 4 ) Many thousands of acres of productive strip mine forests in the E.I.P. stand today as silent monuments to the success of phenomenal growth of strip mine afforestation of this period. Afforestation continued as a major land reclamation practice in Kentucky even beyond the period of extensive grading work which, by law, elim- inated the ridge and valley topography on mine spoils areas.

(5) During this time period, the science of land reclamation changed a great deal; however, field conditions -- the spoils being planted -- changed very little, until the late 1960's.

(6) Early land reclamation laws in the E.I.P. required some minor grading work -- but not enough to change site conditions. This fact helped a great deal to perfect afforestation practices with minimal confounding.

ARRIVAL OF THE BULLDOZER

In the late 19601s, Kentucky, followed by Indiana, enacted legislation calling for elimination of spoil ridges and valleys. Illinois followed suit in 1971.

In addition to changing the topography, bulldozers have a way of affecting other parameters also -- the site itself becomes "something different". There might be a better expression for it; but, soil compaction surely comes close, until a better expression is found.

One need only review a modest sampling of land reclamation literature to discover that effects of soil compaction on mine spoil afforestation has a wide following among both proponents and protagonists. As a result, any serious student of land reclamation is entitled to be, at least somewhat, confused.

If we refer back to our discussion of the "big growth" years in surface mining reclamation, it should be noted that, over a significant period of years, spoil conditions remained generally unchanged and only the techniques employed changed. Thus, it was easier to evaluate cause and effect. It is a fairly safe prediction to state that anyone who tries to duplicate results of

afforestation on ungraded mine spoils by application on graded mine spoils, is in for a few surprises.

Most perplexing of all is the fact that one can establish an excellent stand one year and a complete fizzle the very next year on what appears to be and might really be iden- tical spoil.

A "hidden1' problem in dealing with graded mine spoils is the fact that we are dealing with both cuts and fills and, in any given spot, we don't know which is the case. One need not be a soils specialist to know that amount of site compaction, soil air space and surface water insoak rate may not be the same on cuts as it is on fills. How much confounding such factors cause, one can only speculate about. For those who propose to do research on graded spoils, in order to overcome confounding caused by cut and fill differences, this writer advises designing plots and rows long enough to overlap both site types and to orient rows at right angles to original spoil ridges. This would avoid, for example, comparing a row planted on a fill with a row planted on a cut.

Graded spoils, if not too rocky, can be planted with a specially adapted tree planting machine; however, use of the planting machine might justify change of tree species.

Conifers seem to tolerate graded spoils; however, in the hardwood region, the idea of having to abandon hardwoods carries a negative image among many reclamationists. Both silver maple and red maple seem to be out-performing other hardwoods and may prove to be exceptions. Black locust can be established, if cover alone is the objective.

TREES VS FORAGE

It is some indication of advance in the state of the art which permits one to be able to choose between establishing either trees or forage on graded mine spoil. In many situations, either is possible. Except for climatic limitations (not a problem in the E.I.P.) any spoil which will grow forage also will grow trees. However, some sites may be too sandy, too coarse in texture, or too acidic for forage and yet support acceptable and maybe even excellent afforestation possi- bilities.

Heretofore, it has been the presumption that the existing site, in general, must be dealt with under the conviction this is a fixed condition and the only options available had to do with finding a species that will tolerate or adapt to the given site.

For many years, about the only site improvement considered practical would have been fertilization.

During the past decade or so, it has been established that site can, in fact, be changed and changed drastically. Not only that it can be done, it has been done on a significant scale. In some cases, toxic spoils have been ameliorated by application of neutralizing agents (this has been widely practiced in West Kentucky). More drastically, toxic spoils have been simply covered over by applying a suitable mantle of neutral earth.

Successful site correction, of course, brings one back to the pleasant dilemma of being able to deliberately choose between vegetating with whatever is desired, for whatever land use one might prefer. In such circumstances, afforestation may or may not prevail.

TOPSOILED SPOILS -- A NEW DAY

On the presumption that present federal requirements for coal surface mining reclamation survives the U.S. Supreme Court, both present and future reclamation on coal surface mined areas involves something approaching "original land" conditions. As a result, it must be readily apparent that one engaged in revegetation of such areas need be not necessarily a land reclamationist. If we refer back to former problems of having to plant raw spoils, by comparison, past experience may be of only limited benefit.

. If we can agree that we are now working in a "new day", we must also recognize that we have at hand an opportunity to create, by deliberate plan, almost precisely that which we envision should be established. We should be able to reclaim to row crops where that is desired and to forest where such is desired. Each should have their rightful place. We may have finally circumnavigated the circle.

It should be a real pleasure to be a land reclamationist now and to exert one's efforts toward establishing, for example, not just a forest, but the very best forest. The fact that there are no existing large scale good examples to follow for reclaiming fully restored and topsoiled mine spoils should be a disadvantage only to the un- imaginative.

Although the new land reclamationist might be able to ignore the site problems which plagued his predecessors, it should be pointed out emphatically that trees of the type preferred have a way of not planting

themselves where we want them. Consequently, there is no escape from strict adherence to proper tree planting methodology. If this sounds a bit trite, it is pointed out that this writer has already observed complete tree planting failures on fully restored and topsoiled coal surface mined spoil areas. Prob- lems do still abound and they have only shifted to new dimensions.

Unfortunately, legal constraints require that herbaceous cover must accompany tree planting and there must be effective erosion control measures applied. Under such circumstances, tree planting failure cannot be corrected by simple replanting or interplant- ing, unless effective herbicide or comparable treatment also is used.

Much more research is needed to determine, for the different geographic regions, acceptable companion herbaceous species and to develop acceptable timing sequences with actual tree planting. Can selection of proper herbaceous species allow tree survival and growth; or, will it be unavoidable to use herbicides? If herbicides are to be used, chemical choice and technique of application, for large scale plantings, will likely become new areas of specialization for the new land reclamationist.

AREAS WITHOUT TOPSOIL

Some areas do not have topsoil present due to natural conditions, neglectful erosion, or, the area may have been previously surface mined. Thus, restoration of such area un- avoidably may have raw spoil as the best available surface material. Revegetation problems on such areas, of course, should generally re- semble those immediately preceding federal interim standards, except that herbaceous, companion cover becomes a factor.

Although specially adapted tree planting machines are available and most graded spoils are amenable to such machine planting, greater selectivity in species choice seems to be called for. In general, conifers seem to be adapted to machine planting; whereas, only a limited number of hardwood species seem to be so adapted.

In general, this writer's experience and observations suggest machine planting requires tree species choice be those with root system displaying generally high fibrosity (numerous small rootlets). Conifers generally meet this criteria. Among the hardwoods, soft maples and, to some degree, European Alder, give some indication of promise. Among non-arborescent species, autumn olive has shown good survival and growth.

Hand p l a n t i n g , by t h e use of a p l a n t i n g b a r , seems t o have achieved more c o n s i s t e n t t r e e p l a n t i n g s u r v i v a l than has machine p l a n t i n g on graded s p o i l s . E r r a t i c success ; however, s u g g e s t s t h e r e is s t i l l more t o be l e a r n e d b e f o r e we can expec t " r o u t i n e success" from graded s p o i l s a f f o r e s t a t i o n . Some sug- g e s t i o n s f o r improving s u r v i v a l i n c l u d e t h e fo l lowing:

(1) P l a n t i n g a s e a r l y i n t h e p l a n t i n g season a s p o s s i b l e makes p l a n t i n g work e a s i e r because f r e e z e and thaw s o i l c o n d i t i o n s seem t o somewhat a m e l i o r a t e compacted s p o i l con- d i t i o n s and workmen tend t o do b e t t e r work and p l a n t deeper under l e s s d i f f i c u l t p l a n t - i n g c o n d i t i o n s . Ear ly p l a n t i n g a l s o h e l p s improve s u r v i v a l due t o longer growth and development p e r i o d , a l lowing b e t t e r r o o t development, p r i o r t o d ry , h o t weather s t r e s s p e r i o d a r r i v a l .

(2) The l a t e r i n t h e season p l a n t i n g i s done, t h e more c a r e and s u p e r v i s i o n becomes c r i t i c a l t o success . P l a n t i n g s t o c k c a r e i s e s s e n t i a l and merely keeping s e e d l i n g r o o t s wet is n o t adequate. A s e e d l i n g can be j u s t a s dead from r o o t mold a s i t is from des ic - c a t i o n . This w r i t e r observed a f a i r l y l a r g e s c a l e t r e e p l a n t i n g f a i l u r e dur ing t h e s p r i n g of 1980 where hardwood s e e d l i n g s d i d n o t even open t h e i r buds t o beg in s p r i n g growth. It seems f a i r s p e c u l a t i o n t h a t t h e s e e d l i n g s p l a n t e d probably were n o t v i a b l e p l a n t s a t t h e t ime of p l a n t i n g .

( 3 ) A t r a c t o r w i t h a r i p p e r can b e used t o r i p a furrow a t t h e spac ing planned f o r t r e e p l a n t i n g on graded s p o i l s . Th is t r e a t - ment n o t on ly should a m e l i o r a t e g rad ing com- p a c t i o n and make p l a n t i n g work e a s i e r , in- c reased r a i n w a t e r insoak a l s o would be expected and bo th f a c t o r s should improve t r e e s u r v i v a l . Using a t r a c t o r w i t h r i p p e r i n t h i s f a s h i o n has long been a s t a n d a r d prac- t i c e f o r euca lyp tus p l a n t i n g on t i n mine s p o i l s i n Niger ia . Timing of r i p p i n g work should be i n t h e f a l l o r e a r l y w i n t e r f o r a r e a t o be p l a n t e d t h e fo l lowing s p r i n g (Onosode, A. T., e t a l . 1973).

(4) P l a n t i n g graded s p o i l s w i t h a com- m e r c i a l t r e e p l a n t i n g b a r becomes progress - i v e l y more d i f f i c u l t a s s p r i n g p l a n t i n g season advances and d r i e r weather r e n d e r s compacted, graded s p o i l h a r d e r and more d i f - f i c u l t f o r t h e p l a n t i n g b a r t o p e n e t r a t e . Condi t ions do develop where one j u s t cannot f o r c e a commercial p l a n t i n g b a r i n t o t h e ground. With such c o n d i t i o n s , t r e e p l a n t e r s have a tendency t o "J" r o o t t h e t r e e seed- l i n g s and p l a n t i n g f a i l u r e is almost a s s u r e d .

One s o l u t i o n t o compacted s p o i l p l a n t i n g c o n d i t i o n s , assuming r i p p i n g w i t h a

t r a c t o r is n o t a v a i l a b l e , i s t o have p l a n t i n g b a r s f a b r i c a t e d a t a l o c a l blacksmith shop. A p i e c e of l a r g e t r u c k s p r i n g can be welded t o t h e end of a p i e c e of 3/4-inch p ipe . Length of t r u c k s p r i n g p i e c e about 10 i n c h e s would be adequate and o v e r a l l l e n g t h , a f t e r being welded t o t h e p i e c e of p i p e , should be about 49 inches . The b l a d e (end of t r u c k s p r i n g p i e c e ) should be hea ted and hammered t o be sharp . No f o o t s t e p , a s is found on t h e com- m e r c i a l p l a n t i n g b a r , i s needed. Such a t o o l has enough h e f t t h a t i t can b e jabbed i n t o t h e ground l i k e a p o s t d igg ing spud and, even i f repea ted jabb ing i s r e q u i r e d f o r hard s o i l c o n d i t i o n s , e v e n t u a l l y , a p roper dep th t r e e p l a n t i n g h o l e can be dug w i t h t h i s t o o l .

(5) It is never d e s i r a b l e t o p l a n t t r e e s on f r e s h l y graded s p o i l . I d e a l con- d i t i o n s a r e f o r g rad ing work t o be completed i n t h e f a l l o r e a r l y w i n t e r and undergo win- t e r weathering c o n d i t i o n s p r i o r t o p l a n t i n g e a r l y t h e fo l lowing s p r i n g .

( 6 ) Where h e r b i c i d e s a r e t o be used, i f pre-emergent type is chosen, s i g n i f i c a n t ad- van tage is a v a i l a b l e i f r i p p i n g w i t h a t r a c t o r i s done because t rea tment a long t h e t r e e rows ( r i p p e d furrows) can b e done e f f i c i e n t l y where one p l a n s t o a l low herbaceous cover t o develop i n t h e s t r i p between rows.

(7) P e r e n n i a l herbaceous cover , a s a t r e e p l a n t i n g , companion cover , should n o t be e s t a b l i s h e d ahead of t r e e p l a n t i n g . By e s t a b l i s h i n g t r e e s and herbaceous cover a t t h e same t ime , i t may be p o s s i b l e f o r t h e t r e e s and herbaceous growth t o s u r v i v e ; whereas, p l a n t i n g t r e e s ' i n e s t a b l i s h e d cover i n v i t e s t r e e p l a n t i n g f a i l u r e , u n l e s s h e r b i - c i d e t rea tment is a p p l i e d . This w r i t e r is of t h e op in ion t h a t much more needs t o be l e a r n e d about d e a l i n g w i t h companion herbaceous v e g e t a t i o n and, h o p e f u l l y , o t h e r com- p e t e n t r e s e a r c h e r s w i l l j o i n i n on t h e type of r e s e a r c h being done by Vogel, whose paper on t h i s s u b j e c t appears on another p a r t of t h i s program.

TREES ON COAL WASTE SLURRY

A number of c o a l was te s l u r r y lagoons have been p l a n t e d wi th t r e e s . Some s t a n d s a r e now over t e n y e a r s of age. Out of n i n e s i t e s p l a n t e d , a l l showed some degree of s u c c e s s , wi th on ly one complete f a i l u r e . The s i n g l e f a i l u r e had surface. pH below 4.0. The o t h e r s i t e s had pH above 4.0.

The h i g h e s t success was achieved w i t h cypress p l a n t e d i n a s t r i p around a wate r a r e a and extending i n t o t h e water-covered s l u r r y a s f a r a s t r e e p l a n t e r s wearing rubber boots could walk and s u c c e s s f u l l y

anchor trees i n t o t h e s l u r r y . Appearance of t h e t e n y e a r o l d s t a n d shows v e r y few t r e e s f a i l e d t o s u r v i v e and growth r a t e appears t o be s a t i s f a c t o r y .

On d r y s l u r r y a r e a s , some f a i r s t a n d s of t r e e s a r e now growing and r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h a t s u c c e s s f u l s p e c i e s a r e p i t c h p i n e , j ack p i n e , V i r g i n i a p i n e , cypress , r e d oak and r i v e r b i r c h . White p i n e proved a f a i l u r e , a l though , i n p l a c e s , i t surv ived a few y e a r s .

Although some s u c c e s s h a s been achieved, no e n t i r e s l u r r y lagoons were completely, s u c c e s s f u l l y a f f o r e s t e d . J u s t why t h i s is s o s t i l l remains t o b e explored and e l u c i d a t e d . This w r i t e r ' s s p e c u l a t i o n is t h a t t h e answer l i e s i n v a r i a t i o n s of s l u r r y m a t e r i a l which a r e n o t s u p e r f i c i a l l y n o t i c e a b l e . To t h e naked eye, s l u r r y a r e a s appear t o be l e v e l ; however, they a c t u a l l y s l o p e a t about 0.7% ( p r e c i s e composition of d i f f e r e n t p a r t i c l e s i z e s w i l l a f f e c t t h e s l o p e and probably no two s l u r r y lagoons a r e p r e c i s e l y s i m i l a r ) .

It i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y suggested h e r e t h a t s l u r r y a r e a s cannot be completely a f f o r - e s t e d -- j u s t t h a t t h i s w r i t e r has n o t per- s o n a l l y observed such. E f f o r t s t o r e p l a n t f a i l e d a r e a s would d e f i n i t e l y seem t o be worth t r y i n g ; however, t h i s w r i t e r does n o t know of such being done. I f a t t e m p t s a t re- p l a n t i n g r e s u l t i n f a i l u r e , i t may r e s u l t i n d e l i n e a t i n g a r e a s which may r e q u i r e t rea tment such a s p o s s i b l y l iming and/or f e r t i l i z i n g o r s o i l cover ing .

Those a t t empt ing t r e e p l a n t i n g i n s l u r r y a r e cau t ioned t o observe t h e r e is a s p e c i a l problem i n p l a n t i n g dur ing dry weather because t h e s l u r r y s u r f a c e may become extremely dry and powdery. Digging a h o l e through t h e d r y s u r f a c e commonly w i l l cause dry s l u r r y m a t e r i a l t o f a l l down i n t h e h o l e because, when d r y , s l u r r y m a t e r i a l i s structurele less". P lac ing a t r e e s e e d l i n g i n a h o l e p a r t i a l l y f i l l e d w i t h dry s l u r r y would seem t o i n v i t e p l a n t i n g f a i l u r e . To d e a l w i t h t h i s problem, i t h a s been found t h a t one can use a t r e e p l a n t i n g b a r t o r a k e back and f o r t h a couple of t i m e s t o s c r a p e dry s l u r r y a s i d e and expose mois t s l u r r y found below. I f one then d i g s a p l a n t i n g h o l e i n t h e moist s l u r r y , t h e h o l e w i l l r e t a i n i t s shaped opening t o a l low i n s e r t i o n of a t r e e s e e d l i n g and normal p l a n t i n g procedure can then be observed.

A LOST SPECIES RE-ESTABLISHED

A h a l f cen tury of s u r f a c e mining a f f o r - e s t a t i o n exper ience i n t h e E.I .P. has t aught us many t h i n g s and has had some s i g n i f i c a n t impact i n o t h e r ways. As o f t e n occurs , re- s u l t s o t h e r than t h o s e sought sometimes come

about i n a way t h a t exceeds a l l e x p e c t a t i o n s . Such is t h e c a s e w i t h Chinese Chestnut .

As is w e l l known, t h e n a t i v e American Chestnut i s a t h i n g of t h e p a s t , due t o t h e c h e s t n u t b l i g h t . A once v e r y v a l u a b l e component of t h e midwest and e a s t e r n hardwood f o r e s t h a s n o t been among t h e numerous hardwood s p e c i e s p l a n t e d on s t r i p mine s p o i l s , f o r obvious reasons . However, i n approximately 1949, i t was decided t o t r y a s u b s t i t u t e v a r i e t y -- Chinese Chestnut . Th is s p e c i e s has been r e g u l a r l y p l a n t e d i n Ind iana ever s i n c e t h a t t ime and, f o r many y e a r s , t h i s s p e c i e s has been producing c h e s t n u t s f o r t h e enjoyment of l o c a l c i t i z e n r y and, of course , f o r wild- l i f e food.

Because t y p i c a l Chinese Chestnut t r e e growth behavior t e n d s t o be , more o r l e s s , t h a t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f r u i t t r e e s (orchard form), t h e s e t r e e s have taken on t h e image of being d e s i r a b l e n u t producer components of a s t a n d and no one i s known t o have given much a t t e n t i o n t o p o s s i b i l i t i e s beyond t h a t .

It i s now p o s s i b l e t o r e p o r t t h a t some c h e s t n u t t r e e s a r e developing under c losed canopy s t a n d c o n d i t i o n s i n a way t h a t o r i g i - n a l o rchard form i s g i v i n g way t o developing a t imber form c h a r a c t e r . It i s s t i l l t o o e a r l y t o determine f i n a l outcome; however, some p o l e s i z e t r e e s w i t h f a i r t imber form can now be found.

Something t h i s w r i t e r h a s n o t found appear ing i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e involves reproducing c a p a b i l i t y of Chinese Chestnut -- e s p e c i a l l y on s u r f a c e mine s p o i l a r e a s . This w r i t e r has now observed enough i n s t a n c e s i n d i f f e r e n t s t a n d s t o conclude t h a t t h i s s p e c i e s is reproducing n a t u r a l l y . Stands where n a t - u r a l r e g e n e r a t i o n was found g e n e r a l l y a r e about 12 t o 15 y e a r s of age o r o l d e r . Thcs, i t soon may be p o s s i b l e t o conclude t h a t we have s u c c e s s f u l l y r e - e s t a b l i s h e d a l o s t s p e c i e s .

LITERATURE CITED

Grandt , A. F. and A. L. Lang. 1958. Reclaim- i n g I l l i n o i s s t r i p c o a l l and w i t h legumes and g r a s s e s . Univ. of Ill. Ag. Exp. S t a . , Bul. 8628.

Limstrom, G . A. and G. H. Deitschman. 1951. Reclaiming I l l i n o i s s t r i p c o a l l and by f o r - e s t p l a n t i n g . Univ. of Ill. Ag. Exp. S t a . , Bul. #547.

I l l i n o i s Blue Book. 1971-1972. Reclamation of s t r i p mined land i n I l l i n o i s . Chap. X I V , pp. 1-16. O f f i c e of t h e S e c r e t a r y of S t a t e . S p r i n g f i e l d , IL.

Medvick, C. 1973. Selecting plant species for revegetating surface coal mined lands in Indiana -- a forty year record. Ecol- ogy and reclamation of devastated land. Vol. Two, part V-4. Gordon and Breach, New York, NY.

Onosode, A. T. and J. F. Redhead. 1973. The reclamation of land devastated by tin mining on the Jos Plateau, Nigeria. Ecology and reclamation of devastated land. Vol. Two, part VII-5. Gordon and Breach, New York, NY.

Walter H . avid son^

Abstract.--Direct seeding, an a t t r a c t i v e a l t e r n a t i v e t o p l an t ing , is not a simple method of f o r e s t a t i o n . Pas t expe- r i ences show f a r more f a i l u r e s than successes. Well documented procedures must be followed t o i n su re any degree of success. I n genera l , con i f e r s have given t h e b e s t r e s u l t s . Black walnut and b lack locus t a r e notable exceptions. Current research sugges ts t h a t o the r hardwoods may be success f u l l y direct- seeded.

INTRODUCTION

Di rec t seeding is an a t t r a c t i v e a l t e rna - t i v e t o p l an t ing seedl ings . Large acreages can be seeded i n a r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t time, l e s s manpower i s needed, and seedings can be made a t times when p l an t ing is not f e a s i b l e . Direc t seeding, however, is not a simple method of f o r e s t a t i o n and i t s succes s fu l app l i ca t ion requ i r e s t echn ica l knowledge and s k i l l s . Regard- l e s s of t he p o t e n t i a l s of d i r e c t seeding, i f seeding techniques a r e f a u l t y o r miscalcula- t i o n s a r e made, only f a i l u r e w i l l r e s u l t . It is t h e i n t e n t of t h i s paper t o present t h e s t a t e of t he a r t of d i r e c t seeding a s a rec lamation t o o l , t o present guide l ines f o r r ec l a - mation seeding, and suggest research needs t o more e f f i c i e n t l y develop seeding techniques.

PAST EXPERIENCE

Early r e p o r t s of reclamation f o r fo re s t a - t i o n i n d i c a t e t h a t d i r e c t seeding was attempted i n many regions a s an a l t e r n a t i v e t o t r e e p lant ing . Among the e a r l i e s t a t t m p t s was d i r e c t seeding of b lack walnut made i n 1939 i n I l l i n o i s (Schavi l je 1941) . He repor ted good f i r s t year germination and s u r v i v a l wi th average seed l ing he igh t of 12 inches. Limstrom (1960), however, discourages t he use of d i r e c t seeding due t o i ncons i s t en t r e s u l t s and f a i l - , u res of e a r l i e r t r i a l s . A seeding of b lack walnut, b lack cherry, and bur oak on 13 s i t e s

lpaper presented a t t h e "Trees f o r Rec- lamation i n t he Eas tern U.S." symposium, Lexington, Kentucky. October 27-29, 1980.

2kesearch Fo res t e r , USDA-Pores t Service. Northeastern Fores t Experiment S t a t i o n , For- e s t r y Sciences Laboratory, P. 0. Box 152, Pr ince ton , West V i rg in i a 24740.

i n Missouri , Kansas, and Oklahoma, r e su l t ed i n complete f a i l u r e of t h e b lack cherry. Af- t e r 6 years b lack walnut s u r v i v a l was 15 percent and bur oak was 24 percent . Other seed- i n g ~ of b lack walnut r e su l t ed i n su rv iva l s ranging from 6 t o 82 percent . Additfonal t e s t i n g included more spec i e s , both con i f e r s and hardwoods, bu t aga in t h e r e s u l t s can only be c lassed a s f a i r t o poor. He a t t r i b u t e d the f a i l u r e s t o , "(1) drying out of germina- t i n g seed l ings , (2) mice and o the r rodents p i l f e r i n g the seed , and (3) e ros ion and s i l t a - t ion1' .

Rodents were c i t e d a s the major l i m i t i n g f a c t o r t o e a r l y d i r e c t seeding t r i a l s i n cen- t r a l Pennsylvania (Bramble and Sharp 1949). However, t r i a l s i n t he a n t h r a c i t e region of Pennsylvania shared sp r ing seeding of red oak, V i rg in i a p ine , p i t c h p ine , and red p ine gave s a t i s f a c t o r y germination. White oak, Norway spruce , whi te p ine , and Japanese l a r ch e i t h e r f a i l e d completely o r gave very poor germina t ion . 3

Loblolly p ine was succes s fu l ly seeded an s t e e p s p o i l banks i n a 1961 experiment i n Ten- nessee (Thor and Kring 1964). This s tudy of seeding versus p l an t ing showed t h a t p lanted seedl ings .produced h igher s u r v i v a l r a t e s , bu t cos t of p l an t ing exceeded t h a t of seeding. The major disadvantage of d i r e c t seeding was poor d i s t r i b u t i o n of s tocked seed spo t s .

Between 1930 and 1940, b lack walnut seed was a v a i l a b l e f o r reclamation seeding i n In- d iana (Medvick 1973) . Apparently t he r e s u l t s were unsa t i s f ac to ry and seedl ings were p lanted ----

3~npub l i shed r epo r t on f o r e s t p l an t ing and seeding experiments on lands s t r i p p e d f o r coa l i n t he a n t h r a c i t e region. 1951. Penn- sy lvan ia Bureau of Fo res t s and Waters.

i n t h e per iod 1941 t o 1950. D i r e c t seed ing was t r i e d aga in i n 1950. About 1960, accept- a b l e walnut p l a n t i n g s t ock was developed and t h e r e is no record of f u r t h e r d i r e c t seed ing t r i a l s .

Thir ty-year eva lua t i ons of p l a n t a t i o n s i n I l l i n o i s i n d i c a t e t h a t t he performance of seeded b l ack walnut is comparable t o p l an t ed s e e d l i ngs (Ashby e t a l . 1978). I n a d d i t i o n , seed ing of b l ack walnut is recommended on sandy, unvegetated a r e a s .

D i r e c t seed ing of b l ack l o c u s t was a common rec lamat ion p r a c t i c e i n West V i r g i n i a dur ing t h e 1940s and 1950s. An eva lua t i on of about 20,000 ac r e s of t he se seed ings showed only about 20 percent had s u c c e s s f u l es tab- l ishment of t r e e s (Brown and Tryon 1960). About 50 percent of t h e s t ands were r a t e d a s complete f a i l u r e s . I n a n a t tempt t o determine t h e causes of f a i l u r e , a s e r i e s of experiments were e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1958 t o 1960. The e f f e c t s of s i t e f a c t o r s and seeding methods on germi- n a t i o n and s u r v i v a l of b l ack l o c u s t , V i rg in i a p ine , p i t c h p ine , and wh i t e p ine were i n v e s t i - ga ted (Brown 1973) . Black l o c u s t and p i t c h p ine gave t h e b e s t r e s u l t s . S p o i l mois ture , seed bed cond i t i on , seed t rea tment , seed cov- e r a ge , and competi t ion from herbaceous p l a n t s , were l i s t e d a s f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g germinat ion and i n i t i a l s u r v i v a l .

Other r e cen t experimentat ion i nc ludes t e s t s wi th l o b l o l l y , s h o r t l e a f , V i rg in i a , and whi te p ine by t he Tennessee Valley Author i ty (Zarger e t a l . 1973) . I n t he se 1966 t r i a l s , s t r a t i f i e d seed t r e a t e d w i th b i r d and rodent r e p e l l a n t s was used. Seed was broadcas t by hand o r cyclone seeder and a l s o by h e l i c o p t e r . F i r s t year r e s u l t s showed V i rg in i a p ine gave t h e b e s t and most c o n s i s t e n t r e s u l t s ; wh i t e p ine was t h e poores t .

F i e l d t e s t s i n West V i rg in i a have ind ica- t e d t h a t b i c o l o r lespedeza , f a l s e i nu igo , b l a c k l o c u s t , green a sh , V i rg in i a p ine , s h o r t l e a f p ine , and l o b l o l l y p ine can be rec- commended f o r d i r e c t seed ing i n t h e southern reg ion of t h e s t a t e (P l a s s 1976). Sho r t l e a f and l o b l o l l y p ine have a l s o shown g r e a t e r t o l e r a n c e t o a range of s p o i l condi t ions i n a greenhouse t e s t ( P l a s s 19 74) . I d e n t i f i c a - t i o n of t h e promising spec i e s r e s u l t e d from a spec i e s eva lua t i on t r i a l i n which 34 spe- c i e s of t r e e s and shrubs were hydroseeded on f i v e s i t e s . The s i t e s were c l a s s i f i e d by e l e v a t i o n and spec i e s were s e l e c t e d f o r t e s t - i ng on t he b a s i s of p l an t i ng recommendations f o r t he s i t e c l a s s . Resu l t s a t h ighe r eleva- t i o n s and i n t he no r the rn reg ion of t h e s t a t e were v a r i a b l e . Some spec i e s show promise b u t none can be recommended except f o r a d d i t i o n a l t e s t i n g .

D i r ec t seed ing a s a r e f o r e s t a t i o n tech- n ique has been ex t ens ive ly p r ac t i c ed i n t h e South. Never the less , i n a survey of d i r e c t seed ing i n t he South (Mann 1968) , t h e only r e f e r ence t o rec lamat ion seeding is f o r lob- l o l l y p ine on Alabama s p o i l s .

At a d i r e c t seed ing symposium i n 1973, Abbott reviewed d i r e c t seed ing programs i n t h e United S t a t e s . Only West V i rg in i a was mentioned f o r d i r e c t seed ing a s i z e a b l e acreage of s u r f a c e mined lands . Reference was made t o d i r e c t seed ing b l ack l o c u s t which accounted f o r 62 percent of t h e S t a t e ' s ac reage r e f o r e s t e d i n 1972.

I n a pub l i c a t i on on p l a n t performance on s u r f a c e mines ( S o i l Conservat ion Se rv i ce 1978), V i rg in i a p ine , l o b l o l l y p ine , and b lack l o c u s t a r e l i s t e d a s t r e e spec i e s most l i k e l y t o produce accep t ab l e s t ands from d i r e c t seeding.

Reviewing t h e p a s t exper iences w i th d i r e c t seed ing f o r rec lamat ion i l l u s t r a t e s t h e need f o r s e l e c t i n g t h e r i g h t s p e c i e s , p repar ing a s u i t a b l e seed bed, p rovid ing p r o t e c t i o n t o t h e seed , and seeding a t t h e proper time.

CURRENT RESEARCH

I n s p i t e of t h e problem a s soc i a t ed w i th d i r e c t seed ing , many ope ra to r s a r e a t tempt ing t o e s t a b l i s h t r e e s from seed and r e sea r ch t o f i n d accep t ab l e spec i e s and dependable seed- i n g techniques is continuing. I i n s t a l l e d a s e r i e s of s tudy p l o t s i n l a t e A p r i l and e a r l y May us ing a v a r i e t y of spec i e s . Grass spe- c i e s were seeded a t t h e same time i n an a t - tempt t o meet rec lamat ion requirements f o r e ro s ion c o n t r o l and s i t e p ro t ec t i on . Because of t h e l a t e t iming of t h e t r i a l s , e a r l y re- s u l t s a r e no t promising.

Another cu r r en t s tudy on d i r e c t seed ing is be ing done by Clark A ~ h b y . ~ This work in- vo lves s t u d i e s us ing t h e spo t seed ing technique wi th a v a r i e t y of spec i e s . Ear ly re-- s u l t s a r e encouraging f o r b l ack walnut , sev- e r a l oak and h ickory s p e c i e s , and s i l v e r maple. Black l o c u s t is accep t ab l e b u t is poorer than some of t he o t h e r spec i e s . Black cher ry and hackberry have performed poor ly .

Undoubtedly more r e sea r ch is be ing con- duc t ed throughout t h e reg ion . New regula- t i o n s and s t anda rds f o r rec lamat ion have be-- come more s t r i n g e n t and d i r e c t seed ing must

4 ~ s h b y , W. Clark. 1980. Persona l com- municat ion.

b e demonstrated t o be a r e l i a b l e t echnique f o r f o r e s t a t i o n .

GUIDELINES FOR DIRECT SEEDING

Many guides have been publ i shed on d i r e c t seed ing f o r r e f o r e s t a t i o n . The p r i n c i p l e s of d i r e c t seed ing apply bo th t o r e f o r e s t a t i o n and f o r e s t a t i o n of s u r f a c e mined lands . However, t h e r e a r e d i f f e r e n c e s t h a t must b e recognized when t h e seed ing is f o r rec lamat ion . A sur - f a c e mine is n o t t h e same a s a logged a r e a o r o l d f i e l d . S o i l c o n d i t i o n s may be consid- e r a b l y d i f f e r e n t . Erosion p o t e n t i a l i s h i g h and must be cons idered . I n a d d i t i o n , a de- f i n e d measure of success must be achieved w i t h i n a s e t t ime frame.

The fo l lowing g u i d e l i n e s a r e g e n e r a l r u l e s which must be considered t o i n s u r e t h e h i g h e s t chance of s u c c e s s when d i r e c t seeding.

Time of seed ing

Ear ly s p r i n g is u s u a l l y t h e b e s t t ime t o seed. F a l l seed ing is a c c e p t a b l e i f t h e s o i l c o n d i t i o n s a r e such t h a t t h e seed w i l l n o t be washed away o r covered t o o deeply by s i l t a - t i o n . F a l l seed ing can prov ide n a t u r a l s t r a t - i f i c a t i o n .

Seeding method

Broadcast seed ing is t h e e a s i e s t method t o use. It can be by hand, cyclone s e e d e r , hydroseeder , h e l i c o p t e r , o r fixed-wing a i r - c r a f t . However, l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s of seed a r e r e q u i r e d and u n l e s s d i s c i n g o r some o t h e r t rea tment i s a p p l i e d , t h e seed may n o t be covered proper ly . Spot s e e d i n g o r d r i l l i n g uses l e s s seed and prov ides b e t t e r seed cov- e r a g e ensur ing b e t t e r germinat ion and more uniform spac ing . This can be an important f a c t o r i f seed is s c a r c e o r h igh p r i c e d seed is used.

Spec ies s e l e c t i o n Liming and f e r t i l i z i n g

Native s p e c i e s u s u a l l y have t h e h i g h e s t p o t e n t i a l f o r success . P r i o r i t y should be given t o s p e c i e s t h a t a r e s u c c e s s f u l l y p l a n t - ed i n t h e reg ion . Some s p e c i e s , such a s b l a c k c h e r r y , a r e d i f f i c u l t t o seed success- f u l l y . Use of such s p e c i e s should be l i m i t e d t o s m a l l t r i a l s u n t i l seed ing techniques a r e per fec ted .

Seed q u a l i t y

Only good q u a l i t y seed should be used. C e r t i f i e d seed is recommended. Geographic

, s o u r c e of t h e seed may a l s o i n f l u e n c e i ts q u a l i t y (Belcher 1976).

Seed t rea tment

Seed having i n t e r n a l o r seed coa t dor- mancy should be s c a r i f i e d and/or s t r a t i f i e d t o i n s u r e prompt germinat ion. Treatment t o p r o t e c t t h e seed from b i r d s and mammals should a l s o b e a p p l i e d . There a r e r e s t r i c - t i o n s on chemicals used f o r seed p r o t e c t i o n which r e q u i r e s t a t e c e r t i f i c a t i o n of t h e u s e r . Many seed companies can provided t r e a t e d seed .

Seedbed p r e p a r a t i o n

A f r e s h l y prepared seedbed w i l l g i v e t h e b e s t c o n d i t i o n s f o r germinat ion and e s t a b l i s h - men t .

Lining and f e r t i l i z i n g can improve germina t ion and s e e d l i n g growth (Vogel and Berg 1973). However, invading herbaceous p l a n t s w i l l be encouraged and t h e compet i t ion could be d e t r i m e n t a l t o t h e t r e e s e e d l i n g s .

Combination seed ings

Herbaceous p l a n t s a r e needed f o r cover and e r o s i o n c o n t r o l . However, compet i t ion from herbaceous p l a n t s w i l l reduce t h e suc- c e s s of t r e e seed ings . At t h i s t ime , t h e op- t i o n s a r e t o seed t h e herbaceous s p e c i e s one y e a r and s p o t seed t h e fo l lowing y e a r i n s p o t s prepared by s c a l p i n g o r us ing herb i - c i d e s . Another p o s s i b i l i t y is t o s p r i n g seed t rees , then over-seed w i t h g r a s s e s i n t h e f a l l . There has been l i m i t e d s u c c e s s seed ing bo th herbaceous s p e c i e s and t r e e s a t t h e same time. I f t h i s t echnique is used s p e c i e s se- l e c t i o n is c r i t i c a l and f e r t i l i z a t i o n should be minimal t o i n h i b i t r a p i d development of t h e g r a s s e s .

These g u i d e l i n e s show t h a t d i r e c t seed- i n g is n o t an easy a l t e r n a t i v e t o p l a n t i n g . Any landowner wishing t o o b t a i n t r e e s by d i - r e c t s e e d i n g must be prepared t o fo l low t h e gu ides and must be w i l l i n g t o accep t f a i l u r e s i f weather c o n d i t i o n s o r o t h e r f a c t o r s occur which cause poor germinat ion, seed l o s s e s , o r s e e d l i n g m o r t a l i t y .

RESEARCH NEEDS

Much is known about d i r e c t seeding. How- e v e r , when seed ing f o r rec lamat ion , t h e r e a r e a r e a s which need t o be i n v e s t i g a t e d t o d e t e r - mine more p r a c t i c a l t echniques t o i n s u r e suc- c e s s f u l seeding.

Among t h e primary needs a r e e v a l u a t i o n s of v a r i o u s t r e e and herbaceous combinat ions t o a l low f o r one t i m e seed ing o p e r a t i o n s . A d d i t i o n a l t e s t i n g of hardwood seed ing is needed. Timing of l ime and f e r t i l i z e r ap- p l i c a t i o n s needs t o b e s t u d i e d t o m a i n t a i n a herbaceous cover t h a t w i l l n o t compete t o o s t r o n g l y w i t h s e e d l i n g s .

Continued s p e c i e s e v a l u a t i o n s and t e s t - i n g new s p e c i e s is needed t o g i v e t h e landowner a g r e a t e r s e l e c t i o n of s p e c i e s which can be seeded. Seeding r a t e s f o r hydroseed- i n g need t o be eva lua ted .

Economic s t u d i e s a r e a l s o needed t o determine i f t h e c o s t s of seed ing j u s t i f y t h e end r e s u l t .

SUMMARY

P a s t exper iences have shown t h a t i n some i n s t a n c e s d i r e c t seed ing has g iven s a t i s f a c - t o r y s t a n d s of t r e e s on s u r f a c e mined lands . I n many i n s t a n c e s , t h e r e s u l t s were l e s s than d e s i r a b l e . However, t h e procedure has a p p e a l f o r rec lamat ion i n t h a t i t may be p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n a mixed cover of herbaceous and woody s p e c i e s on a s i t e i n a s i n g l e o p e r a t i o n .

Current seed ing o p e r a t i o n s should use s p e c i e s and techniques t h a t have g iven t h e b e s t r e s u l t s i n t h e p a s t .

Research is needed t o i d e n t i f y s p e c i e s combinations f o r one s t e p o p e r a t i o n s and t o develop procedures which w i l l g i v e t h e h i g h e s t chances f o r success .

LITERATURE CITED

Abbott , Hershe l G. 1973. D i r e c t seed ing i n t h e United S t a t e s . "Di rec t Seeding Sym- posium," Dept. of t h e Envir . Canadian For. Serv. Pub. No. 1339, Ottawa. p. 1-10.

Ashby, W. C la rk , Clay Kolar , Mary L. Guerke, and o t h e r s . 1978. Our rec lamat ion f u t u r e , t h e miss ing b e t on t r e e s . IIEQ Doc. No. 78/04, Southern I l l i n o i s Univ. Carbondale. 99 p.

Be lcher , E. W. 1976. Seed source and v i g o r . I n K. A. Utz (ed . ) Proc. of t h e Conference - on F o r e s t a t i o n of Disturbed Sur face Areas. USDA For. Serv. A t l a n t a , Ga. p. 20-22.

Bramble, William C. and Ward M. Sharp. 1949. Rodents a s a f a c t o r i n d i r e c t seed ing on s p o i l banks i n c e n t r a l Pennsylvania. J. For. 47 : 477-478.

Brown, James H. 1973. S i t e f a c t o r s and seed ing methods a f f e c t i n g germinat ion and s u r v i v a l of t r e e s p e c i e s d i r e c t seeded on surface-mined a r e a s . West V i r g i n i a Univ. Agric . Exp. S tn . B u l l . 620. 25 p. Morgantown.

Brown, James H. and E. H. Tryon. 1960. Es- t ab l i shment of seeded b l a c k l o c u s t on s p o i l banks i n West V i r g i n i a . West V i r - g i n i a Univ. Agric . Exp. S tn . Bul l . 440. 33 p. Morgantown.

Limstrom, G. A. 1960. F o r e s t a t i o n of s t r i p - mined land i n t h e C e n t r a l S t a t e s . USDA Handb. 166. 74 p.

Mann, William F . , Jr. 1968. Ten y e a r s ex- p e r i e n c e w i t h d i r e c t seed ing i n t h e South. J. For. 66:828-833.

Medvick, C. 1973. S e l e c t i n g p l a n t s p e c i e s f o r r e v e g e t a t i n g s u r f a c e c o a l mined lands i n Indiana--a fo r ty -year record . I n R u s s e l l J. Hutnik and Grant Davis (ed. ) Ecology and Reclamation of Devastated Land. Vol. 2 , p. 65-80. New York. Gordon and Breach.

P l a s s , Wil l iam T. 1974. F a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g t h e es tab l i shment of d i rec t - seeded p i n e on surface-mine s p o i l s . USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. NE-290. 5 p.

P l a s s , W i l l i a m T. 1976. D i r e c t seed ing of t r e e s and shrubs on surface-mined l a n d s i n West V i r g i n i a . K . A. Utz (ed. ) Proc. of t h e Conference on F o r e s t a t i o n of D i s - tu rbed Sur face Areas. USDA For. Serv . , A t l a n t a , Ga. p. 32-42.

S c h a v i l j e , Joseph P. 1941. Reclaiming Illi- n o i s s t r i p mined c o a l l a n d s wi th t r e e s . J. For. 39:714-719.

Thor, Eyvind and James S. Kring. 1964. P l a n t i n g and seed ing of l o b l o l l y p i n e on s t e e p s p o i l banks. J. For. 62:575-576.

S o i l Conservat ion Serv ice . 1978. P l a n t performance on s u r f a c e c o a l mine s p o i l i n e a s t e r n United S t a t e s . USDA, SCS. TP-155. 76 p.

RESULTS OF 30-YEAR-OLD PLANTATIONS ON

4

W. Clark Ashby, Clay A. Kolar, Nelson F. Rogers 2

Abstract.--Twenty-eight tree species have grown successfully on surface-mined lands in the Central States. Varia- bility in species performance can be related to geographic area, type of rooting medium, and associated species. Many planted stands have been vigorously invaded by volunteer trees, as well as by other plants and animals.

INTRODUCTION RESUME

Much of our present knowledge about growing trees on strip mines has been the gift of an earlier generation of tree planters. Thirty years ago, with faith, vision, and energy, they planted millions of trees each year on surface mined lands. They and others have published numerous results of these earlier studies (Ashby, et al. 1978, Boyce and Neebe 1959, Clark 1954, DenUyl 1962, Geyer 1973, Limstrom 1960, Limstrom and Deitschman 1951, Medvick 1973, Rogers 1951, Vogel 1977). It has become a story of success, and even the failures increased our understanding of this skill.

After thirty years, what we have learned about the growing of trees on reclaimed strip mines is considerable. We know that trees have grown successfully on a wide variety of overburden materials. The success of any given species is affected by geographic loca- tion, type of rooting medium, and whether it is planted alone or interplanted. Nitrogen- fixing species such as black locust can enhance the growth of associated hardwood species. Both seedlings and seed are suitable for establishing plantings. Where we do not plant at all, it is more difficult for any natural cover to reclaim the mined area.

Planted stands with incomplete cover are rapidly invaded by other trees and by many kinds of plants and animals. This increases the diversity helpful to ecological balances, yet demonstrates that continuing management will be required to maintain the originally-

'paper presented at the Trees for Reclama- tion, Lexington, Kentucky, October 27-29, 1980. This research was supported by the USDA Forest Service Northeastern Forest Experiment Station, Research Work Unit NE-1605.

'~rofessor and Researcher, Department of Botany, Southern Illinois University at Car- bondale, 62901 and Silviculturist, Retired, USDA Forest Service.

planted trees, if that is desired.

The questions still unanswered after thirty years demonstrate that we hold at present only pieces of information and not a complete fabric of knowledge. We are not yet clear on the relations between soil prepara-. tion and the long-term success of plantings. We need to know more about the effects and timing of interplantings of one species with another. And more detailed studies need to be made on criteria for the selection of candidate species, according to soil composition, nutrient availability, climate, and future land use.

We cannot even say what will happen to present plantings over the next thirty years. Invading or interplanted species which apparently accelerated the demise of many pines m y similarly later affect other planted species. For maples and oaks, however, this seems unlikely, due to the present relative absence of invading species in those stands.

The effects of grading as practiced 30 years ago are difficult to interpret because of confounding factors such as differing spoil features or grading standards or spoil moisture conditions at time of grading in areas being compared.

We have only limited understanding of solutions to potential problems in planting trees on reclaimed lands protected from erosion by dense herbaceous cover. Although tree plantings were established successfully in pre-existing ground cover over 30 years ago, the density and type of that ground cover was unlike the alfalfa and tall fescue stands usually established for ground cover today. Appropriate species selection and timing in planting the ground cover and trees are possible keys to success. Willis Vogel's paper at this sym~osium on, "Revegetation of Surface-Mined Lands with Herbaceous and Woody Species Together", addresses this question.

Now we g ive a n overview of what t h i r t y years' exper ience h a s revea led . F i r s t we de- s c r i b e our methodology and g e n e r a l r e s u l t s . Next we review s p e c i a l f e a t u r e s of i n d i v i - d u a l p l a n t i n g s , examine g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s - t i c s of each s p e c i e s ' growth, and b r i e f l y d i s c u s s t h e b roader c o n s i d e r a t i o n s of d iver - s i f i c a t i o n , s o i l development, and p r o s p e c t s f o r t h e f u t u r e . This i n c l u d e s a p e r s p e c t i v e on apply ing t h e s e r e s u l t s toward ach iev ing t h e g o a l s of t h e Federa l Sur face Mining Con- t r o l and Reclamation Act of 1977 (P .L. 95-87).

Flowering and f r u i t i n g were observed f o r many s p e c i e s and v o l u n t e e r s of t h e p l a n t e d s p e c i e s were recorded f o r many p l o t s . The l i k e l i h o o d of o t h e r seed s o u r c e s f o r t h e s e v o l u n t e e r s was n o t i n v e s t i g a t e d .

P l a n t i n g p l a n s

D i f f e r e n c e s i n p l a n t i n g on v a r i o u s p l o t s a l lowed u s t o s t u d y s e v e r a l i n t e r e s t i n g problems. Other d i f f e r e n c e s were o f t e n n o t i n t e n - t i o n a l o r c o n t r o l l e d .

METHODOLOGY AND GENERAL RESULTS Mixed p l a n t i n g s w i t h b l a c k locust.--Some s t u d i e s i n Ind iana , I l l i n o i s , and Kansas were

The p l o t s we examined were l o c a t e d i n Ind iana , I l l i n o i s , Missour i , Kansas, and Okla- homa. We had enough in format ion t o l o c a t e 867 s t u d y p l o t s o r sub-p lo t s w i t h a t o t a l of 28 s p e c i e s . Trees were p l a n t e d on a 7-foot by 7-foot spac ing , which gave an o r i g i n a l p l a n t i n g r a t e of 889 t r e e s per a c r e . To sample a p l o t we t y p i c a l l y measured d iameter b r e a s t h e i g h t (DBH) of 36 i n t e r i o r t r e e s , o r fewer i f t h e r e were fewer s u r v i v i n g t r e e s . The measurements from t h e t r e e s i n one p l o t were averaged, and our performance a n a l y s e s a r e based on comparisons of t h e s e p l o t averages .

Tabulated, by s t a t e , a r e t h e number of p l o t s i n which a l l t r e e s of a given s p e c i e s d i e d , t h e number i n which l i v e t r e e s were p r e s e n t and measured, and t h e p e r c e n t p l o t s f o r each s p e c i e s w i t h l i v i n g t r e e s s o r t e d by mean DBH s i z e c l a s s e s (Table 1 ) . Spec ies w i t h a r e l a t i v e l y low s u r v i v a l r a t e a r e i d e n t i f i e d i n t h e review of i n d i v i d u a l s p e c i e s . Our d a t a a r e on a l l t r e e s , n o t j u s t t h e dominant and co-dominant t r e e s .

A f t e r 30 y e a r s most t r e e s i n t h e s t r i p - mine p l a n t i n g s were i n t h e small-pole s i z e c l a s s (4.0 t o 7.9-inch DBH). Numerous s p e c i e s were r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e s a p l i n g (0 t o 3.9- i n c h ) c l a s s and o t h e r s i n t h e l a r g e r p o l e (8.0 t o 11.9-inch) c l a s s . R e l a t i v e l y few s p e c i e s were found w i t h p l o t averages g r e a t e r than 12 inches . Moderate d i f f e r e n c e s were found i n t h e r e l a t i v e s i z e - c l a s s d i s t r i b u - t i o n s among t h e s e v e r a l s t a t e s .

Only 4 s p e c i e s (green a s h , b l a c k walnu t , s h o r t l e a f p i n e , and b l a c k l o c u s t ) were p l a n t e d and grew s u c c e s s f u l l y i n a l l t h e s t a t e s . Of t h e s e , green a s h was c o n s i s t e n t l y found on ly i n t h e s m a l l e r two s i z e c l a s s e s , s h o r t l e a f p i n e grew b e t t e r i n Kansas and Oklahoma than elsewhere, b l a c k walnut had l e s s good growth i n Kansas and Oklahoma, and r e s u l t s w i t h b l a c k l o c u s t were v a r i a b l e . I f p r e s e n t i n a s t a t e , t h e s e s p e c i e s had t h e l a r g e s t t r e e s : sweet ( r e d ) gum, t u l i p t r e e (yel low p o p l a r ) , l o b l o l l y p ine , cottonwood, and t o some e x t e n t sycamore.

designed t o e v a l u a t e t h e i n f l u e n c e of b l a c k l o c u s t p l a n t e d w i t h o r b e f o r e o t h e r s p e c i e s on t h e i r growth. Because some s t a n d s were of young (1-3 y e a r ) l o c u s t i n t e r p l a n t e d w i t h hardwoods w h i l e o t h e r s t a n d s were of hardwoods p l a n t e d under o l d e r l o c u s t a l r e a d y ravaged by t h e l o c u s t b o r e r (Megacyllene r o b i n i a e ) , e x a c t comparisons were n o t p o s s i b l e . I n g e n e r a l , l o c u s t promoted t h e growth of t u l i p t r e e , b l a c k walnut and s i l v e r maple, and supressed t h e growth of p i n e s . I n one p l a n t - i n g comparing growth under s h o r t l e a f p i n e w i t h growth under b l a c k l o c u s t , t u l i p t r e e , b l a c k walnut , s i l v e r maple, and Osage orange a l l grew b e t t e r under t h e b l a c k l o c u s t (F ig . 1 ) ; on ly t h e sweetgum grew bet l ter under t h e p i n e (Ashby and Kolar 1977). However, a l l s p e c i e s excep t s i l v e r maple had much g r e a t e r s u r v i v a l under t h e p i n e t h a n under t h e l o c u s t .

Also of n o t e i s t h a t t h e l o c u s t s t a n d s were v igorous ly invaded by v o l u n t e e r s p e c i e s . Unfor tuna te ly , i n Ind iana Japanese honey- - -

s u c k l e (Lonicera j aponica) o f t e n formed dense cover i n l o c u s t p l o t s and smothered o u t young t r e e s and herbs .

Row v s . b l o c k p1ant ings.--Plant ings w i t h s e v e r a l s p e c i e s s i d e by s i d e i n rows were used widely i n I l l i n o i s , and t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t i n Ind iana and Kansas. P l a n t i n g s w i t h j u s t one s p e c i e s i n a b lock were a l s o used, t y p i c a l l y $ ( o r %) a c r e s i z e i n Ind iana and 1 /10 a c r e i n Missour i , Kansas, and Oklahoma. The c h i e f e f f e c t no ted was t h a t i n Ind iana and I l l i n o i s p i n e s d i d cons iderab ly b e t t e r when p l a n t e d w i t h p i n e s of t h e i r own o r o t h e r s p e c i e s than when i n t e r p l a n t e d w i t h hardwoods.

Grading.--Studies i n Missouri and Kansas, and comparisons i n Ind iana and I l l i n o i s , e v a l u a t e d t h e e f f e c t s of grading on t r e e growth. The grad ing was g e n e r a l l y less i n t e n s i v e than is c a r r i e d o u t under p r e s e n t r e g u l a t i o n s .

Table 1.--Species Performance by State

Species No. of Plots % Live Tree Plots by Mean DBH Trees Live O t o 4.0to 8.Ot0 Over Died Trees 3.9" 7.9" 11.9" 12.0"

Acer rubrum (Red maple) -- A. saccharinum (Silver maple) - A. saccharum (Sugar maple) - Ailanthus altissima (Tree-of-heaven) Alnus glutinosa (European alder) Fraxinus pennsylvanica (Green ash) Juglans nigra (Black walnut) Liquidambar styraciflua (Sweetgum) Liriodendron tulipifera (Tulip tree) Pinus banksiana (Jack pine) P. echinata (Shortleaf pine) - P. resinosa (Red pine) - P. rigida (Pitch pine) - P. strobis (White pine) - - P . taeda (Loblolly pine) - - P. virginiana (Virginia pine) Platanus occidentalis (Sycamore) Populus deltoides (Cottonwood) Quercus prinus (Chestnut oak) Q. rubra & shumardii (Red & shumard oak) Robinia pseudoacacia (Black locust)

Acer saccharinum (Silver maple) Fraxinus pennsylvanica (Green ash) Juglans nigra (Black walnut) Juniperus virginiana (Red cedar) Liquidambar styraciflua (Sweetgum) Liriodendron tulipifera (Tulip tree) Maclura pomifera (Osage orange) Pinus banksiana (Jack pine) P. echinata (Shortleaf pine) - P. resinosa (Red ~ine) - . . P. rigida (Pitch pine) - P. strobus (White pine) - - P. sylvestris (Scots pine) - P. taeda (~oblolly pine) - - P. virginiana (Virginia pine) - Po~ulus deltoides (Cottonwood) - Quercus alba (White oak) -- Q. rubra & shumardii (Red & shumard oak) Robinia pseudoacacia (Black locust)

INDIANA

ILLINOIS

Table 1.--Species Performance by State (continued)

Species No. of Plots Trees Live Died Trees

% Live Tree Plots by Mean DBH 0 to 4.0 to 8.0 to Over 3.9" 7.9" 11.9" 12.0"

Fraxinus pennsylvanica (Green ash) Juglans nigra (Black walnut) Juniperus virginiana (Red cedar) Pinus banksiana (Jack pine) P. echinata (Shortleaf pine) - --

P. ponderosa (Ponderosa pine) - P. rigida (Pitch pine) - P. taeda (Loblolly pine) - - P. virginiana (Virginia pine) - Plantanus occidentalis (Sycamore) Prunus serotina lack cherry) Prunus serotina seed Quercus macrocarpa (Bur oak) Robinia pseudoacacia (Black locust)

Fraxinus pennsylvanica (Green ash) Juglans nigra (Black walnut) Juniperus virginiana (Red cedar) Pinus banksiana (Jack pine) P. echinata (Shortleaf pine) - P. ponderosa (Ponderosa pine) - P. rigida (Pitch pine) - P. taeda (Loblolly pine) - - P. virginiana (Virginia pine) - Platanus occidentalis (Sycamore) Prunus serotina (Black cherry) Quercus macrocarpa (Bur oak) Robinia pseudoacacia (Black locust)

Fraxinus pennsylvanica (Green ash) Juglans nigra (Black walnut) Juniperus virginiana (Red cedar) Liquidambar styraciflua (Sweetgum) Pinus banksiana (Jack pine) P. echinata (Shortleaf pine) - P. taeda (Loblolly pine) - - P. virginiana (Virginia pine) - Platanus occidentalis (Sycamore) Prunus serotina (Black cherry) Quercus macrocarpa (Bur oak) Robinia pseudoacacia ps lack locust)

MISSOURI

KANSAS

OKLAHOMA

Figure 1.--Decadent black locust stands were characterized by a friable, humus-stained soil enriched in nitrogen and protected from erosion by litter. Black walnut (on the left) and tulip tree (on the right) made superior growth with good form in this southern Illinois stand, which was also rapidly invaded by a diversity of forest species.

In Missouri, growth on graded plots was equal or better than on the ungraded, but the ungraded plots had 68 percent rock compared to only 48% on the graded spoils. Spoil. moisture and physical conditions affecting compaction were reportedly ideal at the time of grading. The chemical composition of the spoils seemed to be uniform. These two sets of plots in Bates County had the best growth of any of the Missouri plantings.

3~ogers, N.F. 1947. Establishment report for spoil banks planting experiment no. 1. Pittsburg Branch Station of the Central States Forest Experiment Station. Tests 05 species adptation and growth on strip-mined lands in Oklahoma, Kansas and Missouri. 135 p. and maps.

In Kansas, grading scarcely affected ash, red cedar, or black locust plot averages. Grading reduced the DBH of black walnut and bur oak, while it increased the size of loblolly and shortleaf pine. Soil tests detected little difference between the two spoil areas.

In an Illinois study, most species grew better on a plot graded by dragline pullback than on an ungraded plot. These results may, however, be questioned because substantial differences in rock content and pH (graded plot pH 6.1, ungraded plot pH 3.4) undoubtedly influenced the tree growth.

The most dramatic effects of grading were on apparently uniform Indiana site graded by bulldozer about 1940 and planted to black walnut. In 1977 the walnut averaged 7.4 inches DBH on the ungraded banks and 4.2 inches on the adjacent graded area. While the trees on the graded area had grown well for the first 18 years (Deitschman and Lane 1952), by 1977 they were conspicuously stag- headed with poor canopies and yellow-green leaves. Trees on the ungraded area showed good form and color. Small differences were found in soil pH, phosphorus, and potassium analyses.

Selective placement of overburden.--At one northern Illinois mine calcareous deep sands overlay a dense clay in the overburden. Where a shovel and dragline operation worked in tandem the sand was replaced as the surface rooting medium. On these sites, black locust and black walnut survived better and grew considerably larger than on sites where the dense, less productive clay was left as the rooting medium by a shovel or dragline working by itself. The dramatic differences in tree performance between these two sites indicates the potential benefits of selectively placing or mixing the different layers of overburden.

Use of seed.--Black walnut and bur oak, both with large seed, grew about equally well planted as seedlings or seed. Black cherry did not grow well from seed.

Review of species

Maples.--In pure stands, red and to a lesser extent other maples produced dense canopies with little g;ound- cover beneath them. Silver maple had poor form for a timber tree. Of the silver maples, 53% had multiple stems, regardless of whether they were in pure or mixed stands, while multiple stems were found on only 39% of the red maples and on only 8% of the one stand of sugar maple.

Green ash.--In mixed p l a n t i n g s i n -- I l l i n o i s , green a s h had t h e h i g h e s t sur - v i v a l r a t e of any s p e c i e s a f t e r 30 y e a r s .

Black walnut.--Black walnut seemed t o b e very s i t e s e n s i t i v e . I ts occur rence i n t h r e e s i z e c l a s s e s could b e r e l a t e d t o s o i l pH, d ra inage , and o t h e r f a c t o r s . I n Ind iana and I l l i n o i s , where i t was o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b l a c k l o c u s t , t h e t r e e form of t h e l a r - ger b l a c k walnu ts was good. The unders to ry o r ground l a y e r i n walnut s t a n d s was v i s u a l l y d i f f e r e n t from o t h e r p l a n t i n g a r e a s . Honey- s u c k l e d i d n o t invade beneath walnut i n

s t o r y o r gro;nd l a y e r . Chestnut oak i n Ind iana performed s i m i l a r l y t o t h e bur oak f u r t h e r west .

Black locust . - -This leguminous t r e e made v e r y r a p i d e a r l y growth b e f o r e succumbing t o t h e l o c u s t b o r e r . It b u i l t up s o i l n i t r o g e n l e v e l s of over 100 pounds p e r a c r e compared t o a p i n e s t a n d (Ashby and Baker 1968, Finn 1953), and c o n t r i b u t e d a readily-decomposed l i t t e r . S o i l s under l o c u s t were r e l a t i v e l y l o o s e w i t h a darkened s u r f a c e l a y e r . Locust grew w e l l over a wide pH range.

Ind iana ; i n s t e a d w h i t e snakeroot (Eupatorium Although l o c u s t e a r l y l o s t favor f o r rugosum) was a common ground cover t h e r e . p l a n t i n g , t h e e x c e s s i v e compet i t ion a t t r i b u t e d

Sweetgum.--This s p e c i e s had b o t h good s u r v i v a l and growth a f t e r 30 y e a r s i n t h e s o u t h e r n p a r t of t h e C e n t r a l S t a t e s . It grew v e r y w e l l a t low pH. Some r e g e n e r a t i o n , probably by b o t h r o o t s p r o u t s and s e e d l i n g s , was found.

T u l i p t ree.--Tulip seemed s i m i l a r t o b l a c k walnut i n s i t e s e n s i t i v i t y . It grew w e l l a t lower pH v a l u e s . C l i m a t i c a l l y i t was l i m i t e d t o t h e sou thern p a r t s of Ind iana and I l l i n o i s , and was n o t t r i e d i n t h e o t h e r s t a t e s .

Pines.--All p i n e s had b e t t e r p e r f o r - mance o v e r a l l i n pure than i n mixed p l a n t i n g s , and i n sou thern compared t o n o r t h e r n a r e a s where such comparisons were p o s s i b l e . Lob- l o l l y p i n e outgrew o t h e r p i n e s i n s o u t h e r n a r e a s , b u t d i d n o t s u r v i v e on n o r t h e r n p l o t s . V i r g i n i a p i n e , which had poor form, cons i s - t e n t l y had moderately good s u r v i v a l and growth, except i n Ind iana where i t was p l a n t e d o n l y under young b l a c k l o c u s t . E a r l i e r s u r v i v a l and growth of t h e p i n e s i n mixed p l a n t i n g s were commonly good, based on publ i shed r e s u l t s and on s t a n d i n g o r f a l l e n dead t r e e s observed i n t h e 30 y e a r survey.

Sycamore and cottonwood.--Although t h e s e s p e c i e s had some of t h e l a r g e s t t r e e s , g e n e r a l l y growth was n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y good compared t o what i s p o s s i b l e f o r t h e s e s p e c i e s . M o r t a l i t y of p l a n t e d t r e e s was h i g h , and v o l u n t e e r t r e e s of t h e same s p e c i e s o f t e n e q u a l l e d o r exceeded p l a n t e d t r e e s i n s i z e . Tree form of t h e s e s p e c i e s was o f t e n poor .

t o l o c u s t i n young s t a n d s of i n t e r p l a n t e d s p e c i e s i s s c a r c e l y j u s t i f i e d by 30-year r e s u l t s of l o c u s t w i t h s e v e r a l hardwoods. Locus t s may have been harmful t o p i n e s , b u t a f t e r 30 y e a r s p i n e s e x i b i t e d poor p e r f o r - mance i n t h e absence of l o c u s t a s w e l l .

Other than l i m i t e d c u t t i n g f o r fence p o s t s , t h e s e l o c u s t s t a n d s lacked t h e management needed i f h igh p r o d u c t i v i t y under s h o r t - r o t a t i o n f o r e s t r y were d e s i r e d .

BROADER CONSIDERATIONS

Enhancement of d i v e r s i t y

Invas ion of t r e e s and herbaceous p l a n t s i n t o t h e t r e e p l a n t i n g s was c o n s i d e r a b l e . 4 A f t e r 30 y e a r s , t h e number of n a t u r a l l y es - t a b l i s h e d t r e e s o f t e n exceeded t h e number of p l a n t e d t r e e s . Volunteer t r e e s i z e s were s m a l l e r , presumably because t h e v o l u n t e e r s were younger. Natura l i n v a s i o n was f a r g r e a t e r i n t r e e p l o t s than on a d j a c e n t un- p l a n t e d a r e a s . Because of t h e enhanced d i - v e r s i t y , many s t r i p m i n e p l o t s s u p e r f i c i a l l y resembled a r e a s of n a t u r a l f o r e s t regrowth.

However, dense s t a n d s of p i n e s , maples, and t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t , oaks and b l a c k walnu t , discouraged invas ion . A l l e l o p a t h i c chemicals o r heavy l e a f l i t t e r may have reduced i n v a s i o n on some p l o t s .

Cottonwoods and sycamores, w h i l e commonly found i n and around t h e p l o t a r e a s p r i o r t o p l a n t i n g s , d i d n o t invade e s t a b l i s h e d p l a n t - i n g ~ .

Oaks.--The e c o l o g i c a l p o t e n t i a l of oaks The major invaders under t r e e cover i n was l a r g e l y ignored i n t h e e a r l y s t r i p m i n e a l l a r e a s were elms (Ulmus s p p . ) , hackberry p l a n t i n g s . Bur oak, p l a n t e d i n t h e wes te rn (CeEtis o c c i d e n t a l i s ) and box e l d e r (Acer p a r t of t h e a r e a , had good s t a n d s (Fig. 2 ) . These s t a n d s c o n s i s t e n t l y inc luded s a p l i n g s and s m a l l po les . Red oak s t a n d s , composed b ~ s h b ~ , W.C., N.F. Rogers, and C.A. of Q. r u b r a and t h e o f t e n l a r g e r Q. Kolar . 1980. F o r e s t t r e e i n v a s i o n on s t r i p - shumardi i , were h i g h l y s u c c e s s f u l i n sou thern mines. The Third C e n t r a l Hardwood Conference. I l l i n o i s and i n Ind iana , w i t h l i t t l e under- U n i v e r s i t y of Missour i , Columbia. I n p r e s s .

Figure 2.--These well settled slopes in Kansas were seeded with bur oak seed in 1947. Thirty years later the bur oak stand of 275 trees per acre, about 4" dbh and 25 feet tall, was increased by invading black locust, elm and mulberry. The soil was mellow under a leaf and twig litter of more than one inch. Many of the black locust were larger than the bur oak. The tree cover has transformed theonce barrenlandscape. USDA Forest Service photos.

negundo). Other invaders important more locally were black cherry, ashes (Fraxinus spp.), pin oak (Quercus palustris), shingle oak (9. imbricaria), and sassafras (Sassafras albidum) .

Diversity of invading trees was greatest in Indiana with 48 species, and diminished to the west, likely partly as a function of the availability of naturally occuring species. Oklahoma had only 17 species. Many plots not planted in black locust were invaded by black locust in nearby plots. The black locust plots themselves were pre- ferentially invaded by hackberry in Indiana or red mulberry in Missouri and Kansas.

Shrub invaders were chiefly dogwoods (Cornus spp .) . Grape (Vitis spp .) had a lesser distribution while other species such as sumac (Rhus spp.) were evident locally.

Many plots had a dense herbaceous layer. Species composition related to type and density of tree canopy and varied from old-field components such as lespedezas (Lespedeza spp.), to pokeweed (Phytolacca americana), to mesic forest species such as white snakeroot. White snakeroot was particularly important in older stands with black locust.

Animal life readily invaded the plot areas. Early invaders such as rabbits

damaged the original plantings, particularly sweetgum in Kansas. Locust borer caused severe damage after 10 to 15 years, apparently especially in Indiana and Illinois. Abundant later wildlife includes game and song birds, groundhogs, deer, racoons, and beavers.

Development of minesoils

Our forested plots developed well- recognized 01 litter, 02 fermentation, and A1 humus-stained surface layers. B2 horizons were sometimes suggested by an increase in reddish color or in clay content several inches down in the profile.

Ten soil samples were taken and analyzed in each plot in Indiana and Illinois. Most soils were judged to be loams, based on the feel method and some Bouyoucos analyses for texture. The soils were often neutral-to- alkaline, and rarely more acid than pH 5. Correspondence of tree growth and pH, which could be found for individual species such as poor black walnut growth on acidic soils, was not characteristic for tree growth overall.

Available phosphorus by either the Bray- 1 acid-fluoride or the Olsen sodium bicar- bonate methods was commonly less than 10 ppm, as is typical of midwestern forest soils. Available potassium was in the general range

of 100 t o 200 ppm, w i th occas iona l appre- c i a b l y lower o r h ighe r va lues . No de f i c i ency symptoms f o r e i t h e r phosphorus o r potassium were noted. Ch lo ro t i c l e aves , pos s ib ly from i r o n de f i c i ency , were noted f o r sweetgum on a ca lcareous s i l t y - c l a y loam s o i l i n southern I l l i n o i s .

Prospec ts f o r t h e f u t u r e

The ex t ens ive acreages of pre-law mined land p l an t ed t o t r e e s w i l l cont inue t o pro- v i d e t h e ameni t ies of f o r e s t cover f o r yea r s t o come. Stands of red o r bur oak, b l ack walnut , o r t u l i p t r e e o f f e r g r e a t p o t e n t i a l f o r l a t e r timber ha rve s t . The d i v e r s e f o r e s t s of sycamore, ash , s i l v e r maple, and o the r spe c i e s have g r e a t p o t e n t i a l f o r w i l d l i f e , r e c r e a t i o n , and h igh environmental q u a l i t y .

The p l a n t i n g of new f o r e s t s on mined l a nds can s e r v e many of t he se same needs. Lessons from t h e p a s t , however, a r e l i k e l y n o t immediately app l i c ab l e t o p r e sen t mining p r a c t i c e s . The Sur face Mining Cont ro l and Reclamation Act of 1977 both s e t s goa ls f o r rec lamat ion , and r e g u l a t e s t h e p r a c t i c e s i n overburden handl ing and land r e s t o r a t i o n . These p r a c t i c e s d i f f e r i n s e v e r a l ways from . t hose of 30 yea r s ago.

To ach ieve t h e goa l s of P.L. 95-87, we must focus our a t t e n t i o n on s e v e r a l c ons ide r a t i ons :

1. I n t h e Cen t r a l S t a t e s , t r e e s on mined lands have proven t o be a d i v e r s e , e f f e c t i v e and permanent vege t a t i ve cover of t h e same seasona l v a r i e t y n a t i v e t o t h e a r e a and capable of s e l f - r egene ra t i on .

2. At l e a s t 28 spec i e s of t r e e s have a l r e ady been shown t o b e succe s s fu l can- d i d a t e s when proper ly used. Many more candida te spec i e s should be eva lua ted .

3. Sur face mined l ands vary g r e a t l y wi th r e s p e c t t o c l ima t e and s o i l cond i t i ons . Tree spec i e s s e l e c t i o n must be matched t o l o c a l p l a n t i n g cond i t i ons .

4. A p l a n t i n g program a t l e a s t commensurate w i th t h e acreage of t h e f o r e s t l and be ing mined w i l l n e c e s s i t a t e a y e a r l y supply of m i l l i o n s of t r e e s eed l i ngs and seed of many d i f f e r e n t spec i e s . New sources w i l l need t o be developed.

5. Due t o t h e grad ing requirements of P.L. 95-87, t h e r e g u l a r use of t r e e - p l a n t i n g machines is now f e a s i b l e . New suc ces s fu l and e f f i c i e n t p l a n t i n g methods w i l l s u s t a i n an i n t e r e s t i n us ing t r e e s r a t h e r than encouraging t h e conversion of

f o r e s t l and t o o t h e r uses .

6 . It seems pos s ib l e t h a t cons iderab le grading may a c t u a l l y be de t r imen t a l t o many de s i r ed spec i e s of t r e e s . Both s o i l proper- t i e s and t r e e response should be s t ud i ed t o understand b e t t e r t h e r o l e of g rad ing i n t r e e es tab l i shment and growth t o ma tu r i t y .

7. Success fu l combinations of ground cover f o r e ro s ion c o n t r o l and of d e s i r a b l e t r e e s p e c i e s must be e s t a b l i s h e d f o r each rec lamat ion r eg ion o r a r e a .

The keys t o ach iev ing t h e goa l s of P.L. 95-87 a r e , then , b u i l d i n g on t h e l e s sons of t h e p a s t and developing new understanding f o r t h e f u t u r e . Success fu l r e f o r e s t a t i o n r e q u i r e s much thought and e f f o r t b e f o r e t h e t r e e s ever go i n t o t h e ground. And wi thout continued experimentat ion, we s h a l l depr ive ou r se lve s of t h e f u l l b e n e f i t s t r e e s can b r i n g t o reclaimed a r e a s .

LITERATURE CITED

Ashby, W.C. and M.B. Baker, Jr. 1968. S o i l n u t r i e n t s and t r e e growth under b l ack l o c u s t and s h o r t l e a f p i n e o v e r s t o r i e s i n s t r ip -mine p l an t i ngs . Jour . For. 66: 67-71.

Ashby, W . C . and C.A. Kolar . 1977. A 30- year record of t r e e growth i n s t r i p mine p l an t i ngs . Tree P l a n t e r s ' Notes 28: 18-21, 31.

Ashby, W . C . , C.A. Kolar , M.L. Guerke, C.F. Purse11 and J. Ashby. 1978. Our reclama- t i o n f u t u r e w i th t r e e s . Coal Ex t r ac t i on and U t i l i z a t i o n Research Center , Southern I l l i n o i s Univers i ty a t Carbondale. 101 p.

Boyce, S.G. and D . J . Neebe. 1959. Trees f o r p l a n t i n g on str ip-mined l ands i n I l l i n o i s . USDA Fore s t Serv ice , Cen t r a l S t a t e s For. Exp. S t a . Tech. Paper 164. 33 p .

Clark , F.B. 1954. Fo re s t p l an t i ng on s t r i p - mined land i n Kansas, Missouri , and Okla- homa. USDA Fore s t Se rv i ce , Cen t r a l S t a t e s For. Exp. S t a . Tech. Paper 141. 33 p.

Deitschman, G.H. and R.D. Lane. 1952. Fo re s t p l a n t i n g p o s s i b i l i t i e s on Ind iana coal- s t r i p p e d l ands , USDA Fore s t Serv ice , Cen t r a l S t a t e s For. Exp. S t a . Tech. Paper 131. 57 p.

DenUyl, D. 1962. Su rv iva l and growth of hardwood p l a n t a t i o n s on s t r i p mine s p o i l banks of Indiana. Jou r . For. 60: 603-606.

Finn, R.F. 1953. F o l i a r n i t r ogen and growth of c e r t a i n mixed and pure f o r e s t p l an t i ngs . Jour . For. 51: 31-33.

Geyer, W.A. 1973. Tree performance on Kansas c o a l s p o i l s . pp. 81-90 & Hutnik, R.J. and Davis, G. Ecology and Reclamation of

Devastated Land. Vol. 2. Gordon and Breach, New York.

Limstrom, G.A. 1960. Forestation of strip- mined land in the central states. USDA Forest Service, Agric. Handbook No. 166. 74 p.

Limstrom, G.A. and G.H. Deitschman. 1951. Reclaiming Illinois strip coal lands by forest planting. Univ. Illinois Agric. Exp. Sta. Bul. 547. 50 p.

Medvick, C. 1973. Selecting plant species for revegetating surface coal mined lands in Indiana-a forty-year record. pp. 65-80 5 Hutnik, R.J. and Davis, G. Ecology and Reclamation of Devasted Land. Vol. 2. Gordon and Breach, New York.

Rogers, N.F. 1951. Strip-mined lands of the western interior coal province. Univ. Missouri Agric. Exp. Sta. Research Bul. 475. 55 p.

Vogel, W.G. 1977. Revegetation of surface- mined lands in the east. Proceedings Society American Foresters. pp. 167-172.

ROLE OF MYCORRHIZAE I N FORESTATION OF SURFACE MINES'

Donald H. Marx 2

Abstract.--A b r i e f i n t roduc t ion t o ecto- and endomycor- rh i zae and t h e i r importance t o p l an t s is presented. Recent f indings confirm the s ign i f i cance of ectomycorrhizae, p a r t i c u l a r l y those formed by PisoZithus t i n c t o r i u s i n n u r s e r i e s , t o su rv iva l and growth of pine seedl ings on s t r i p - mined lands . Commercial inoculum of t h i s fungus may be ava i l - a b l e i n 1981. Recent research shows t h a t endomycorrhizal fungi a f f e c t growth of grasses and c e r t a i n hardwood t r e e s on coal s p o i l s .

INTRODUCTION

Mycorrhiza (f ungus-root) is a symbiotic a s soc i a t i on between t h e f i n e feeder roo t s of green p l an t s and h ighly spec i a l i zed root- i nhab i t i ng fungi . Each pa r tne r i n t he mycor- r h i z a l a s soc i a t i on depends on the o the r t o one degree o r another f o r ex is tence . I n n a t u r a l f o r e s t s o i l s , which a r e low i n f e r t i l i t y i n comparison t o a r t i f i c i a l l y f e r t i l i z e d ag r i - c u l t u r a l s o i l s , mycorrhizal a s soc i a t i ons a r e e s s e n t i a l t o f o r e s t p l an t s . These a s soc i a t i ons i nc rease (1) n u t r i e n t and water absorpt ion and, t hus , n u t r i e n t cyc l ing , (2) feeder root h e a l t h and longevi ty , and (3) t o l e r ance t o drought, high s o i l temperatures, s o i l t ox ins ( inorganic and o rgan ic ) , and extremes of s o i l pH. Most t r e e s must have mycorrhizae t o surv ive ; o the r p l an t s may only need them f o r maximum growth i n n a t u r a l s o i l s .

With t h e exception of aqua t i c s , some halophytes and a few o t h e r p l an t s , t h e major i ty of f lowering p l an t s i n t h e world form e i t h e r ecto- o r endomycorrhizae i n n a t u r a l s o i l s (Mollock and o the r s 1980).

Ectomycorrhizae occur n a t u r a l l y on many important f o r e s t t r e e spec i e s around the world. A l l members of t h e gymnosperm family Pinaceae (p ine , spruce , f i r , l a r c h , hemlock, e t c . ) a s

wel l a s c e r t a i n angiosperms (willow, poplar , aspen, hickory, pecan, oak, b i r ch , beech, euca lypt , e t c . ) normally form ectomycorrhizae. Some of these t r e e s can be e i t h e r ectomycor- r h i z a l o r endomycorrhizal, depending on s o i l condi t ions . Ectomycorrhizal fungal i n f e c t i o n is i n i t i a t e d from spores o r hyphae (propagules) of t he fungal symbionts i nhab i t i ng t h e rhizosphere of t he feeder roo t s . Propagules a r e s t imula ted by root exudates and grow over t he feeder root su r f ace and form a fungus mantle. Then hyphae develop around root c o r t i c a l c e l l s and form what is c a l l e d the Har t ig n e t . The Har t ig n e t is the main d i s t i ngu i sh ing f e a t u r e of ectomycorrhizae. Ectomycorrhizal roo t s may be unforked, b i f u r c a t e , mult iforked ( c o r r a l l o i d ) , nodular , o r i n o the r shapes. The color of an ectomycorrhiza is usual ly determined by the co lo r of t he hyphae of t h e fungal symbiont and may be brown, b lack , whi te , red , yellow, o r blends of these co lo r s . Indiv idual hypha, s t r a n d s of hyphae, o r rhizomorphs may r a d i a t e from the fungus mantles i n t o t h e s o i l and t o t he base of t he f r u i t bodies of t h e fungi .

Most fungi which form ectomycorrhizae with f o r e s t t r e e s a r e Basidiomycetes t h a t produce mushrooms o r pu f fba l l s ( f r u i t bodies) . Cer ta in Ascomycetes such a s t r u f f l e s a l s o form ectomy- corrh izae . One genus of mushroom-producing fung i , Cor t ina r iu s , is composed of over 2000 spec i e s d i s t r i b u t e d throughout t h e f o r e s t s of

'paper presented a t t h e Symposium on t h e world ; a l l spec ies f orm ectomycorrhizae.

Trees f o r Reclamation i n t h e Eas tern United I f o t h e r genera a r e considered, over 5000 ecto-

S t a t e s , Lexington, Kentucky, October 27-29, mycorrhizal fungus spec ies probably exist-- lOQn inc luding 2100 i n North America. The f r u i t I J V V .

bodies of t he se fungi produce b i l l i o n s of spores he author is Direc tor and Chief P l an t t h a t a r e widely disseminated by wind and water.

Pa tho log i s t , I n s t i t u t e f o r Mycorrhizal Research Most ectomycorrhizal fungi depend on t h e i r and Development, USDA Forest Serv ice , South- hos t s f o r simple carbohydrates, amino a c i d s , e a s t e r n Fores t Experiment S t a t i on , Athens, vi tamins, e t c . necessary t o complete t h e i r Georgia 30602. l i f e cyc les . Ectomycorrhizal development,

t he re fo re , is a p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r f r u i t body production by these fungi . Not a l l fungi which form nushroorns and pu f fba l l s a r e ectomycorrhizal ; many a r e l i t t e r decomposers and a few a r e pathogenic on t r e e s .

Endomy corrh izae a r e formed on most economically important agronomic and forage crops , woody perennia ls , ornamentals, f r u i t and most nut t r e e s , a s wel l a s maple, elm, green ash , sweetgum, sycamore, b lack walnut , and o the r important f o r e s t t r e e s . Alder can form both endo- and ectomycorrhizae a s wel l a s symbiotic N-fixing nodules--three d i f f e r e n t symbiotic root a s soc i a t i ons a t one time. Endomycor- r h i z a l fungi form a loose network of hyphae on feeder root sur faces and do n o t develop the dense fungus mantle of ectomycorrhizae. These fungi o f t e n form l a r g e , conspicuous, thick-walled spores both on t h e roo t su r f aces and i n t he rhizosphere, and sometimes i n feeder roo t t i s s u e s . Hyphae of endomycorrhi- z a l fungi pene t r a t e t h e c e l l wa l l s and progress i n t o t h e c o r t i c a l c e l l s of t h e roo t . These i n f e c t i v e hyphae may develop spec i a l i zed absorbing o r nutrient-exchanging s t r u c t u r e s (haus tor ia ) c a l l e d arbuscules i n t h e cytoplasm of t h e c o r t i c a l c e l l s . Thin-walled, spher i - c a l t o ovate v e s i c l e s may a l s o be produced i n c o r t i c a l c e l l s by these fungi . The term "vesicular-arbuscular" mycorrhizae has been coined t o denote t h i s type of endomycorrhizae. A s i n ectomycorrhizae , endomycorrhizal fungus i n f e c t i o n r a r e l y occurs i n meristematic o r vascular t i s s u e s . Endomycorrhizal i n f e c t i o n , however, does no t cause major morphological changes i n roots . Endomycorrhizae, t he re fo re , cannot be de tec ted wi th t he unaided eye; they must be assessed microscopically.

The fungi which form endomycorrhizae with t r e e s a r e mainly Phycomycetes. They do not produce l a r g e , above-ground f r u i t bodies o r wind-disseminated spores a s do most ec to- mycorrhizal fungi , but some of them produce l a r g e spores on o r i n roots . Some species a l s o produce l a r g e sporocarps (5 t o 10 mm diameter) containing many spores on roo t s . These fungi spread through the s o i l by growing from feeder roo t t o feeder roo t ; they a r e a l s o disseminated by moving water , s o i l , i n s e c t s , o r animals. They a r e so widespread t h a t i t is near ly impossible t o f i n d n a t u r a l s o i l s anywhere i n t h e world t h a t do not contain them. Spores of t he se fungi a r e ab le t o surv ive i n s o i l f o r many years without a p l a n t hos t . Based on the l imi t ed research done on endomycorrhizal fungi , most spec ies appear t o have very broad hos t ranges. For example, GZomus mosseae is known t o form endomycorrhizae wi th g ra s se s , co t ton , corn, pepper, tomatoe, peas, soybean, and sorghum, as we l l a s sycamore, black walnut, sweetgum, c i t r u s , peach, b lack loc.ust , green ash, b lack cherry, boxelder, sugar maple, and red maple. It tindoubtedly can i n f e c t numerous o the r p l an t

spec ies a s wel l . Since endomycorrhizal fungi cannot be grown rou t ine ly i n t h e labora tory , production of inoculum is d i f f i c u l t . Usually a f a s t growing p l a n t , such a s sorghum, is used t o c u l t u r e t hese fungi . Roots and s o i l from these p l an t s containing t h e introduced fungus a r e harvested and used a s inoculum.

Many f a c t o r s a f f e c t mycorrhizal development. Some f a c t o r s a f f e c t t h e t r e e and o the r s a f f e c t t h e fungal symbionts. General ly, any s o i l o r above-ground condit ion which inf luences roo t growth a l s o i n £ luences mycorrhizal development. A suscep t ib l e feeder root must be formed by t h e t r e e before mycorrhizal i n f e c t i o n can occur. The main f a c t o r s inf luencing s u s c e p t i b i l i t y of t r e e roo t s t o mycorrhizal i n f e c t i o n appear t o be photosynthetic p o t e n t i a l and s o i l f e r t i l i t y . High l i g h t i n t e n s i t y and low t o moderate s o i l f e r t i l i t y enhance mycorrhizal development; t he o t h e r extremes of these condit ions ( l i g h t in- t e n s i t y below 20 percent of f u l l sun l igh t and excessively high s o i l f e r t i l i t y ) reduce, o r may even prevent , mycorrhizal development. Light i n t e n s i t y and f e r t i l i t y appear t o i n f lu - ence e i t h e r t h e biochemical s t a t u s of feeder r o o t s , such a s con t ro l l i ng l e v e l s of simple sugars , o r t h e syn thes i s of new feeder r o o t s , both of which a r e p re requ i s i t e s t o symbiotic i n f ec t ion . Roots growing r ap id ly because of very high s o i l f e r t i l i t y contain few simple sugars and they a r e not h ighly suscep t ib l e t o ectomycorrhizal fungus i n f e c t i o n (Marx and o the r s 1977).

The f a c t o r s t h a t a f f e c t t he fungal sym- b i o n t ~ d i r e c t l y a r e those which r egu la t e surv i - v a l of t h e fungus i n t h e s o i l o r i t s growth on roo t s . Extremes of s o i l temperature, pH, moisture, e t c . , and t h e presence of antagonis- t i c s o i l microorganisms can a f f e c t t he su rv iva l of symbionts and thereby inf luence t h e mycor- r h i z a l p o t e n t i a l of t he s o i l . Mycorrhizal fungi cannot grow and reproduce i n s o i l unless they a r e i n symbiotic a s soc i a t i on with p l a n t roo t s . These fungi a r e capable, however, of surv iv ing i n a dormant condi t ion f o r s eve ra l years without a p l an t h o s t .

There a r e s eve ra l exce l l en t reviews avai l - ab le on ectomycorrhizae (Malloch and o the r s 1980, Marx and Krupa 1978, Marks and Kozlowski 1973) and endomycorrhizae (Malloch and o the r s 1980, Sanders and o the r s 1978, Hayman 1978) .

Mycorrhizae and forestation of undisturbed soi 2s

Fa i lu re s i n a r t i f i c i a l regenera t ion programs have shown t h a t many f o r e s t t r e e s w i l l no t surv ive long a f t e r t r ansp lan t ing i f t he seedl ings do not have an adequate complement of mycorrhizae from the nursery . Most r epo r t s dea l wi th t r e e s such a s p ines , spruces , oaks, and eucalypts and t h e i r establishment i n a r eas of t he world void of n a t u r a l l y occurring ecto-

mycorrhizal fungi . Mikola (1969) and, more r ecen t ly , Marx (1980) discussed the need f o r a p a r a l l e l i n t roduc t ion of ectomycorrhizal fungi i n t o these areas . This i n t roduc t ion is e spec i a l l y c r i t i c a l i n t he successfu l establishment of e x o t i c p ine p l an t a t i ons i n t h e t rop i c s . These var ious r e p o r t s have con- c lu s ive ly shown t h a t (1) ectornycorrhizae formed by any fungus on roo t s of seedl ings is b e t t e r f o r t h e s eed l ing than no ectornycorrhizae a t a l l , and (2 ) ectornycorrhizae formed by c e r t a i n spec i e s of fungi a r e more b e n e f i c i a l t o seedl ings on c e r t a i n s i t e s than ectornycorrhizae formed by o the r fungi . The va lue of s p e c i f i c ectornycorrhizae, such a s t h a t formed by Piso- Zithus t inctorius, t o t h e improved su rv iva l and r ap id e a r l y growth of p ine seedl ings has been demonstrated on var ious r e f o r e s t a t i o n s i t e s i n t h e Southern United S t a t e s (Marx 1980). L i t t l e work has been repor ted on t h e s i g n i f i - cance of endomycorrhizae t o t h e a r t i f i c i a l regenera t ion of hardwoods. It i s known, how- eve.r, t h a t endomycorrhizae improve the q u a l i t y of hardwood seedl ings i n t h e nursery (Kormanik and o the r s 1977) which should a l s o improve t h e i r f i e l d performance.

Ectomycorrhizae and forestation of surface mines

Marx (1975, 1976, 1977a) has reviewed t h e s ign i f i cance of s p e c i f i c ectornycorrhizae t o su rv iva l and growth of pines on var ious s p o i l s l e f t a f t e r su r f ace mining f o r coa l and kaol in . Only a few key r e p o r t s a r e mentioned here .

Schramm (1966) published a comprehensive r epo r t on p l an t co loniza t ion of a n t h r a c i t e wastes i n Pennsylvania. He found t h a t e a r l y ectomycorrhizal development was e s s e n t i a l f o r t h e establishment of BetuZa, Pinus, PopuZus, and &ereus spp. seedl ings which developed from seed on the wastes. F r u i t bodies of t h e major fungi t h a t developed near t he surv iv ing seedl ings were t h e mushroom-forming fungi Inocybe Zacera, Amanita muscaria, and TheZe- phora terres tr i s , and the puffball-producing fungi ScZerodema aurantiwn and P. t inctorius . The l a t t e r fungus appeared t o be dominant and Schramm was ab l e t o t r a c e its unique gold- yellow hyphal s t r ands from s i m i l a r l y colored ectornycorrhizae t o t h e base of t h e pu f fba l l . He associa ted t h i s s p e c i f i c fungus with t he most vigorously growing seedl ings . Since Schramm's o r i g i n a l work, numerous o the r re- po r t s on the occurrence of P. t inctorius on coal s p o i l s and o the r adverse s i t e s have been published.

Based on these observat ions and the con- c lus ion t h a t t he n a t u r a l occurrences of P. t inctorius ectornycorrhizae on seedl ings growing on adverse sites were ins t rumenta l i n t h e i r establishment and growth, we developed techniques t o " t a i l o r " bareroot and container- ized seedl ings i n n u r s e r i e s wi th P. titzctorius

ectornycorrhizae. B r i e f l y , t h e techniques involve growing mycelium of P. t inctorius i n pure c u l t u r e i n t h e labora tory i n vermiculi te-peat moss-nutrient subs t r a t e . Af ter 2 t o 3 months growth, t he s u b s t r a t e is leached wi th water , broadcast onto fumigated nursery s o i l , and mixed thoroughly i n t o t h e s o i l . The bed is then seeded. By t h e end of t h e growing season, abundant P. t inctorius e c tomycorrhizae a r e developed on seed l ing roo t s . The seedl ings wi th P. t inctorius ectornycorrhizae a l s o have var ious q u a n t i t i e s of wild-type ectornycorrhizae formed by n a t u r a l l y occurr ing fungi whose spores a r e wind disseminated i n t o t he fumigated nursery s o i l . The most prevalent wild-type fungus encountered is TheZephora terrestr is . T . terrestr is ectornycorrhizae a r e t he most commonly found ectornycorrhizae on seedl ings used f o r r e f o r e s t a t i o n throughout t he United S t a t e s and i n many o the r p a r t s of t h e world. This fungus is eco log ica l ly adapted t o good s o i l condi t ions such a s those found i n nurser- i e s . It is highly b e n e f i c i a l t o seedl ings planted on rou t ine s i t e s , but is no t wel l adapted t o t he harsh s o i l condit ions normally encountered on strip-mined lands .

I n e a r l i e r reviews (Marx 1975, 1976, 1977a), prel iminary d a t a showed the advantage of P. t inctorius ectornycorrhizae t o su rv iva l and growth of pine seedl ings on adverse s i t e s a s compared t o seedl ings with T. terrestr is ectornycorrhizae. Very l i t t l e work has been done on t h e s ign i f i cance of endomycorrhizae t o hardwoods s i n c e t h e e a r l i e r repor ts . The fol lowing i s t h e s t a t e of t h e a r t s i nce t he l a s t review on t h e s ign i f i cance of mycorrhizae t o f o r e s t a t i o n of surface-mined lands.

EcSomycorrhizae and forestation of strip-mined Zands

Har r i s and Jurgensen (1977) observed t h a t cu t t i ngs of willow and hybrid poplar grew poor- l y on copper t a i l i n g s i n Michigan. Ectomycor- rh i zae were not present even on cu t t i ngs inocula ted with a f o r e s t s o i l e x t r a c t supposed- l y containing ectomycorrhizal fungi . Copper t a i l i n g s may have been t o x i c t o indigenous o r introduced inoculum of ectomycorrhizal fun- g i , o r t h e phys io logica l condi t ions of t he rooted c u t t i n g s may have been inadequate f o r root i n f e c t i o n t o occur. A s i m i l a r s tudy was i n s t a l l e d on i r o n t a i l i n g s . Seedlings of both hardwood spec i e s grew we l l and formed abundant ectornycorrhizae from indigenous fungi and from those contained i n t h e f o r e s t s o i l inocu- l u m . Be t t e r seedl ing growth and development of ectomycorrhizae on t h e i r o n t a i l i n g s could have been due t o b e t t e r s o i l f e r t i l i t y o r fewer t o x i c chemicals.

Marx and Artman (1979) repor ted t h a t bareroot l o b l o l l y p ine seedl ings with abundant P. t inctorius ectornycorrhizae had a 400 percent

g r e a t e r p lo t volume a f t e r 3 years on an ac id coal s p o i l (pH 4.1) i n Kentucky than seed- l i n g s wi th T. terrestr is ectornycorrhizae. On p l o t s where f e r t i l i z e r s t a r t e r t a b l e t s were used volumes f o r P. t inctorius seedl ings were nea r ly 250 percent g rea t e r . I n t he same t e s t , sho r t l ea f pine seedl ings wi th P. t inctorius ectomycorrhizae were a l s o over 400 percent l a r g e r without f e r t i l i z e r t a b l e t s and over 100 percent l a r g e r with f e r t i l i z e r t a b l e t s than seedl ings with T. terrestr is ectornycorrhizae. Seedlings wi th P. tinctorius ectornycorrhizae a l s o contained more f o l i a r N and l e s s f o l i a r S , Fe, Mn, and A 1 than seedl ings with T. terrestr is ectornycorrhizae. The f e r t i l i z e r s t a r t e r t a b l e t s s t imula ted seedl ing growth f o r t h e f i r s t and second growing seasons, bu t once t h e n u t r i e n t s i n t he t a b l e t s were deple ted growth increment slowed and N def ic iency symptoms appeared on fo l i age . This def ic iency was l e s s s t r i k i n g on P. t inctorius seedl ings than on seedl ings with T. t erres tr i s . I n t h i s sane r e p o r t , p l o t volumes f o r l o b l o l l y pine wi th P. t inctorius ectornycorrhizae were over 180 percent g r e a t e r than those f o r seedl ings wi th T. terrestr is ectornycorrhizae a f t e r 4 years on an ac id coal s p o i l (pH 3.4) i n Virg in ia .

I n two o t h e r experiments (C. R. Berry, unpublished da ta) , conta iner grown ( root medium wi th 20 percent sewage sludge) l o b l o l l y , p i t c h , and l o b l o l l y x p i t c h p ine hybrids wi th P. t inctorius o r T . terrestr is ectornycorrhizae were outp lanted on ac id coa l s p o i l s i n Tenne- s s e e and Alabama. A l l l o b l o l l y p ines were from a s i n g l e parent and p i t c h p ine were from two parent t r e e s . Af ter two and one-half growing seasons t h e r e s u l t s were s t r i k i n g (Table 1) . On t h e Tennessee s p o i l , P. t inctorius ectomycorrhizae increased l o b l o l l y p ine p l o t volumes by 585 percent and p i t c h pine p l o t volumes by 12 percent f o r one parent and 125 percent f o r t h e o ther . P. t inctorius ectomycorrhizae increased hybrid p l o t volumes by 120 t o 575 percent . Overa l l , volumes on p l o t s wi th P. t inctorius ectomycor- rh i zae were over 200 percent g r e a t e r than p l o t volumes wi th T. terrestr is ectomycor- rh izae . On the Alabama s p o i l , l o b l o l l y p ine p l o t s wi th P. t inctorius ectomycorrhizae had nea r ly 300 percent g r e a t e r volumes than those with T. terrestr is ectomycorrhizae . The advantage i n p l o t volumes of P. t inctorius over T . terrestr is ectomycorrhizae was 150 and 240 percent f o r t h e p i t c h parents . The p i t ch p ine parent t h a t benef i ted r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e on t h e Tennessee s p o i l (parent #78) was s t rong ly s t imula ted by P. t inctorius ectornycorrhizae on the Alabama s p o i l . The reason f o r t h i s is being inves t iga t ed . The response of t h e hybrids t o P. t inctorius ectomycorrhizae on t h e Alabama s p o i l was between 400 and 1400 percent . The o v e r a l l i nc rease i n p l o t volume a t t r i b u t a b l e t o P. t inctorius on t h i s s p o i l was over 350 per-

cen t . Regardless of genotype, seedl ings with P. t inctorius ectomycorrhizae had more N and l e s s Ca, Mn, Zn, Cu, and A 1 i n f o l i a g e than seedl ings with T. terrestr is ectornycorrhizae.

Many cons t ruc t ion p r o j e c t s , such a s dams, highways, and bu i ld ings , r equ i r e ex tens ive e a r t h f i l l t o meet design c r i t e r i a . When in- s u f f i c i e n t s o i l f i l l i s ava i l ab l e on s i t e i t becomes necessary t o "borrow" s o i l from another l oca t ion . General ly, t h e r e s u l t i n g borrow p i t s a r e s t r i pped excavations from which a l l t h e A and B s o i l horizons have been removed which present s p e c i a l problems i n revegeta t ion . Unlike coa l o r o the r su r f ace mining s p o i l s , borrow p i t s usual ly do not have t o x i c l e v e l s of heavy meta ls , sxtremes of s o i l a c i d i t y , o r extremely high s o i l temperatures. Frequently, however, s o i l i n borrow p i t s i s h ighly compacted with poor i n t e r n a l drainage and have low l e v e l s of ava i l ab l e p lant n u t r i e n t s and organic mat ter .

Two s t u d i e s were i n s t a l l e d on a borrow p i t i n Aiken, South Carolina, i n which s o i l amel iora t ion techniques and s p e c i f i c ectomy- corrh izae were s tudied t o determine t h e i r e f f e c t s on t h e establishment of p ines and grasses. The e n t i r e borrow p i t was subsoi led t o a depth of 0.9 m on 1.2 m cen te r s i n two d i r ec t ions . The f i r s t s tudy (Berry and Marx 1980) measured e f f e c t s of applying processed sewage sludge o r f e r t i l i z e r (560 kg/ha of 10-10-10) and dolomitic l imestone (2240 kg/ha) with and without bark and/or bottom furnace ash on growth of l o b l o l l y pine and fescue grass . I n t he f a l l of 1975, s ludge bark , and ash were appl ied 1 .3 cm deep (125 m3/ha) , and a l l p l o t s were double disked. The fol lowing winter , l o b l o l l y p ine seedl ings with e i t h e r P. t inctorius o r T . terrestr is ectornycorrhizae formed i n a bareroot nursery were planted. By t h e end of t h e f i r s t growing season, roo t eva lua t ion revealed t h a t indigenous P. t inctorius on the borrow p i t formed ectomy- corrh izae on T. terrestr is seedl ings and, t hus , negated t h e e f f e c t s of " t a i l o r ing" seedl ings wi th P. t inctorius i n t h e nursery. However, s ludge with o r without t h e o t h e r organic amendments increased pine s eed l ing volumes by 2800 percent and biomass of fescue g ra s s by 500 percent . S o i l amended wi th sewage sludge a l s o contained more N , P , and organic mat ter , a s wel l a s a h igher ca t ion exc.hange capaci ty , than s o i l from non-sludge p l o t s . Seedling f o l i a g e contained more N and l e s s Ca i n sludge p lo t s . I n t h e second t e s t (Ruehle 1980), s ludge o r f e r t i l i z e r + lime were s i m i l a r l y appl ied i n t he f a l l of 1975, but t he container-grown l o b l o l l y pine seed- l i n g s with e i t h e r P. t inctorius, T. t erres tr i s , o r no ectomycorrhizae (produced i n a s p e c i a l growth room) were not p lanted u n t i l t he f a l l of 1977. The in t e r im between sludge applica- t i o n and seed l ing p l an t ing s i g n i f i c a n t l y decreased t h e indigenous l e v e l s of P. tinctorius

Table 1.--Survival and growth of l o b l o l l y and p i t c h p ines and t h e i r hybr ids with PisoZithus tinctorius ectomycorrhizae a f t e r 2-1/2 growing seasons on coa l s p o i l s i n Tennessee and Alabama (C. R. Berry, unpublished da t a ) .

Stem Ectomycorrhizae Surviva l Height c a l i p e r P V I ~ a t p l an t ing % cm cm (x l o2 ) Pine l i n e

Tennessee Spoi l

Loblolly 23 P. t inctorius 3 8 7 0 2.5 48 Natural 48 4 0 1.3 7

P i t c h 62 P. t inctorius Natural

P i t ch 78 P. t inctorius Natural

P. t inctorius Natural


62 x 11-20 P. t inctorius Natural


58 x 11-20 P. t inctorius Natural

62 x 11-10 P. t inctorius 100 100 3.3 2 19 Natural 8 5 66 2.2 78

Overa l l mean (TN) P. t inctorius 8 5 7 9 3.0 133 Natural 8 1 5 3 2.0 43

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Alabama Spoi l

Loblolly 23 P. t inctorius 79 76 2.9 126 Natural 7 3 5 1 1.7 32

Pi t ch 62

P i t ch 78

P. t inctorius 4 1 5 7 3.0 4 1 Natural 46 38 1.7 16

P. t inctorius 6 9 52 2.6 48 Natural 4 4 37 1.7 14

P. t inctorius 7 0 67 2.9 101 Natural 5 9 4 6 1.6 19

P. t inctorius 63 6 9 3.2 106 Natural 4 4 3 6 1.3 7

62 x 11-20 P. t inctorius 76 80 3.6 154 Natural 68 50 1.7 30

Overa l lmean(AL) P. t inctorius 6 6 6 7 3.0 96 Natural 5 6 43 1.6 2 0

aplo t volume index (PVI) computed by (stem c a l i p e r , cm12 x he igh t , cm x number of surv iv ing seedl ings pe r p lo t .

ectomycorrhizae i n t h e s o i l , s i n c e t he i n t e - seedl ings with P. t inctorius ectomycorrhizae g r i t y of t h e ectomycorrhizal t rea tments on had 265 2nd 528 percent g rea t e r p l o t volumes seedl ings was reasonably maintained f o r t h e than seedl ings with T. terrestr is o r no ecto- dura t ion of t h e study. The e f f e c t s of mycorrhizae a t p lant ing . I n t h e f e r t i l i z e r s ludge and s p e c i f i c ectomycorrhizae were + lime p l o t s , t he i n i t i a l l y nonmycorrhizal s i g n i f i c a n t . Af t e r 2 years i n sludge p l o t s , seedl ings had p l o t volumes 158 percent less

than the seedl ings wi th e i t h e r of t h e two ectomycorrhizal t reatments. A s a group, seedl ings on sludge p l o t s had 900 percent g r e a t e r p l o t volumes than those on f e r t i l i z e r p l o t s . Differences i n s o i l and f o l i a r analy- s e s and g ra s s biomass were s i m i l a r t o those obtained i n t h e o t h e r borrow p i t study. Af ter 2 yea r s , t he i n i t i a l l y nonmycorrhizal seedl ings had abundant ectornycorrhizae; P. t inctorius accounted f o r about 10 percent of these .

There appears t o be l i t t l e doubt t h a t p ine seedl ings with P. t inctorius ectomycorrhizae surv ive and grow f a s t e r on adverse s i t e s than rou t ine nursery seedl ings with n a t u r a l l y occurr ing ectomycorrhizae. These r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h a t seedl ings f o r p l an t ing on ad- ve r se s i t e s should be t a i l o r e d i n t h e nursery with P. t inctoriz~s ectornycorrhizae. Un t i l now, t he only inoculum of P. t inctorius ava i l - ab l e was produced i n small q u a n t i t i e s on h ighly defined growth medium under r i g i d l y cont ro l led condi t ions i n research labora- t o r i e s . For commercial use, l a r g e volumes of h ighly func t iona l inoculum of P. t inctorius a r e required. I n 1976, t he I n s t i t u t e f o r Mycorrhizal Research and Development, Athens, Georgia, joined wi th Abbot t ~ a b o r a t o r i e s l t o devise means of producing vermiculite-based vege ta t i ve inoculum of t h i s fungus i n l a r g e fermentors. Af ter 4 years of t e s t i n g d i f f e r - en t formulat ions of inoculum i n over 40 nur- s e r i e s i n 33 S t a t e s and Canada, adequate procedures f o r producing func t iona l inoculum have been accomplished. Prel iminary r e s u l t s from our 1980 bareroot and conta iner nursery t e s t s i n f i v e Southern S t a t e s a r e exce l l en t . I n 1980, a modified seeder was used f o r t h e f i r s t time t o apply inoculum. This machine broadcasts inoculum, incorpora tes t h e inoculum i n t o t h e roo t zone, l e v e l s t he s o i l , and sows the pine seed i n one pass over t h e nursery bed. This machine g rea t ly s i m p l i f i e s app l i ca t ion of vege t a t i ve inoculum. I f t h e f i n a l r e s u l t s from t h e 1980 t e s t s a r e a s good a s t h e prel iminary r e s u l t s , inoculum w i l l be ava i l - ab l e from Abbott Laboratories by e a r l y 1981.

The use of basidiospores of P. t inctorius a s inoculum ins t ead of t he vermiculite-based inoculum a l s o shows promise. There a r e cer- t a i n advantages t o t h e use of basidiospores: (1) no germ-free growth phase i s requi red i n fermentors, (2) they a r e easy t o apply v i a hydromulch t o nursery s o i l (Marx and o the r s 1979), (3) a f t e r drying they s t o r e f o r years under r e f r i g e r a t i o n , and (4) they can be co l l ec t ed d i r e c t l y from adverse s i t e s by t h e user . Unfortunately, basidiospores a l s o have

Donald S. Kenney, Abbott Laborator- i e s , Agr i cu l tu ra l Chemicals Research, 36 Oak- wood Road, Long Grove, I l l i n o i s 60047.

c e r t a i n disadvantages: (1) t h e r e a r e good and poor years f o r production of P. t inctorius f r u i t bodies i n t h e f i e l d , (2) basidiospore co l l ec t ions a r e o f t e n contaminated with o the r microorganisms and i n s e c t s which may o r may not be harmful t o nursery s eed l ings , (3) v i a b i l i t y of bas id iospores cannot be determined p r i o r t o use s ince successfu l germination procedures have no t been developed, and (4) by f a r t h e most important disadvantage, bas id iospores a r e usual ly no t a s e f f e c t i v e i n forming abundant P. tinctor<us ectomycorrhizae e a r l y i n t h e growing season on nursery seedl ings a s i s proper ly produced vege ta t i ve inoculum. This l a t t e r poin t is very important s ince research r e s u l t s show t h a t i n o rde r f o r seedl ings t o ob ta in maximum bene f i t from t h i s fungus, a t l e a s t ha l f of a l l t he ectomycorrhizae on the seedl ing roo t s mus 3 be formed by P. t inctorius (Ruehle and o t h e r s ). For t h e p a s t 3 yea r s , adding basidiospores of P. tincto13ius t o encap- su l a t ed p ine seed has a l s o been s tud ied ; re- s u l t s look very promising. Since P. t inctorius forms ectomycorrhizae wi th numerous t r e e spec i e s (Marx 1979), namely, spec ies of Pinus, Quercus, Be tuZa, Picea, Tsuga, Carya, SaZix, PopuZus, Abies, and EucaZyptus, its use could s i g n i f i c a n t l y improve reclamation e f f o r t s of a v a r i e t y of strip-mined lands.

~ndomycorrhixae and forestation of strip-mined Zands

With t h e exception of t he outp lanted sycamore and sweetgum s t u d i e s on kao l in s p o i l s repor ted e a r l i e r (Marx 1977a), t h e r e a r e no published works on the e f f e c t s of endomycor- rh i zae on growth of hardwoods o r o t h e r p l a n t s t e s t e d d i r e c t l y on strip-mined lands. Since t h e l a s t review, f i e l d observat ions and greenhouse s t u d i e s have been reported on var ious p l an t spec ies .

I n Wyoming, Mi l l e r (1979) co l l ec t ed root samples from p l a n t s growing on a 2-year-old revegetated strip-mined s p o i l (previously segregated and s to red t o p s o i l replaced t o a depth of 1 foo t ) and an adjacent undisturbed s i t e . He found no endomycorrhizae on p l an t r o o t s growing on t h e d is turbed s i t e b u t , wi th few exceptions, abundant endomycorrhizae were found on t h e d ive r se p l a n t spec ies growing on t h e adjacent undisturbed s i t e . Inoculum of endomycorrhizal fungi was present i n t he d is - turbed s o i l , bu t was not i n f ec t ive . Mi l l e r speculated t h a t t h e absence of i n f e c t i v i t y by

2 ~ u e h l e , J . L., D. H. Marx, J. P . Barnet t , and W. H. Pawuk. [ ~ n press] Survival and growth of container-grown and bareroot sho r t l ea f pine seedl ings wi th PisoZithus and TheZephora ectomycorrhizae. Southern J. Appl. For:

t h e inoculum may be due t o t he presence of Halogeton, a herbaceous p l an t with suspected a l l e l o p a t h i c capaci ty . He f u r t h e r specula ted t h a t d is turbed a reas a r e f i r s t colonized by pioneer p l a n t spec i e s (Halogeton and o the r spec ies) which a r e nonmycorrhizal and poss ib ly a l l e lopa th i c . M i l l e r concluded t h a t succes- s ion t o mycorrhizal-dependent p l an t spec ies should fol low t h e e l iminat ion of Halogeton. Reeves and o the r s (1979) found t h a t 99 percent of t he p l a n t cover on a n a t u r a l , un- d i s tu rbed sage community i n Colorado were endomycorrhizal, and t h a t l e s s than 1 percent of t h e p l a n t cover on a d is turbed a rea (sub- s o i l e d roadbed) were endomycorrhizal. I n t h e i r opinion, t h e reestablishment and maintenance of t h e mycorrhizal fungus component is v i t a l i n producing s t a b l e p l a n t ecosystems on d is turbed areas . Using s o i l s from these same s i t e s i n an endomycorrhizal bioassay, Moorman and Reeves (1979) found t h a t t he d i s - turbed s o i l produced only 1/40 a s much endomycorrhizal i n f ec t ion on corn a s d i d t h e un- d is turbed s o i l . They concluded t h a t t h e reduction of a c t i v e inoculum i n t h e d is turbed s o i l was an important ecologica l f a c t o r i n subsequent p l an t succession.

Daft and Hacskaylo (1976) found t h a t most of t h e herbaceous p l a n t s sampled from anthra- c i t e and bituminous coal wastes i n Pennsylvania were i n fec t ed wi th endomycorrhizae; f i v e n a t u r a l l y occurring p l an t spec i e s had both nodules and endornycorrhizae. I n an inocula t ion t e s t i n a greenhouse, lucerne t h a t was nodu- l a t e d and in fec t ed with endomycorrhizae grew 700 percent b e t t e r i n limed (pH 6.4) anthra- c i t e waste than con t ro l lucerne p l an t s . Re- gard less of inocula t ion treatment, however, lucerne p l a n t s d ied i n limed (pH 5.8) o r non- limed (pH 2.7) bituminous wastes and unlimed (pH 4.1) a n t h r a c i t e wastes. I n a l a t e r greenhouse s tudy, Daft and Hacskaylo (1977) repor ted t h a t red maple seedl ings wi th endomycorrhizae were about 400 percent l a r g e r and contained more major elements i n f o l i a g e a f t e r 70 days growth i n limed (pH 6.2) a n t h r a c i t e wastes than seedl ings without endomycorrhizae.

As discussed, t he su rv iva l of endomycor- r h i z a l inoculum on strip-mined lands appears important i n p l an t succession. Various mechanical procedures ca r r i ed o u t during s t r i p mining can a f f e c t inoculum su rv iva l . Ponder (1979) assayed r ecen t ly graded s t r i p - mined coal s p o i l and found t h a t p l an t s grown i n t h e s p o i l formed abundant endomycorrhizae i n t he greenhouse. He concluded t h a t grading during reclamation could be an important means of d ispers ing endomycorrhizal inoculum i n s p o i l . I n unpublished r e p o r t s l , su rv iva l of endomycorrhizal fungi i n p i l e s of top- s o i l removed p r i o r t o s t r i p mining of coa l i n Wyoming and North Dakota was found t o be

' ~ o u r t h North American Conference on Mycorrhizae, Colorada S t a t e Univ., Fort Co l l i n s , Colorado, June 24-28, 1979.

115

s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduced a f t e r 2- t o 3-years- s to rage a s compared t o su rv iva l i n non- d is turbed t o p s o i l o r t o p s o i l immediately replaced over t h e mine s p o i l .

CONCLUSION

It should be apparent from t h i s discus- s i o n and e a r l i e r reviews (Marx 1975, 1976, 1977a) t h a t mycorrhizae a r e not only e s s e n t i a l t o growth and development of t r e e s i n na tura l f o r e s t ecosystems, bu t a r e e s p e c i a l l y s i g n i f i - cant t o t h e i r performance on strip-mined lands and o the r adverse s i t e s . This b io log ica l f a c t has not been appl ied on any p r a c t i c a l s c a l e because procedures t o manage the fungi have not been ava i l ab l e t o t h e land manager. The a v a i l a b i l i t y of commercial inoculum of P. t i n c t o r i u s t o t a i l o r seedl ings i n t h e nursery p r i o r t o outp lant ing is t h e f i r s t s t e p i n c lo s ing t h i s technology gap. We s t i l l have a long way t o go, however, i n t he s e l e c t i o n , inoculum production, manipulation, and management of o the r important ectomycorrhizal fungi , a s we l l a s a l l endomycorrhizal fungi . Research i n t hese and r e l a t e d a r eas must continue so t h a t sound s c i e n t i f i c p rac t i ce s can be used i n t h e f o r e s t a t i o n of adverse s i t e s and i n r e f o r e s t a t i o n of rou t ine f o r e s t s i t e s .

LITERATURE CITED

Berry, C. R., and D. H. Marx. 1980. S ign i f i - ca9ce of various s o i l amendments t o borrow p i t reclamation with l o b l o l l y pine and fescue. Reclam. Rev. 3:

Daf t , M. J . , and E. Hacskaylo. 1976. Arbus- cu l a r mycorrhizas i n t he a n t h r a c i t e and bituminous coal wastes i n Pennsylvania. J . Appl. Ecol. 13:523-531.

Daf t , M. J . , and E. Hacskaylo. 1977. Growth of endomycorrhizal and nonmycorrhizal red maple seedl ings i n sand and a n t h r a c i t e s p o i l . Fores t Sc i . 23:207-216.

Har r i s , M. M., and M. F. Jurgensen. 1977. Development of S a l i x and PopuZus mycorrhizae i n m e t a l l i c mine t a i l i n g s . P lant and S o i l 47:509-517.

Hayman, D. S . 1978. Endomycorrhizae. I n In t e r ac t ions between non-pathogenic s o i l microorganisms and p l an t s . Y . R. Dommergues and S. V. Krupa, eds. p. 401-442. Elsevier S c i e n t i f i c Publ. Co., Amsterdam, Oxford, and New York, 475 p.

Kormanik, P. P. , W. C. Bryan, and R . C . Schultz. 1977. Inf luence of endomycorrhizae on growth of sweetgum seedl ings from e i g h t mother t r e e s . Fores t Sc i . 23:500-506.

Malloch, D. W . , K. A. Pironzynski , and P. H. Raven. 1980. Ecological and evolutionary s ign i f i cance of mycorrhizal symbiosis i n vascular p l an t s (A Review). Proc. Natl . Acad. Sc i . U. S. A. 77:2113-2118.

Marks, G. C . , and T. T. Kozlowski (eds .) . 1973. Ectomycorrhizae: Their Ecology and Physiology. Academic Press , New York and London, 444 p.

Marx, D. H. 1975. Mycorrhizae and e s t ab l i sh - ment of t r e e s on strip-mined land. Ohio J. Sc i . 75:288-297.

lfarx, D. H. 1976. U s e of s p e c i f i c mycorrhi- z a l fungi on t r e e roo t s f o r f o r e s t a t i o n of d is turbed lands . In Proc. Conference on Fores t a t i on of Disturbed Surface Areas, Birmingham, Ala. Apr i l 14-15, 1976. p. 47-65.

Marx, D. H. 1977a. The r o l e of mycorrhizae i n f o r e s t production. TAPPI Conference Papers, Annual Meeting, A t l an t a , Ga. , February 14-16, 1977, p. 151-161.

Marx, D. H. 1977b. Tree hos t range and world d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e ectomycorrhizal fungus PisoZithus tinctorius. Can. J . Microbiol. 23:217-223.

Marx, D. H. 1980. Ectomycorrhizal fungus inocula t ions : A t o o l f o r improving f o r e s t a t i o n p rac t i ce s . In Tropica l Mycorrhizae Research, P. Mikola, ed. , Oxford Univ. Press . p. 13-71.

Marx, D. H . , and J . D . Artman. 1979. PisoZi- thus tinctorius ectomycorrhizae improve su rv iva l and growth of p ine seedl ings on ac id coal s p o i l s i n Kentucky and Vi rg in i a . Reclam. Rev. 2:23-31.

Marx, D. H . , and S. V. Krupa. 1978. Ectomy- corrh izae . I n In t e r ac t ions between non- pathogenic s o i l microorganisms and p l an t s . Y . R. Dommergues and S. V. Krupa, eds. p. 373-400. E l sev ie r S c i e n t i f i c Publ. Co . , Amsterdam, Oxford, and New York, 475 p.

Marx, D. H . , A. B. Hatch, and J. F. Mendicino. 1977. High s o i l f e r t i l i t y decreases sucrose content and s u s c e p t i b i l i t y of l o b l o l l y pine r c o t s t o ectomycorrhizal i n f e c t i o n by PisoZithus tinctorius. Can. J . Bot. 55:1569-1574.

Marx, D. H . , J. G. Mexal, and W. G. Morris. 1979. Inocula t ion of nursery seedbeds w i th PisoZithus tinctorius spores mixed wi th hydromulch increases ectomycorrhizae and growth of l o b l o l l y p ines . South. J. Appl. For. 3:175-178.

Mikola, P. 1969. Mycorrhizal fungi of e x o t i c f o r e s t p l an t a t i ons . Kars te ina 10:169-175.

Mi l l e r , M. R. 1979. Some occurrences of ves icular -arbuscular mycorrhizae i n n a t u r a l and d is turbed ecosystems of t he Red Desert . Can. J. Bot. 57:619-623.

Moorman, T., and F. B. Reeves. 1979. The r o l e of endomycorrhizae i n revegeta t ion p rac t i ce s i n t h e semi-arid West. 11. A bioassay t o determine t h e e f f e c t of land d is turbance on endomycorrhizal populat ions. Amer. J. Bot. 66:14-18.

Ponder, F., Jr. 1979. Presence of endomycor- r h i z a l fungi i n r ecen t ly graded coal mine s p o i l . J. S o i l and Water Conserv. 34:186-187.

Reeves, F. B . , D. Wagner, T. Moorman, and J . 1 1979. The r o l e of endomycorrhizae i n revegeta t ion p rac t i ce s i n t he semi-arid West. I. A comparison of incidence of mycorrhizae i n severe ly d is turbed U. S. n a t u r a l environments. Amer. J. Bot. 66: 6-13.

Ruehle, J. L. 1980. Growth of conta iner ized l o b l o l l y pine with s p e c i f i c ectomycorrhizae a f t e r 2 years on an amended borrow p i t . Reclam. Rev. 3:

Sanders, F. E., B. Mosse, and P. B. Tinker (eds . ) . 1975. Endomycorrhizae. Academic Press , London and New York. 626 p.

Schramm, J. E. 1966. P l an t co loniza t ion s t u d i e s on b lack wastes from a n t h r a c i t e mining i n Pennsylvania. Amer. Philoso. SOC. 56:l-194.

REVEGETATING SURFACE-MINED LANDS WITH

HERBACEOUS AND WOODY SPECIES TOGETHER'

W i l l i s G. Vogel 2

A b s t r a c t . - - ~ e r b a c e o u s cover is r e q u i r e d f o r e r o s i o n con- t r o l on surface-mined l a n d s even where f o r e s t s a r e t o be es- t a b l i s h e d . Where p l a n t e d w i t h t r e e s , herbaceous s p e c i e s u s u a l l y cause an i n c r e a s e i n t r e e s e e d l i n g m o r t a l i t y and re - t a r d t r e e growth, e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e f i r s t few y e a r s a f t e r p l a n t i n g . Trees seem t o be a f f e c t e d most by compet i t ion f o r mois tu re because t h e i r s u r v i v a l is l e a s t a f f e c t e d where s p r i n g and summer p r e c i p i t a t i o n is abundant. Tree s u r v i v a l o f t e n i s reduced most by dense s t a n d s of some legumes, es- p e c i a l l y crownvetch, f l a t p e a , and s e r i c e a lespedeza ; b u t i n some p l a n t i n g s , growth of s u r v i v i n g t r e e s was l a t e r increas - ed i n t h e legumes. P l a n t i n g t r e e s i n e x i s t i n g s t a n d s of herbaceous cover u s u a l l y r e s u l t e d i n poor s u r v i v a l . Herbi- c i d e s o r s c a l p i n g t o c o n t r o l competing cover i s sugges ted , b u t t h e r e is l i t t l e s u p p o r t i n g d a t a from r e s e a r c h and ex- p e r i e n c e . P l a n t i n g t r e e s and seed ing herbaceous s p e c i e s i n a l t e r n a t e s t r i p s appear f e a s i b l e f o r combination p l a n t i n g s on a r e a s where t h e a p p r o p r i a t e seed ing and f e r t i l i z i n g equipment can b e used.

INTRODUCTION

Much of t h e e a r l y e f f o r t t o r e v e g e t a t e s u r f ace-mined l a n d s i n t h e e a s t e r n United S t a t e s was w i t h trees p l a n t e d on s p o i l banks t h a t were ungraded, unamended, and n o t seeded t o herbaceous v e g e t a t i o n . The e s t a b l i s h - ment of herbaceous v e g e t a t i o n f o r e r o s i o n c o n t r o l u s u a l l y was n o t emphasized, espe- c i a l l y on a rea- type s t r i p p i n g i n t h e i n t e - r i o r c o a l p rov inces where much of t h e s e d i - ment from t h e e r o s i o n t h a t d i d occur was t rapped i n t h e v a l l e y s between t h e r i d g e s of ungraded s p o i l . Besides, f o r e s t e r s had l e a r n e d from exper ience and r e s e a r c h t h a t p l a n t i n g trees w i t h herbaceous cover , such a s i n o l d f i e l d s , u s u a l l y h indered t r e e estab l i shment and growth.

'paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e "Trees f o r Rec- lamation i n t h e E a s t e r n U.S." symposium, Lexington, Kentucky. October 27-29, 1980.

2 ~ a n g e S c i e n t i s t , USDA F o r e s t S e r v i c e , Nor theas te rn F o r e s t Experiment S t a t i o n , 204 Center S t r e e t , Berea, Kentucky 40403.

Beginning i n t h e 1960s more emphasis was given t o t h e u s e of herbaceous v e g e t a t i o n . Emphasis on i t s u s e f o r e r o s i o n c o n t r o l coin- c ided somewhat wi th t h e i n c r e a s e d contour s u r f a c e mining a c t i v i t y i n t h e Appalachian r e g i o n where runoff and e r o s i o n from s t e e p s l o p e s caused s e r i o u s sed imenta t ion problems i n s t reams. Grea te r use of herbaceous spe- c i e s was a l s o induced by l e g a l requirements f o r g rad ing and t h e development of l and u s e s such a s p a s t u r e . At t h e same time i n t e r e s t i n t r e e p l a n t i n g was discouraged by l e g a l , s o c i a l , and economic p r e s s u r e s .

Within t h e p a s t few y e a r s , i n t e r e s t i n p l a n t i n g t r e e s h a s been renewed p a r t l y i n re - sponse t o F e d e r a l r e g u l a t i o n s t h a t encourage, imply, o r r e q u i r e p l a n t i n g of woody s p e c i e s . At t h e same t ime herbaceous s p e c i e s must be sown t o p r o t e c t t h e mined land from e r o s i o n , b u t where p l a n t e d w i t h herbaceous v e g e t a t i o n , t h e s u r v i v a l and growth of t r e e and shrub s e e d l i n g s may be jeopard ized by i n t e r f e r e n c e from t h e herbaceous cover. This i n t e r f e r e n c e o f t e n is a t t r i b u t e d t o compet i t ion f o r n u t r i - e n t s , m o i s t u r e , and l i g h t ; i t a l s o may be due t o a l l e l o p a t h i c e f f e c t s , o r combinations of a l l t h e s e f a c t o r s .

Obviously, where t r e e p l a n t i n g is de- s i r e d o r r e q u i r e d a s a post-mining land u s e , t h e mine o p e r a t o r o r rec lamat ion c o n t r a c t o r would l i k e t o e s t a b l i s h herbaceous cover and t r e e s a s qu ick ly a s p o s s i b l e and o b t a i n bond r e l e a s e i n t h e minimum p e r m i s s i b l e t i m e . Thus t h e r e is need f o r in format ion on t h e probable success of e s t a b l i s h i n g woody p l a n t s and herbaceous cover t o g e t h e r . I n t h i s paper I w i l l d i s c u s s some r e c e n t exper imenta t ion and o b s e r v a t i o n s of p l a n t i n g bo th t y p e s of v e g e t a t i o n t o g e t h e r .

PLANTING METHODS AND RESULTS

Methods used f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g woody p l a n t s i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h herbaceous cover inc lude : (1) p l a n t i n g o r seed ing t r e e s , and a t t h e same t ime seed ing herbaceous cover e i t h e r (a ) on t h e e n t i r e a r e a o r (b) i n s t r i p s between t r e e rows, (2) seed ing herbaceous cover f i r s t and p l a n t i n g o r seed ing t r e e s l a t e r , and (3) p l a n t i n g o r seed ing t r e e s f i r s t and seed ing herbaceous cover l a t e r . Each method h a s advantages and d i s - advantages depending on c l i m a t i c and weather c o n d i t i o n s , p l a n t s p e c i e s s e l e c t e d , season t h a t a r e a is ready f o r p l a n t i n g , t e r r a i n o r o t h e r m i n e s o i l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a v a i l a b l e l a b o r , a v a i l a b l e seed ing and p l a n t i n g equipment, and approva l by r e g u l a t o r y agenc ies .

Experiments w i t h t h e s e methods have been o r a r e be ing conducted by t h e U. S. F o r e s t S e r v i c e , U. S . S o i l Conservat ion S e r v i c e , Tennessee Valley Author i ty , Southern I l l i n o i s U n i v e r s i t y , U n i v e r s i t y of Kentucky, and Uni- v e r s i t y of Tennessee. Undoubtedly, s i m i l a r work is being done by o t h e r a g e n c i e s , uni- v e r s i t i e s , and some mining companies, b u t I am n o t f a m i l i a r w i t h i t .

P l a n t i n g t r e e s and seed ing herbaceous s p e c i e s a t t h e same t ime

Seeding of herbaceous s p e c i e s w i t h t h i s method may be (1) a s o l i d s e e d i n g , i . e . , done on t h e e n t i r e a r e a t o be p l a n t e d w i t h trees o r (2) i n s t r i p s t h a t a l t e r n a t e w i t h s t r i p s l e f t unseeded and p l a n t e d t o t r e e s .

S o l i d seeding--

I n 1968, a f i e l d s tudy was begun by t h e F o r e s t S e r v i c e on two n e a r l y l e v e l s t r ip -mine s i t e s i n s o u t h e a s t e r n Kentucky ( B e l l County) t o measure t h e e f f e c t of herbaceous cover on t r e e s u r v i v a l and growth. We found t h a t , a f t e r 1 0 y e a r s , t h e legumes seeded concur- r e n t l y w i t h t r e e p l a n t i n g a c t u a l l y favored t r e e growth. Grass a l o n e , however, suppres- ed t r e e growth. I n t h i s s t u d y , 1-0 seed-

l i n g s of cottonwood, sycamore, l o b l o l l y p i n e , and V i r g i n i a p i n e were p l a n t e d c o n c u r r e n t l y w i t h f o u r cover t rea tments : (1) a c o n t r o l (no t seeded t o herbaceous s p e c i e s o r f e r t i - l i z e d ) ; (2) n o t seeded, b u t f e r t i l i z e d w i t h N a t 60 l b / a c r e and P a t 43 l b / a c r e ; ( 3 ) f e r - t i l i z e d and broadcas t seeded t o g r a s s (weep- i n g l o v e g r a s s a t 4 l b l a c r e , Ky-31 t a l l f e s c u e a t 16 l b l a c r e ) ; and (4) f e r t i l i z e d and broad- c a s t seeded t o a grass-legume mix ture (weep- i n g l o v e g r a s s a t 2 l b l a c r e , Ky-31 f e s c u e a t 12 l b / a c r e , common s e r i c e a lespedeza a t 20 l b / a c r e , and Korean lespedeza a t 10 l b / a c r e ) . Simazine 4G a t 100 l b / a c r e was a p p l i e d t o t r e a t m e n t s 1 and 2 t o p revent i n i t i a l es tab- l i shment of herbaceous cover . The m i n e s o i l s ( s p o i l s ) i n t h i s s tudy were mixed s h a l e and sandstone overburden m a t e r i a l s t h a t v a r i e d i n pH from about 5.0 t o 8.0. Lime and mulch were n o t a p p l i e d on any t rea tment (Vogel 1973). P r e c i p i t a t i o n i n most y e a r s of t h i s s tudy has been near normal, wi th g e n e r a l l y f a v o r a b l e mois ture c o n d i t i o n s dur ing t h e growing season.

The herbaceous v e g e t a t i v e cover i n t h e two seeded t r e a t m e n t s ( 3 and 4) averaged about 70 p e r c e n t a f t e r t h e f i r s t year . Cover was 95 p e r c e n t by t h e t h i r d year and c o n s i s t - ed mainly of Ky-31 f e s c u e i n t rea tment 3 and s e r i c e a lespedeza i n t rea tment 4. I n t h e two unseeded t r e a t m e n t s herbaceous cover ranged from 10 t o 25 percen t a f t e r 3 y e a r s and con- s i s t e d of n a t i v e and seeded s p e c i e s . Herba- ceous cover h a s g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s e d i n den- s i t y i n t h e unseeded p l o t s and a f t e r 1 0 y e a r s c o n s i s t e d mainly of s e r i c e a lespedeza t h a t has seeded-in from a d j a c e n t p l o t s .

Except f o r sycamore, s u r v i v a l of t h e t r e e s was n o t s e r i o u s l y a f f e c t e d by e i t h e r type of seeded v e g e t a t i v e cover . F i f t h y e a r s u r v i v a l of a l l t r e e s p e c i e s was l e a s t i n t h e grass-legume seed ing ( t rea tment 4) where it averaged 65 p e r c e n t f o r cottonwood, 4 1 per- c e n t f o r sycamore, 86 p e r c e n t f o r V i r g i n i a p i n e , and 8 1 percen t f o r l o b l o l l y p i n e (Table 1 ) . Apparent ly, s e r i c e a lespedeza

3 ~ h i s p u b l i c a t i o n r e p o r t s r e s e a r c h in- vo lv ing p e s t i c i d e s . It does n o t c o n t a i n recommendations f o r t h e i r use , n o r does i t imply t h a t t h e u s e s d i scussed h e r e have been r e g i s - t e r e d . A l l u s e s of p e s t i c i d e s must be r e g i s - t e r e d by t h e a p p r o p r i a t e S t a t e and /or Federa l agenc ies b e f o r e they can be recommended.

CAUTION: P e s t i c i d e s can be i n j u r i o u s t o humans, domest ic animals , d e s i r a b l e p l a n t s , and f i s h o r o t h e r w i l d l i f e - - i f they a r e n o t handled o r a p p l i e d proper ly . Use a l l p e s t i - c i d e s s e l e c t i v e l y and c a r e f u l l y . Follow recommended p r a c t i c e s f o r t h e d i s p o s a l of s u r - p l u s p e s t i c i d e s and p e s t i c i d e c o n t a i n e r s .

c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e g r e a t e r m o r t a l i t y of t r e e s by over topping and smothering t h e s m a l l e r and weaker s e e d l i n g s .

Table 1 . - -F i f th year surv iva l o f t r e e s .

Tree Spec ies

cove& Treatment

~ e r c e n t u Survival

Cottonwood

Sycamore

Virg in ia pine

Loblo l ly p ine

~ ' 1 = None, 2 - f e r t i l i z e r , 3 = f e r t i l i z e r + grass . 4 - f e r t i l i z e r + grass + legume

b f h s e d on 288 t r e e s (6 reps . 48 t r e e s f r e p )

I n t h e f i r s t t h r e e y e a r s , t h e growth of t r e e s , e s p e c i a l l y hardwoods, was suppressed by t h e herbaceous cover i n b o t h seeded t r e a t - ments. By t h e end of t h e f i f t h y e a r , t h e growth of t r e e s s t i l l was suppressed i n t h e seed ing w i t h g r a s s only. But, i n t h e cover t rea tment seeded t o b o t h g r a s s e s and legumes ( t rea tment 4 ) , t h e growth r a t e of t r e e s was exceeding t h a t i n a l l o t h e r t r e a t m e n t s , a l - though t h e t r e e s s t i l l were n o t a s t a l l a s those i n t h e unseeded t r e a t m e n t s (Table 2 ) .

Table 2.--Average height o f t r e e s planted v i t h and

without herbaceous ground covers .

Cover Height a f t e r : Spec ies ~ r e a t m e n t d -------

3 yr 5 yr 10 yrbl -- -------------feet-------------

Cottonwood

Sycamore

Virg in ia p ine 1 2 . 7 4.8 10.5 2 2 . 9 5 . 6 14 .2 3 2 . 1 4 . 1 12 .4 4 2 . 2 5 . 1 1 4 . 9

t o b l o l l y pine 1 3 . 0 5 . 6 12 .3 2 3 . 3 5 . 8 1 5 . 3 3 2 . 1 4 . 1 13 .5 4 1 . 8 4 .7 15 .8

no treatment; 2 = f e r t i l i z e r appl ied (60 lb lacre N and 43 lbfacre 3 f e r t i l i z e r and grass ('Ky-31' fescue and veeping lovegrass ) ; f e r t i l i z e r , grass , and legumes ( s e r i c e a and Korean lespedezas) .

u ~ i n e years f o r the p ine s p e c i e s .

By t h e t e n t h y e a r a f t e r p l a n t i n g (9 y e a r s f o r t h e p i n e ) t r e e s i n t h e cover t rea tment t h a t had been seeded t o t h e g rass - legume mix ture ( t r e a t m e n t 4) were growing a t a f a s t e r r a t e and were t a l l e r than t r e e s

i n any o t h e r t rea tment . I n p l o t s seeded only t o g r a s s ( t rea tment 3) t h e growth r a t e and h e i g h t of t r e e s , e s p e c i a l l y hardwoods, s t i l l lagged behind t r e e s i n t h e o t h e r cover t r e a t - ments. P ine t r e e s p l a n t e d i n t h e c o n t r o l p l o t s had made t h e l e a s t growth. This may be p a r t l y due t o m i n e s o i l n u t r i e n t d e f i c i e n c y a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e b e t t e r growth of p i n e i n t rea tment 2 t h a t was f e r t i l i z e d w i t h N and P.

A p robable e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e growth p a t t e r n of t r e e s i n t h e seeded t r e a t m e n t s is t h a t dur ing t h e f i r s t 2 t o 3 y e a r s a f t e r p l a n t i n g , t h e herbaceous cover i n bo th t r e a t - ments 3 and 4 was predominantly g r a s s . But, i n t h e t h i r d y e a r , s e r i c e a lespedeza , one of t h e seeded legume s p e c i e s , became t h e domi- nan t cover p l a n t i n t rea tment 4; and t h e r e - a f t e r , t h e growth of t r e e s was a c c e l e r a t e d by n i t r o g e n t h a t was f i x e d by t h e legume p l a n t s . Trees growing i n cover t h a t remained predomi- n a n t l y g r a s s ( t r e a t m e n t 3) were suppressed because the g r a s s was competing w i t h t h e t r e e s f o r n i t r o g e n .

S i m i l a r r e s u l t s on s p o i l s i n n o r t h e r n Alabama were r e p o r t e d by TVA s c i e n t i s t s (Bengtson and Mays 1978). They found t h a t l o b l o l l y p i n e f e r t i l i z e d w i t h n i t r o g e n f o r two o r t h r e e y e a r s a f t e r p l a n t i n g grew f a s t e r i n i t i a l l y than p i n e t h a t had been seeded w i t h s e r i c e a lespedeza b u t n o t f e r t i l i z e d w i t h n i - t rogen a f t e r t h e f i r s t y e a r . But a f t e r 6 y e a r s , t h e p i n e i n t h e l espedeza were growing a s w e l l a s o r b e t t e r than t h e p i n e t h a t re - ce ived t h e second and t h i r d a p p l i c a t i o n s of N f e r t i l i z e r . S u r v i v a l of p i n e s e e d l i n g s was e x c e l l e n t i n a l l cover t r e a t m e n t s .

I n a F o r e s t S e r v i c e experiment i n west- e r n Kentucky, 8 hardwood s p e c i e s and 4 cover t r e a t m e n t s were p l a n t e d on a l e v e l e d mined s i t e i n 1976. S p o i l s were predominantly gray s h a l e w i t h pH about 7.0. The ground cover t r e a t m e n t s were s i m i l a r t o those used i n our e a s t e r n Kentucky s tudy b u t d i f f e r e n t legume s p e c i e s were used. S u r v i v a l v a r i e d g r e a t l y f o r t h e v a r i o u s t r e e s p e c i e s ; bu t when averaged over a l l s p e c i e s , f i r s t y e a r s u r v i v a l was b e s t i n t h e c o n t r o l p l o t s (43 p e r c e n t ) . S u r v i v a l was 3 1 percen t on t h e f e r t i l i z e r a l o n e and t h e f e r t i l i z e r p l u s herbaceous spe- c i e s t rea tments . There was on ly a s p a r s e herbaceous cover e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e p l o t s , t h u s t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n s u r v i v a l were seem- i n g l y due t o t h e f e r t i l i z e r a p p l i c a t i o n . I n t h e t h i r d y e a r , s e r i c e a lespedeza , t h a t ap- p a r e n t l y had been sown by t h e mining company a y e a r p r i o r t o our p l a n t i n g , became s o dense t h a t i t was n e a r l y imposs ib le t o walk through i t l e t a lone f i n d any t r e e s .

I n an i d e n t i c a l p l a n t i n g made t h e f o l - lowing y e a r (1977) on a nearby s i t e , o v e r a l l t r e e s u r v i v a l t h e f i r s t y e a r was less than i n

t h e p rev ious p l a n t i n g . A moderate t o good ground cover of red c l o v e r , b i r d s f o o t t r e f o i l , and annua l l espedeza was e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t i n - c reased i n d e n s i t y f o r t h e nex t couple of y e a r s . S u r v i v a l i n t h i s p l a n t i n g was a s f o l - lows :

Percent Survival Cover Treatment 1977 1978 1979

Control 28 20 17 Fertilizer 2 5 19 18 Fertilizer and legumes 20 13 8 Fertilizer, legumes, and grass 18 12 5

I n t h i s l a t t e r p l a n t i n g t r e e s u r v i v a l was a f f e c t e d more by t h e herbaceous cover than by f e r t i l i z e r . Other f a c t o r s , t o o , prob- a b l y c o n t r i b u t e d t o poor t r e e s u r v i v a l i n t h e wes te rn Kentucky p l a n t i n g s , e s p e c i a l l y p e r i o d s of h o t d ry weather i n t h e summer t h a t normally a r e longer i n d u r a t i o n and more i n t e n s e than t h o s e i n e a s t e r n Kentucky. Be- cause of summer droughts , s p r i n g seed ing i n wes te rn Kentucky of even herbaceous vegeta- t i o n o f t e n is discouraged i n p r e f e r e n c e t o f a l l seed ing .

An experiment i n Pennsylvania t o evalu- a t e t h e e f f e c t of 6 g r a s s e s and 3 herbaceous legumes on t h e s u r v i v a l and growth of r e d p i n e s e e d l i n g s was begun i n 1976 by person- n e l of t h e Big F l a t s P l a n t M a t e r i a l s Center (PMCj, of t h e U. S. S o i l Conservat ion Serv- i c e . The p l a n t i n g s were i n Tioga County on (1) s u b s o i l ( s p o i l ) m a t e r i a l on a s t r i p mine b a c k f i l l e d t o t h e o r i g i n a l contour and on (2) a s i m i l a r a r e a covered 8 t o 10 inches deep wi th t o p s o i l . One-half of each t e s t a r e a was t r e a t e d w i t h l ime a t 2 t o n / a c r e p l u s 10-10-10 f e r t i l i z e r a t 400 l b l a c r e ; t h e oth- e r h a l f was no t t r e a t e d . A s i m i l a r exper i - ment was made i n 1977 i n Ind iana County where r e d p i n e and unrooted hybr id popla r c u t t i n g s were e v a l u a t e d on a t o p s o i l e d s i t e only.

R e s u l t s of t h e s e s t u d i e s showed t h a t , a f t e r 2 y e a r s , t r e e s u r v i v a l and growth d i d n o t d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y due t o t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e d i f f e r e n t herbaceous s p e c i e s o r amounts of herbaceous cover when averaged a c r o s s a l l t r e a t m e n t s (Table 3 ) . Tree s u r v i v a l and growth were in f luenced more by t o p s o i l i n g and by a p p l i c a t i o n of l ime and f e r t i l i z e r than by t h e herbaceous cover . S u r v i v a l of r e d p i n e was 74 p e r c e n t i n t h e t o p s o i l p l o t s and 60 percen t i n t h e s u b s o i l p l o t s . I n b o t h top- s o i l and s u b s o i l p l o t s , t r e e s u r v i v a l was g r e a t e r on t h e a r e a s t h a t were n o t limed and f e r t i l i z e d .

41nterim r e p o r t by USDA S o i l Conservat ion S e r v i c e , P l a n t M a t e r i a l s Cente r , Big F l a t s , New York.

Table 3.--Percent clurvival of red pine in herbaceous species;

second year. (Data from Big Flats PMC, SCS.)

Herbaceous Species Survival X

A-67 Weeping lovegrass Tioga deertongue ~euben's Canada bluegrass Commercial redtop Pennlawn red fescue Lathco flatpea Empire birdsfoot trefoil Qlemung cramvetch Ky-31 tall fescue Control

Although they d i d n o t b e n e f i t t h e t r e e s , l ime and f e r t i l i z e r were b e n e f i c i a l f o r t h e es tab l i shment of herbaceous s p e c i e s , espe- c i a l l y on t h e s u b s o i l . The herbaceous spe- c i e s produced t h e most ground cover on limed and f e r t i l i z e d t o p s o i l p l o t s ; t h e cover var- i e d from 85 t o 100 percen t . Cover on t h e un- t r e a t e d s u b s o i l v a r i e d from 0 t o 25 percen t .

I n t h e 1977 PMC p l a n t i n g , f i r s t y e a r s u r v i v a l of hybr id popla r was n o t s i g n i f i - c a n t l y a f f e c t e d by t h e d i f f e r e n t herbaceous s p e c i e s o r amount of cover . S u r v i v a l of r e d p i n e was reduced by a d r ie r - than-usua l s p r i n g and may have been a f f e c t e d by s p e c i e s w i t h t h e g r e a t e s t d e n s i t y , e s p e c i a l l y by Lathco f l a t p e a i n t h e unlimed and u n f e r t i l i z e d p l o t s .

R e s u l t s of ano ther Pennsylvania exper i - ment i n d i c a t e d t h a t f i r s t - y e a r s u r v i v a l and growth of s e v e r a l hardwood t r e e s p e c i e s were n o t a f f e c t e d where p l a n t e d c o n c u r r e n t l y wi th v a r i o u s herbaceous s p e c i e s o r mix tures of s p e c i e s . I n most s e e d i n g s , t h e herbaceous cover was cons idered inadequa te f o r e r o s i o n c o n t r o l , b u t s u r v i v a l of t r e e s was n o t ad- v e r s e l y a f f e c t e d even where they were p l a n t e d i n t o an e s t a b l i s h e d herbaceous cover . Abun- dan t p r e c i p i t a t i o n i n t h e es tab l i shment y e a r was c r e d i t e d a s t h e major reason f o r t r e e success i n a l l v e g e t a t i o n a l covers (Carlson 1979).

Wheeler (1976) made observa t ions of sev- e r a i mined a r e a s i n Pennsylvania t h a t had been p l a n t e d wi th t r e e s i n a s s o c i a t i o n wi th seed ing of g r a s s e s o r legumes. On some s i t e s t h e p l a n t i n g and seed ing had been done a t t h e same time. On o t h e r s , g r a s s e s such a s peren- n i a l r y e g r a s s were sown i n t h e f a l l p rev ious t o p l a n t i n g of t r e e s . Wheeler 's observa t ions i n d i c a t e d t h a t a cover of g r a s s d id n o t ad- v e r s e l y a f f e c t most t r e e s p l a n t e d a t o r n e a r t h e same t ime t h a t seed ing was done. I n some p l a n t i n g s , however, some legumes appeared t o reduce s u r v i v a l of most t r e e s p e c i e s . Deer damage t o t r e e s was apparen t where legumes had been sown.

I n a Tennessee s t u d y , p i t c h and Vir- g i n i a p i n e s e e d l i n g s r a i s e d i n c o n t a i n e r s ( t u b e l i n g s ) were p l a n t e d w i t h and wi thout a g r a s s cover on i n t e n s i v e l y amended s p o t s c a l l e d m i n i s i t e s and on u n t r e a t e d m i n e s o i l s . The m i n i s i t e s were prepared by mixing p i n e bark, v e r m i c u l i t e , l ime , and f e r t i l i z e r w i t h m i n e s o i l augered from t h e p l a n t i n g s p o t s . Grass cover caused an i n c r e a s e i n t h e f i r s t y e a r ' s m o r t a l i t y of p i n e s e e d l i n g s on b o t h u n t r e a t e d and m i n i s i t e s , b u t m o r t a l i t y was much g r e a t e r on t h e c o n t r o l s i t e s . During t h e f i r s t w i n t e r , however, f r o s t heaving of t h e t u b e l i n g s on t h e b a r e , ungrassed c o n t r o l s i t e s was s o s e v e r e t h a t , by s p r i n g , t r e e m o r t a l i t y was g r e a t e r on t h e b a r e a r e a than on t h e grassed a r e a s . A few t u b e l i n g s f r o s t heaved a l s o on t h e b a r e m i n i s i t e s b u t none heaved on t h e grassed m i n i s i t e s (Woods e t a l . 1978).

I n s o u t h e a s t e r n Kentucky, it was shown t h a t herbaceous ground cover e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h European a l d e r caused i n c r e a s e d mois- t u r e s t r e s s and thereby c o n t r i b u t e d t o in- c reased m o r t a l i t y of t h e a l d e r s e e d l i n g s (Albers and Carpenter 1979) .

A l a r g e experiment was begun i n 1980 by Ashby and o t h e r s a t Southern I l l i n o i s Uni- v e r s i t y t o e v a l u a t e t echniques f o r t h e estab l i shment of woody p l a n t s i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h herbaceous cover . F i r s t y e a r r e s u l t s were n o t a v a i l a b l e when t h i s paper was prepared .

S t r i p seeding--

E s t a b l i s h i n g woody and herbaceous spe- c i e s t o g e t h e r is p o s s i b l e by sowing t h e herbaceous s p e c i e s i n s t r i p s t h a t a l t e r n a t e w i t h unseeded s t r i p s p l a n t e d t o t r e e s o r shrubs . I d e a l l y , t h e unseeded s t r i p s w i l l remain f r e e of herbaceous v e g e t a t i o n long enough t o permit t r e e e s t a b l i s h m e n t , y e t t h e ground cover i n t h e i n t e r v e n i n g seeded s t r i p s w i l l p rov ide adequate e r o s i o n con- t r o l . Also, on ly t h e seeded s t r i p s need t o b e f e r t i l i z e d thus reduc ing p o s s i b l e ad- v e r s e e f f e c t s of f e r t i l i z e r on newly p l a n t e d t r e e s e e d l i n g s . For b e s t e r o s i o n c o n t r o l t h e s t r i p s should run on contour . Estab- l i s h i n g cover i n s t r i p s w i l l b e e a s i e s t t o accomplish on land where a p p r o p r i a t e equipment can b e used t o till a seedbed and p l a c e f e r t i l i z e r and seed i n s t r i p s of uniform width.

I n a demons t ra t ion i n e a s t e r n Kentucky, we s u c c e s s f u l l y e s t a b l i s h e d hybr id popla r by p l a n t i n g unrooted c u t t i n g s i n 3-foot wide s t r i p s t h a t a l t e r n a t e d w i t h 5-foot wide s t r i p s t h a t were t i l l e d , f e r t i l i z e d , and seeded t o a grass-legume mix ture . The

s t r i p s were on contour on a g e n t l y s l o p i n g s i te . The seed mix ture inc luded weeping l o v e g r a s s , Ky-31 f e s c u e , b i r d s f o o t t r e f o i l , Korean and s e r i c e a lespedezas , and r e d c lover . I n t h e f i r s t y e a r t h e herbaceous v e g e t a t i o n i n t h e 5-foot s t r i p s covered 60 t o 70 p e r c e n t of t h e t o t a l s i t e . Cover was predominantly weeping lovegrass . The unseeded t r e e s t r i p s were n e a r l y f r e e of herbaceous cover . By t h e t h i r d y e a r , t h e unseeded s t r i p s , t o o , had become n e a r l y covered w i t h herbaceous vegeta- t i o n t h a t spread from a d j o i n i n g s t r i p s , bu t t h e t r e e s had grown w e l l above i t . The herbaceous cover was then a mix ture most ly of b i r d s f o o t t r e f o i l , l e spedeza , and fescue . Unfor tuna te ly , comparat ive p l a n t i n g s were n o t made i n a s o l i d seed ing o r w i t h no seed ing .

A comparison of s t r i p p l a n t i n g w i t h a s o l i d p l a n t i n g was made i n Pennsylvania by t h e Big F l a t s P l a n t M a t e r i a l s Center person- n e l . I n 1976, they p l a n t e d 2-0 red p i n e s e e d l i n g s w i t h a seed mix ture of weeping l o v e g r a s s , Tioga deertongue, and Lathco f l a t - pea. A l l p l o t s were limed and f e r t i l i z e d ; some p l o t s were p l a n t e d on s u b s o i l and some on a t o p s o i l e d a r e a .

A f t e r 2 y e a r s , t r e e s u r v i v a l on t h e top- s o i l e d a r e a was 58 p e r c e n t i n t h e s t r i p seed- i n g and 43 p e r c e n t i n t h e s o l i d seeding. The herbaceous cover was predominant ly f l a t p e a and was prov id ing adequate e r o s i o n c o n t r o l i n b o t h s t r i p and s o l i d seed ings . I n t h e s o l i d s e e d i n g , cover was n e a r l y 100 percen t and i t was choking o u t t h e young t r e e s . I n t h e s t r i p seed ing , tree s u r v i v a l had remained t h e same f o r 3 y e a r s .

On t h e s u b s o i l a r e a t r e e s u r v i v a l was h i g h e r i n t h e s o l i d seed ing (74 p e r c e n t ) than i n t h e s t r i p seed ing (64 p e r c e n t ) , b u t t h e d i f f e r e n c e was n o t r e l a t e d t o d e n s i t y o r pa t - t e r n of herbaceous cover . The herbaceous cover on bo th s o l i d and s t r i p seed ings was s p a r s e and n o t p rov id ing adequate e r o s i o n c o n t r o l even a f t e r 2 y e a r ' s growth.

I n a s i m i l a r experiment begun by t h e Big F l a t s PMC i n 1977, t h e s u r v i v a l of hybr id p o p l a r c u t t i n g s a f t e r 2 y e a r s d i d n o t d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y between s t r i p and s o l i d seeded p l o t s o r between two herbaceous mix tures . Some d i f f e r e n c e s i n r e d p i n e s u r v i v a l may have been r e l a t e d t o t h e d i f f e r e n t herbaceous m i x t u r e s , b u t p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s were n o t obvious.

Seeding t r e e s and herbaceous s p e c i e s a t t h e same time

Direct-seeding of woody s p e c i e s o f f e r s s e v e r a l advantages over hand p l a n t i n g of s e e d l i n g s . It u s u a l l y is e a s i e r , l e s s c o s t l y ,

and circumvents many of t h e l a b o r problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p l a n t i n g s e e d l i n g s . But t h e r e a r e r e l a t i v e l y few s p e c i e s of t r e e s and s h r u b s t h a t have been s u c c e s s f u l l y es- t a b l i s h e d on s u r f a c e mines by d i r e c t seeding . Bes ides , compet i t ion from herbaceous cover can be a problem a l s o w i t h t h e es tab- l i shment of d i rec t - seeded woody s p e c i e s .

Seeding of s o u t h e r n p i n e s on mine s p o i l s i n Alabama and s o u t h e r n Tennessee h a s been a common p r a c t i c e f o r many y e a r s , b u t u s u a l l y wi thout companion s e e d i n g of herbaceous spe- c i e s . I n a TVA s t u d y , g r a s s and f e r t i l i z e r a p p l i e d w i t h p i n e seed were d e t r i m e n t a l t o p i n e es tab l i shment . The seed ing of Bermuda- g r a s s , a warm-season s p e c i e s , was more harm- f u l than t h e cool-season Ky-31 f e s c u e . The growth of f e s c u e u s u a l l y slows dur ing t h e h o t summer per iod and a l lows some p i n e seed- l i n g s t o develop i n s p o t s w i t h s p a r s e o r no g r a s s . Bermudagrass, however, grows r a p i d l y i n t h e summer and chokes o u t t h e emerging p i n e s e e d l i n g s . Those t h a t s u r v i v e t h e f i r s t y e a r i n Bermudagrass u s u a l l y a r e gone a f t e r t h e second y e a r ; b u t m o r t a l i t y of p i n e s e e d l i n g s i n f e s c u e u s u a l l y is low t h e second year . Seeding p i n e one y e a r w i t h f e r t i l i z e r , and apply ing g r a s s seed and ad- d i t i o n a l f e r t i l i z e r t h e nex t y e a r was rec - ommended f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g a mixed pine-grass cover on a r e a s where e r o s i o n is n o t a s e r i - ous problem. Where e r o s i o n is a problem, Bermudagrass should be e s t a b l i s h e d f i r s t and p i n e s e e d l i n g s p l a n t e d t h e second o r t h i r d y e a r when t h e v i g o r of t h e g r a s s d e c l i n e s due t o d e p l e t i o n of n u t r i e n t s (Bengtson e t a l . 1973).

Di rec t - seed ing of b l a c k walnut and bur oak on mine s p o i l s i n t h e midwest produced s a t i s f a c t o r y s t a n d s i n some of t h e e a r l y exper imenta l t r e e p l a n t i n g s . Ground cover of v o l u n t e e r v e g e t a t i o n v a r i e d among s i t e s bu t seldom was it cons idered dense.

On m i n e s o i l s i n e a s t e r n Kentucky, t h e f i r s t y e a r s u r v i v a l of germinated seed of r e d oak, p i n oak, and bur oak was reduced by a cover of r y e g r a s s and swee tc lover . Average s u r v i v a l of t h e t h r e e oak s p e c i e s f o r a l l t r e a t m e n t s of mulch and f e r t i l i z e r was 50 p e r c e n t on t h e c o n t r o l s i t e and about 38 p e r c e n t on t h e s i t e s w i t h herbaceous cover . Height of t h e s e e d l i n g s was n o t a f f e c t e d by t h e grass-legume cover (Tacke t t and Graves 1979).

Direct-seeding b l a c k l o c u s t w i t h herbaceous s p e c i e s has been p r a c t i c e d i n much of t h e Appalachian reg ion . Establ ishment of t h e l o c u s t u s u a l l y is s u c c e s s f u l bu t sometimes does n o t appear s o f o r two o r t h r e e years . T h i s was i l l u s t r a t e d i n one of our exper i - ments.

We e v a l u a t e d t h e e f f e c t of s e v e r a l herbaceous s p e c i e s on t h e es tab l i shment of seeded b l a c k l o c u s t . The f e r t i l i z e d and seeded exper imenta l p l o t s were l a i d o u t on moderate- l y s t e e p s l o p e s of s p o i l s (pH 5.0 t o 7.8) t h a t had rece ived minimum grading. The f i r s t y e a r ' s r e s u l t s showed marked d i f f e r e n c e s i n number and he igh t of b l a c k l o c u s t s e e d l i n g s among t h e v a r i o u s herbaceous s p e c i e s (Table 4 ) . It appeared t h a t fast-growing cool-season s p e c i e s , e s p e c i a l l y r y e g r a s s , were more s u p p r e s s i v e than warm season and slow-developing s p e c i e s t o t h e e a r l y s u r v i v a l and growth of seeded l o c u s t . But i n t h e second y e a r and t h e r e a f t e r , t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s were l e s s pronounced among t h e g r a s s and legume cover s p e c i e s .

Table 4.--Vegetative cover and number and height of

black locust seedlings i n p lots seeded t o

herbaceous species and black 1 0 c u s c . ~

Herbaceous Species Seeded

None (natural seeding)

Birdsfoot t r e f o i l (8)b/

Kobe and Korean lespedeza (10)

Weeping lovegrass (5)

Sericea lespedeza (20)

Ky-31 t a l l fescue (15)

Perennial ryegrass (15)

Annual ryegrass (15)

Herbaceous Cover

1969 - 1970 Z

15 25

40 85

45 70

80 85

25 55

60 75

70 55

70 4&'

Black locust seedlings Number Height

1 9 6 9 7 0 1969 1970 on .O1 acre cm

a/Seeded in March 1969; evaluated i n October, 1969 and 1970. Fertil ized with 60 lblacre N and 43 lblacre P. Black locust seeded at 3 lblacre.

hiseeding rate (Iblacre).

d ~ o s t l y plant residue.

Seeding herbaceous cover f i r s t and p l a n t i n g t r e e s l a t e r

This two-step concept f o r a f f o r e s t a t i o n i s of s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t mainly because many a c r e s of surface-mined l a n d have been vege- t a t e d s o l e l y wi th herbaceous s p e c i e s e i t h e r f o r economic reasons o r i n compliance w i t h r e g u l a t i o n s t h a t r e q u i r e ground cover f o r e r o s i o n c o n t r o l and a e s t h e t i c s . But, now, t h e r e is i n c r e a s i n g i n t e r e s t o r requirement t o e s t a b l i s h woody s p e c i e s on many of t h e g rassed a r e a s . This concept may be t h e most f e a s i b l e a l s o f o r a f f o r e s t i n g many of t h e mined a r e a s be ing reclaimed under p r e s e n t r e g u l a t i o n s .

With t h i s concept , t h e woody s p e c i e s may be p l a n t e d (1) d i r e c t l y i n t o l i v i n g herbaceous cover o r (2) i n t o herbaceous cover k i l - l e d o r weakened wi th h e r b i c i d e s , s c a l p i n g , o r c u l t i v a t i o n , The second approach seems t o h o l d t h e b e s t chance f o r tree p l a n t i n g suc- c e s s because l i v i n g cover u s u a l l y is t h e most c o m p e t i t i v e w i t h newly p l a n t e d t r e e s .

Plan t i ng t r e e s i n l i v i n g cover--

I n an experiment i n e a s t e r n Kentucky, P l a s s (1968) p l an t ed s eed l i ngs of 2 hardwood and 2 p ine spec i e s i n t o a 2-year-old s t and of Ky-31 t a l l fescue . The fescue had been e s t a b l i s h e d wi thout a p p l i c a t i o n of f e r t i l i z e r and t h e ground cover was descr ibed a s l i g h t t o moderate. The e s t a b l i s h e d ground cover was removed from one-half of each p l o t be fo r e p l a n t i n g t r e e s , and t h e vo lun t ee r vege t a t i on was grubbed out once o r twice dur ing each of t h e next 4 years . Af t e r t h e 4 th growing season, s u r v i v a l of sycamore and sweetgum was no t a f f e c t e d by t h e fescue cover; s u r v i v a l of whi te p ine and l o b l o l l y p ine was reduced s l i g h t l y . The he igh t of sycamore and sweetgum was s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduced by t h e f e scue cover; he igh t of t h e p ines was reduced, bu t not s i g n i f i c a n t l y so . The r e s u l t s sugges t t h a t t r e e s u r v i v a l and growth would have been more adverse ly a f f e c t e d i n a dense vigorous, cover of fescue .

A r evege t a t i on demonstrat ion was made i n 1965 on a s u r f a c e mine a t about 2800 f e e t e l - e va t i on i n B e l l County, Kentucky. Seve ra l hardwoods, c o n i f e r s , and shrubs were p l an t ed i n a moderate t o dense s t and of Ky-31 fescue and Korean lespedeza. Nitrogen-f ixing t r e e s and shrubs--European a l d e r , b l ack l o c u s t , autumn o l i v e , and b i c o l o r lespedeza--had reasonably good s u r v i v a l and grew r ap id ly . Other hardwoods--yellow-poplar, sycamore, and r ed oak--and Norway spruce had poor sur - v i v a l and i n i t i a l l y grew slowly. Scotch p ine had moderate s u r v i v a l and growth. About 10 yea r s l a t e r , a few of t h e su rv iv ing hardwood t r e e s were making accep t ab l e growth, bu t many had poor form and were growing slowly. I n c o n t r a s t , some yellow-poplar t r e e s t h a t had become e s t a b l i s h e d by n a t u r a l seed ing i n a s t and of European a l d e r were growing more r ap id ly than most of t h e a r t i f i c i a l l y p lan ted t r e e s .

Verbal r e p o r t s on r e s u l t s of p l a n t i n g s i n some a r ea s i n d i c a t e complete f a i l u r e of a l l t r e e s p e c i e s , even t h e n i t r ogen - f i xe r s , where p lan ted i n t o e s t a b l i s h e d herbaceous cover. A few r e p o r t s i n d i c a t e vary ing l e v e l s of success , bu t success is mostly with b lack l o c u s t , autumn o l i v e , b i c o l o r lespedeza , and t o a l e s s e r ex t en t European a l d e r and pine. Developed s t and s of some herbaceous s p e c i e s such a s crownvetch, s e r i c e a lespedeza, and f l a t p e a a r e e s p e c i a l l y i n imica l t o t h e es - tabl ishment of t r e e s .

P l an t i ng t r e e s i n cover k i l l e d wi th he rb i c ide o r s c a l ~ i n g - -

An a l t e r n a t i v e t o p l an t i ng t r e e s i n es- t a b l i s h e d herbaceous cover is t o k i l l o r

weaken t h e herbaceous cover be fo r e o r immedi- a t e l y a f t e r p l an t i ng t h e t r e e s . One l i k e l y method is t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of a non-residual he rb i c ide be fo r e p l an t i ng t r e e s . This method was u s e f u l i n West V i rg in i a f o r k i l l i n g f a l l - sown rye j u s t p r i o r t o s p r i n g seeding of per- e n n i a l fo rage spec i e s . The i n s i t u mulch produced by k i l l i n g t h e rye was equa l t o o r more e f f e c t i v e than app l i ed mulches f o r con- s e rv ing s o i l mois ture and reducing e ro s ion (Jones e t a l . 1975).

Carlson (1979) compared Roundup and paraquat5 app l i ed i n s t r i p s wi th no t rea tment p r i o r t o p l a n t i n g t r e e s on a Pennsylvania s t r i p mine. The Roundup was more e f f e c t i v e than paraquat i n reducing herbaceous competi- t i o n . But, i n t h i s p l a n t i n g , t r e e s u r v i v a l was no t s i g n i f i c a n t l y increased by k i l l i n g t h e herbaceous cover. This was a t t r i b u t e d t o abundant s p r i n g and summer r a i n f a l l .

F i r s t year r e s u l t s of an experiment i n wes te rn Kentucky showed t h a t he rb i c ide ap- p l i e d t o a f e s cue -a l f a l f a cover was responsi- b l e f o r g r e a t e r t r e e s u r v i v a l than i n t h e un- t r e a t e d cover . The he rb i c ide was app l i ed around t h e p ine s eed l i ngs a f t e r they were p l an t ed (Barnhise l 1979) .

This p a s t s p r i n g , we i n i t i a t e d an experiment i n sou thea s t e rn Ohio wi th t h e use of Roundup he rb i c ide f o r k i l l i n g a grass-legume cover i n s t r i p s and s p o t s p r i o r t o p l a n t i n g s e v e r a l s p e c i e s of t r e e s . The he rb i c ide was app l i ed about 7 days be fo r e t h e t r e e s were p lan ted . F i r s t - season eva lua t i ons of t r e e es tab l i shment have not y e t been made.

Sca lp ing and s i m i l a r types of mechanical t i l l a g e w i l l a l s o c o n t r o l o r reduce herbaceous competi t ion. I n one experiment i n sou thea s t e rn Kentucky, European a l d e r seed- l i n g s s u f f e r e d complete m o r t a l i t y t h e f i r s t yea r where p lan ted i n an un t r ea t ed 2-year-old s t and of Ky-31 fescue ; bu t s u r v i v a l was 43 percent where t h e g r a s s had been mechanical ly sca lped from around t h e s eed l i ngs (Carpenter and Albers) . 6

Annuals f o r temporary cover be fo r e p l a n t i n g trees--

Annual s p e c i e s probably can be e f f ec - t i v e l y used f o r providing temporary cover and i n s i t u mulch p r i o r t o t r e e p l an t i ng . Summer -- annual g r a s se s such a s f o x t a i l m i l l e t , Sudan- g r a s s and o the r sorghums, and p e a r l m i l l e t

enti ti on of brand names does no t imply endorsement o r recommendation f o r use.

%nuscr ip t i n p r e s s .

a r e e s p e c i a l l y u s e f u l f o r p rov id ing qu ick temporary cover i n l a t e s p r i n g and e a r l y summer. The r e s i d u e from t h e s e c r o p s can pro- v i d e s i t e p r o t e c t i o n over w i n t e r . The f o l - lowing s p r i n g , t r e e s can be p l a n t e d a long w i t h a seed ing of p e r e n n i a l herbaceous s p e c i e s . A m o d i f i c a t i o n of t h i s procedure i s t o i n c l u d e , where c l i m a t i c a l l y adap ted , Korean o r Kobe lespedeza i n t h e summer-annual seed mix. These annua l legumes normally r e s e e d and would be p r e s e n t t o e s t a b l i s h p l a n t cover i n t h e s p r i n g and summer a f t e r t h e t r e e s have been p lan ted . P e r e n n i a l herbaceous s p e c i e s would t h e n be sown i n t h e l a t e summer o r f a l l of t h e second y e a r .

Winter annua ls , such a s rye o r wheat , sown i n l a t e summer o r e a r l y f a l l w i l l pro- v i d e ground cover i n t h e w i n t e r . Trees may be p l a n t e d d i r e c t l y i n t o t h e cover t h e f o l - lowing s p r i n g , bu t t h e herbaceous s p e c i e s may compete s t r o n g l y w i t h t h e t r e e s ( w i n t e r p l a n t - i n g of t r e e s a l s o is p o s s i b l e ) . To reduce compet i t ion , t h e e n t i r e cover could. be con- t r o l l e d w i t h a non- res idua l h e r b i c i d e j u s t p r i o r t o p l a n t i n g of t r e e s , and t h e p e r e n n i a l herbaceous s p e c i e s sown. An a l t e r n a t i v e procedure i s t o k i l l s t r i p s of t h e w i n t e r annua l crop w i t h an h e r b i c i d e o r s c a l p i n g . Korean o r Kobe lespedeza could be sown on t h e e n t i r e a r e a o r only on t h e s t r i p s along w i t h t h e p l a n t i n g of t r e e s . P e r e n n i a l herbaceous spe- c i e s could be sown over t h e e n t i r e a r e a i n l a t e summer.

Seeding annuals i n t h e s p r i n g f o r temporary cover i n con junc t ion w i t h p l a n t i n g of t r e e s showed no advantage over seed ing peren- n i a l g r a s s e s and legumes a s determined i n a Pennsylvania s tudy by t h e SCS P l a n t M a t e r i a l s Center . I n some p l o t s , t r e e s u r v i v a l was lower i n t h e annual v e g e t a t i o n than i n peren- n i a l v e g e t a t i o n .

P l a n t i n g o r seed ing t r e e s f i r s t and herbaceous s p e c i e s l a t e r

This concept normally should prov ide t h e l e a s t herbaceous compet i t ion and t h e b e s t chance f o r i n i t i a l s u r v i v a l of newly p l a n t e d o r seeded t r e e s e e d l i n g s . R e s u l t s of some of t h e p r e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d experiments v e r i f y t h i s . For example, Bengtson e t a l . (1973) showed t h a t t o o b t a i n adequate s t o c k i n g , p i n e seed on ly should be sown w i t h a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e r e q u i r e d amount of f e r t i l i z e r . Seeding herbaceous s p e c i e s t h e fo l lowing y e a r re- s u l t e d i n some r e d u c t i o n i n p i n e s t a n d , b u t much l e s s s o than where p i n e and herbaceous s p e c i e s were sown a t t h e same time.

Under p r e s e n t r e g u l a t i o n s , however, t h i s method of p l a n t i n g t r e e s is n o t l i k e l y t o b e approved because t h e qu ick es tab l i shment of

v e g e t a t i v e cover is r e q u i r e d f o r a l l l a n d uses . The procedure most n e a r l y approaching t h i s concept i s p l a n t i n g t r e e s and sowing herbaceous s p e c i e s i n a l t e r n a t e s t r i p s a s p r e v i o u s l y d i scussed .

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

R e s u l t s of r e s e a r c h and exper ience w i t h p l a n t i n g t r e e s and herbaceous s p e c i e s to - g e t h e r i n d i c a t e t h a t , g e n e r a l l y , herbaceous cover causes an i n c r e a s e i n m o r t a l i t y of t r e e s e e d l i n g s and may r e t a r d t r e e growth, a t l e a s t i n t h e f i r s t few y e a r s a f t e r p l a n t i n g . Competition between t r e e s and herbs seems t o be p r i m a r i l y f o r mois tu re because s u r v i v a l of t r e e s was l e a s t a f f e c t e d where s p r i n g and summer p r e c i p i t a t i o n was most abundant. Be- s i d e s t o t a l p r e c i p i t a t i o n , mois tu re a v a i l a - b i l i t y t o p l a n t s can be in f luenced by t h e p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of m i n e s o i l s , d u r a t i o n of d r y p e r i o d s o r f requency of p r e c i p i t a t i o n e v e n t s , a i r t empera ture , wind, e v a p o r a t i o n , l a t i t u d e , e l e v a t i o n , a s p e c t , e t c .

Competition f o r n u t r i e n t s seems t o a f f e c t t r e e growth more than t r e e s u r v i v a l a s i n d i - c a t e d by apparen t n i t r o g e n d e f i c i e n c y and reduced t r e e growth i n g r a s s cover . Tree growth u s u a l l y is b e t t e r on n i t r o g e n f e r t i - l i z e d a r e a s and i n legume cover once trees have grown t a l l e r than t h e herbaceous vegeta- t ion .

Densi ty of herbaceous v e g e t a t i o n can in - f l u e n c e t h e degree of compet i t ion and t h u s t h e s u r v i v a l and growth of t r e e s . For example, i n exper imenta l p l a n t i n g s i n I l l i n o i s , second-year s u r v i v a l of 17 t r e e s p e c i e s averaged 6 1 p e r c e n t i n s p a r s e l i g h t ground cover ( l e s s than 50 percen t cover) and 27 p e r c e n t i n a dense heavy cover of sweet c lo - v e r . Only two t r e e s p e c i e s (white a s h and e a s t e r n r e d cedar ) surv ived w e l l i n t h e dense cover (Limstrom and Deitschman 1951).

Competition f o r l i g h t , i . e . , shading of t r e e s e e d l i n g s from s u n l i g h t , a f f e c t s both s u r v i v a l and growth of t r e e s e e d l i n g s and may occur more w i t h dense s t a n d s of legumes than w i t h g r a s s e s . The season when t h e v a r i o u s p l a n t s p e c i e s make most of t h e i r growth may i n t e r r e l a t e w i t h shading and compet i t ion f o r s u n l i g h t . For example, legumes such a s b i r d s f o o t t r e f o i l and r e d c l o v e r make r a p i d growth i n t h e s p r i n g a t about t h e same t ime a s some t r e e s p e c i e s , such a s p i n e , make most of t h e i r growth. Perhaps t h e dense f o l i a g e of t h e s e legumes c o n t r i b u t e s t o t r e e s e e d l i n g m o r t a l i t y by exc lud ing l i g h t from t h e s m a l l s e e d l i n g s dur ing t h e time when l i g h t is most needed f o r t h e i r growth. Warm-season legumes, such a s s e r i c e a lespedeza , would n o t p rov ide dense shade u n t i l e a r l y - t o mid-summer, a f t e r

t h e p i n e have made most of t h e i r season ' s growth. However, shade of warm-season l e - gumes may b e d e t r i m e n t a l t o t r e e s p e c i e s t h a t con t inue growth through t h e summer. Also, warm-season s p e c i e s probably compete more than cool-season s p e c i e s f o r mois tu re d u r i n g p e r i o d s of summer drought . Obviously, more r e s e a r c h is needed t o e l u c i d a t e some of t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s among s p e c i e s .

Herbaceous s p e c i e s can have i n d i r e c t e f - f e c t s on t r e e s u r v i v a l and growth. For example, herbaceous legumes a r e more a t t r a c t i v e than g r a s s e s t o d e e r . I n a r e a s w i t h l a r g e popula t ions of d e e r , t r e e s p l a n t e d w i t h l e - gumes, t h e r e f o r e , a r e more s u b j e c t t o damage by d e e r browsing. I n such a r e a s , t h e l e a s t p a l a t a b l e of t h e adapted g r a s s e s may be t h e b e s t cho ice f o r combination p l a n t i n g s . T h i s may war ran t g r e a t e r u s e of warm-season grass - e s because they do n o t p rov ide green f o r a g e i n t h e f a l l , w i n t e r , and e a r l y s p r i n g when i t is most a t t r a c t i v e t o deer .

Although i n some experiments l i t t l e d i f - f e r e n c e i n i n i t i a l t r e e s u r v i v a l was no ted among s e v e r a l herbaceous covers , some herbaceous s p e c i e s u s u a l l y a r e more compet i t ive than o t h e r s w i t h companion t r e e s . S e v e r a l legumes--crownvetch, f l a t p e a , s e r i c e a lespedeza, and probably r e d clover--are e s p e c i a l l y s e v e r e compet i to rs where they g e t a qu ick s t a r t and over top t h e t r e e s e e d l i n g s . Com- p e t i t i o n from t h e s e legumes is l e s s s e v e r e where t h e t r e e s have a chance t o become es- t a b l i s h e d f i r s t . The es tab l i shment of dense s t a n d s of t h e s e legumes can be slowed by sow- i n g them a t a reduced seed ing r a t e . Another o p t i o n is t o sow them only i n s t r i p s t h a t a l - t e r n a t e w i t h unseeded s t r i p s p l a n t e d t o t r e e s . Even i n s t r i p s , t h e s e e d i n g r a t e should be reduced from t h a t normally recommended f o r ground cover . I n f a c t , f o r combination p lan t - i n g s , seed ing r a t e s i n g e n e r a l should b e reduced from t h o s e o f t e n recommended f o r ground cover .

One reason given i n f a v o r of e s t a b l i s h - i n g a dense legume cover i n con junc t ion w i t h a f f o r e s t a t i o n is t o keep s u n l i g h t from t h e s o i l s u r f a c e and thereby a i d development of a r i c h s o i l fauna i n a s h o r t e r per iod of time. The legume cover can s u b s t i t u t e f o r t h e c losed canopy t h a t would develop from c l o s e spac ing of t r e e s . Grass does n o t p rov ide a f a v o r a b l e environment f o r fo res t -dwel l ing s o i l fauna (Neumann 19 73) .

There seems t o b e no " idea l" s p e c i e s o r seed mix ture f o r sowing w i t h t r e e s i n a l l sit- u a t i o n s o r a l l r eg ions . Obviously, s p e c i e s should be adapted t o t h e season of t h e y e a r when seed ing must b e done. For seed ing i n t h e s p r i n g , a mix ture of temporary qu ick cover and p e r e n n i a l herbaceous s p e c i e s may be d e s i r a b l e .

I d e a l l y t h e qu ick cover s p e c i e s should be one t h a t is n o t t o o compet i t ive wi th t r e e s . Such a s p e c i e s is d i f f i c u l t t o d e f i n e . P e r e n n i a l r y e g r a s s , f o r example, is less v igorous and may be p r e f e r a b l e t o annua l r y e g r a s s a s a qu ick cover s p e c i e s f o r e a r l y s p r i n g seed ing . The d e n s i t y and v i g o r of cover can perhaps be c o n t r o l l e d by t h e a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e of f e r t i - l i z e r . Nitrogen a t no more than 50 t o 60 pounds per a c r e should suppor t adequa te growth of g r a s s wi thout e x c e s s i v e v i g o r . Less n i t r o g e n may be adequa te on f e r t i l e top- s o i l . Phosphorus should be a p p l i e d a t r a t e s i n d i c a t e d by s o i l t e s t , o r i f n o t t e s t e d , a t about 40 t o 50 pounds p e r a c r e of P.

Summer seed ings can t a k e advantage of summer annua ls f o r qu ick cover . Also, Korean and Kobe lespedeza should b e used wherever p o s s i b l e . These annual legumes a r e probably some of t h e most compatible wi th t r e e s .

F a l l s e e d i n g p r e s e n t s a more d i f f i c u l t s i t u a t i o n f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g herbaceous cover and t r e e s because t h e cover is a l r e a d y es - t a b l i s h e d b e f o r e t r e e p l a n t i n g time t h e f o l - lowing s p r i n g . The u s e of h e r b i c i d e s o r s c a l p i n g t o c o n t r o l t h e herbaceous cover i n p l a n t i n g s p o t s o r s t r i p s may be a f e a s i b l e s o l u t i o n f o r p l a n t i n g t r e e s i n fa l l - seeded cover . One problem a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e use of h e r b i c i d e s i n t h e s p r i n g is t h a t t h e herbaceous v e g e t a t i o n should be a c t i v e l y growing f o r most e f f e c t i v e r e s u l t s . But, by w a i t i n g u n t i l t h e herbaceous cover is s u f f i c i e n t l y advanced f o r e f f e c t i v e h e r b i c i d e k i l l , t h e i d e a l per iod f o r s p r i n g p l a n t i n g of t r e e s is n e a r l y passed. F a l l a p p l i c a t i o n of h e r b i c i d e and w i n t e r o r s p r i n g p l a n t i n g of t r e e s is a p o s s i b l e a l t e r n a t i v e .

A l a b o r - i n t e n s i v e method f o r conserving s o i l mois tu re and reduc ing immediate herbaceous compet i t ion i s t o app ly shredded bark mulch about 4 t o 5 i n c h e s deep around each t r e e s e e d l i n g . This method would probably be f e a s i b l e only wi th h igh v a l u e c rops such a s b lack walnut .

Al le lopa thy is another p rocess t h a t may h i n d e r t h e es tab l i shment of t r e e s p l a n t e d o r seeded wi th herbaceous cover . The p o s s i b i l - i t i e s f o r a l l e l o p a t h i c e f f e c t s a r e many, b u t few of t h e p o s s i b l e combinations have been s t u d i e d . For example, r e s u l t s of s t u d i e s a t t h e Ohio A g r i c u l t u r a l Research and Develop- ment Center showed t h a t d a i l y wate r ing wi th a l e a c h a t e from crownvetch f o l i a g e was i n h i b i - t o r y t o t h e growth of newly g e r m i n a t e d r e d o a k seed , bu t had no adverse e f f e c t on f u l y developed s e e d l i n g s (Dr. Merlyn Larson) . 3

7 ~ n p u b l i s h e d d a t a .

It i s apparen t t h a t knowledge and ex- p e r i e n c e w i t h p l a n t i n g t r e e s i n con junc t ion w i t h herbaceous cover is s t i l l i n in fancy . Various combinations of t r e e s and h e r b s have worked from t ime t o t ime, b u t probably more have f a i l e d . We u s u a l l y can sugges t reasons f o r f a i l u r e , such a s a d rought , b u t f i n d i t more d i f f i c u l t t o unders tand t h e successes . Continued a p p l i e d and bas ' ic r e s e a r c h i s nec- e s s a r y t o f i n d more answers.

LITERATURE CITED

Albers , D. J. and S. D. Carpenter . 1979. I n f l u e n c e of s i te , environmental con- d i t i o n s , mulching, and herbaceous ground cover on s u r v i v a l , growth, and wate r re- l a t i o n s of European a l d e r s e e d l i n g s p l a n t e d on s u r f a c e mine s p o i l . p. 23-32. I n Proc. Symp. on S u r f . Mining, Hydrol . , - Sedimentology, and Reclam. C o l l . of Eng., Univ. of Ky. Lexington.

B a r n h i s e l , R. I. 1979. Revegetat ion a l t e r - n a t i v e s f o r s u r f a c e mined c o a l s p o i l s . p. 35-40. I n a Kentucky Energy Resource ~ t i l i z a t i o n y r o g r a m , Annual Report . I n s t i t . Mining and Minerals Research, Univ. of Ky. Lexington.

Bengtson, G. W . , D. A. Mays, and J . C. Allen. 1973. Revege ta t ion of c o a l s p o i l i n nor th - e a s t e r n Alabama: e f f e c t s of t iming of seed ing and f e r t i l i z a t i o n on es tab l i shment of pine-grass mix tures . p. 208-241. I n Res. and Applied Tech. Symp. on ~ i n e d - E n d Reclam. N a t l . Coal Assoc. Washington, D. C.

Bengtson, G. W. and D. A. Mays. 1978. Growth and n u t r i t i o n of l o b l o l l y p i n e on c o a l mine s p o i l a s a f f e c t e d by n i t r o g e n and phospho- rous f e r t i l i z e r and cover crops. For . S c i . 24: 398-409.

Car l son , E. 1979. E f f e c t s of herbaceous v e g e t a t i o n on t h e s u r v i v a l and growth of hardwood t r e e s e e d l i n g s . p. 213-220. In Proc. Symp. on S u r f . Mining, Hydrol , Sed- imentology, and Reclam. Col l . of Eng., Univ. of Ky. Lexington.

Jones , J. N . , Jr . , W. H. Armiger, and 0. L. Bennet t . 1975. A two-step system f o r r e v e g e t a t i o n of s u r f a c e mine s p o i l s . J. Environ. Qual . 4:233-235.

Neumann, U. 1973. Success ion of s o i l fauna i n a f f o r e s t e d s p o i l banks of t h e brown- c o a l mining d i s t r i c t of Cologne. p. 335- 348. In Ecology and Reclam. of Devastated Land. Vol. I. Gordon and Breach, New York.

P l a s s , W . T. 1968. Tree s u r v i v a l and growth on fescue-covered s p o i l banks. USDA For. Serv. Res. Note NE-90. 4 p.

T a c k e t t , E. M. and D. H. Graves. 1979. Direct-seeding of commercial t r e e s on s u r - f a c e mine s p o i l . p. 209-212. I n Proc . on S u r f . Mining Hydrol . , ~ e d i m e n t o z ~ ~ , and Reclam. Col l . of Eng., Univ. of Ky. Lex- i n g ton .

Vogel, W. G. 1973. The e f f e c t of herbaceous v e g e t a t i o n on s u r v i v a l and growth of t r e e s p l a n t e d on coal-mine s p o i l s . p. 197-207. I n Res. and Applied Tech. Symp. on Mined- - Land Reclam. N a t l . Coal Assoc. Washing- t o n , D. C.

Wheeler, W. H. 1976. P l a n t i n g conlbinations of t r e e s and g r a s s e s on a r e a s a f f e c t e d by s u r f a c e mining i n c e n t r a l Pennsylvania. p. 215-222. & Fourth Symp. on S u r f . Min- i n g and Reclam. Nat l . Coal Assoc. Wash- i n g t o n , D. C.

Woods, F. W . , R. L. Hay, and G. H. I rwin . 1978. M i n i s i t e p r e p a r a t i o n f o r r e f o r e s t a - t i o n of s t r ip -mined lands . p. 306-310. I n S u r f . Mining and F i s h I W i l d l i f e Needs i n - t h e E a s t e r n U. S. Symp. Proc. USDI, F i s h and W i l d l i f e Serv. and W. Va. Univ.

Limstrom, G. A. and G. H. Deitschman. 1951. Reclaiming I l l i n o i s s t r i p c o a l l a n d s by f o r e s t p l a n t i n g . Ill. Agric . Exp. S tn . Bul l . 547. p. 201-250.

POSTMINING LAND USE: ECONOMIC COMPARISON

OF FORESTRY AND PASTURELAND ALTERNATIVES 1

Charles H. Wolf 2

Abstract.--The influence of soil properties, legal requirements, and economics on postmining land use is described, and enterprise budgets are prepared to demonstrate procedures for evaluating forest and pastureland alternatives. A comparison of cow-calf operations with hybrid poplar and black walnut plantations suggests that a combination of pastureland and black walnut plantations will achieve the highest rates of return on investment.

INTRODUCTION

During the past three decades there have been important changes in surface mining laws that have had a strong influence on forestry's role as a postmining land use. Prior to the 1960's most state reclamation laws did not require the grading of spoil piles or the establishment of herbaceous ground cover. Strike-off grading was required in some states but this still resulted in rough topography that was not well suited to agriculture. Large acreages were planted in trees partly because early research by the U.S. Forest Service showed that trees, over time, could stabilize mine sites and eventually produce a timber crop.

This period was followed by laws in the early 1970's that required grading and the establishment of herbaceous ground cover to control erosion. Tree planting declined precipitously because seedlings could not successfully compete with the herbaceous species. Hayland and pastureland emerged as important postmining uses in many states.

The Surface Mining Control and Reclama- tion Act of 1977 may cause yet another shift in forestry's role. The Act and correspond- ing regulations require that specific criteria be met before the approval of changes in land use from those which existed prior to mining. How these new requirements will affect postmining land use decisions is uncertain; however, there is likely to be a tendency on the part of mining companies to avoid land use changes in order to simplify the permit application process and to eliminate potential delays in permit approval. The upshot could be that where forest land is the pre-mining land use it will receive greater consideration as a postmining land use. This could reverse the present trend of converting woodlands to other land uses.

The purpose of this paper is to briefly describe some of the factors that influence postmining land use and to explore by means of enterprise budgets the economics of forest and pasture land use alternatives. This latter objective will be met by analyzing the potential for cow-calf operations, hybrid poplar plantations and black walnut plantations on reclaimed land in southeastern Ohio.

FACTORS AFFECTING POSTMINING LAND USE

'paper presented at the Trees for Recla- Most determinants of postmining land mation symposium in Lexington, KY on Octo- use can be categorized into one of three ber 27-29, 1980. broad groups: (1) soil properties, (2) legal

requirements and constraints, and (3) economic 2~orester in the Office of Surface considerations. Climatic factors are also

Mining, U.S. Department of Interior, 46 East important but will not be discussed in this Ohio Street, Indianapolis, Indiana 46204 paper because they are largely beyond man's

control. The chemical and physical properties

of the reconstructed soil can be partially controlled by selectively mixing and placing soil horizons at the time of mining.

Properties of reconstructed soil that influence the selection of postmining land use include soil reaction (pH), stoniness, particle size and slope. For use as pasture, hayland, row crops, and other agricultural uses the reconstructed soil should have a Ph of 5.5 or higher, be free of stones at or near the surface which would interfere with tillage and harvesting operations, and have slopes that are less than 20 percent. Also, the particle size distribution should be adequate to provide aeration and moisture- retention. Stoniness and slope are usually not limiting factors when selecting land for forestry and wildlife use. Trees and shrubs can survive in reconstructed soils with a pH as low as 4.5, however, growth will be greatly reduced.

Surface mining can have a detri- mental effect on soil properties resulting in diminished land capability. Mining destroys soil structure. Grading and re- distribution of topsoil can and often does cause soil compaction. These problems can reduce yields below premining levels by reducing water infiltration and preventing effective root penetration. Another problem is that overburden material may settle unevenly and leave depressions that trap seasonal surface runoff. Microorganism populations may also be temporarily reduced by topsoil stockpiling. Some of these problems can be alleviated through careful planning of the mining operation, the proper choice of reclamation equipment, and the use of soil restoration plans.

In some situations, surface mining can improve the chemical and physical properties of the soil. For example, fragipans, clay- pans, and ironpans which reduce water infiltration and root penetration are broken and dispersed during overburden removal. Root penetration for trees is improved when consolidated rock near the surface is frac- tured. In the western states where saline conditions are found, it is possible during mining and reclamation to replace the surface horizons with more favorable overburden materials or to dilute sodium con- centrations by soil mixing. Selective soil mixing also offers an opportunity to improve thin, acidic forest soils in the eastern coalfields. These procedures must be approved in advance by the regulatory authority.

Legal requirements and constraints are the second major category of factors which

affect postmining land use selections. Section 515 of The Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 requires all surface coal mining operations to I' . . . restore the land affected to a condition capable of supporting the uses which it was capable of supporting prior to any mining, or higher or better uses of which there is a reasonable likelihood . . .I ' Furthermore, proposed land uses following reclamation cannot be impractical or unreasonable, inconsis- tent with land use policies and plans, or involve unreasonable dealys in reclamation.

The language contained in the Federal Act poses the question of what constitutes a "higher or better" land use. Tn his widely recognized land economics textbook, Barlowe (1958) defines highest and best use as that land use which provides an optimum return to its operators or to society. Returns may be measured in strictly monetary terms, in intangible social values, or in some combination of these values. Highest and best use also embodies the concept of comparative advantage which includes consideration of both the ability of land to produce a net return above production costs and the relative demand for uses to which it might be put. Usually land is in its highest and best use when it is used for the purpose or combination of purposes of which it has the highest comparative advantage.

The land use provisions of the Federal Act have been the subject of much discussion and debate, especially when they are opera- tionally defined in the form of specific regulations. The Federal Rules list ten land use categories which are defined in terms of specific uses or management-related activities rather than vegetative cover. These cate- I gories include forestry, pastureland or land occasionally cut for hay, recreation, cropland, and fish and wildlife habitat. Changes of land use from one category to another are considered a change to an alternative land use and subject to approval by the state regulatory authority.

To gain approval, the landowner must be consulted and several criteria must be met (see 30 CFR 816.133 and 817.133). These criteria include but are not limited to (1) the determination that the proposed use is compatible with adjacent land use and any existing land use policies and plans, (2) the submission of plans showing the feasibility of the use, (3) evidence that public facili- ties will be provided if necessary, and (4) adequate plans to prevent or mitigate any adverse effects on fish, wildlife, and related environmental values. These requirements are not intended to discourge land use changes.

However, they may place an additional, but legally necessary, burden on mining companies who seek a land use change.

The final category of factors that influence postmining land use is economic in nature. As a general rule, most landowners tend to use their land for those purposes that promise the highest economic return. Sometimes surface mining can be conducted in a manner that will leave the land in a condition likely to yield greater financial rewards than were possible before mining. For example, from the forestry standpoint, mining improves accessibility by leaving a road network from which to manage and harvest timber crops. It also leaves the site free of uncommer- cial trees and undesirable vegetation that normally must be cleared before plantations can be established. Upon the approval of the regulatory authority, topography can be al- tered to provide more gently sloping landforms that permit the use of mechanized equipment needed for intensive forest management. The condition of the land can be improved for pascure, wildlife, and recreation by the creation of watering ponds and lakes where none previously existed. There must also be approval by the regulatory authority.

Thus, surface mining can improve the potential of land for a variety of uses -- recreation, forestry, livestock pastures, hayland, wildlife and cropland. The selection of the most appropriate postmining land use is often complex. The remainder of this paper concerns the financial dimension of the postmining land use decision for two competing land uses--forestry and pastureland--for coalfields in southeastern Ohio. The intent of this exercise is to demonstrate the types of economic analyses that should be undertaken when making postmining land use decisions.

FORESTRY VS PASTURELAND

In 1979, an estimated 31,600,000 tons of coal were surface mined in southeastern Ohio (U.S. Department of Energy, 1980). The forest industry of Ohio is also centered in this part of the state. There are three pulpmills and numerous small primary and secondary wood manufacturing plants that provide markets for locally grown timber. This part of the state is also a significant livestock producing area. Accordingly, forestry and pasture are both realistic postmining land uses.

Previous studies by Baker et.al. (1976) and Higgins (1973) show that satisfactory

forage yields and beef calf gains can be obtained on surface mined land. Baker et.al. (1976) reports forage yields of 2.71 tons per acre for grass and legume mixtures that had been fertilized with 40 lbs of N, 80 lbs of P 0 and 120 lbs of K 0 per acre.

2 5 Grazing tralls indicated that agout three acres of a vigorous stand of Kenfucky 31 fescue and sericea lespedeza are required per cow-calf unit. Higgins (1973) reported that four acres of reclaimed land were needed per cow-calf unit. The higher acreage per cow- calf unit which Higgins reported probably reflects reclaimed land that had not been topsoiled and lower fertilizer application rates.

Sutton provides the most recent forage yield data for surface mine sites in southeastern Ohio which had been reclai meet current topsoiling standards .3'd :: his experimental work, which involved nine different fertilizer treatments at three sites, Sutton found nitrogen to be the limiting factor in forage production. The most appropriate fertilizer treatment--100 lbs N, 50 lbs P 0 , 50 lbs K 0--produce an average yield 2 o!? zhree tons per acre from three cuttings. Sutton also observed that reconstructed mine soils are more droughty than natural soils and that this reduces forage yields.

Hybrid poplar plantations are a second possible land use. Davidson (1979) reports that a 16 year old hybrid poplar plantation on mine spoil in Pennsylvania yielded 90 tons of pulpwood and 9,400 board feet of lumber. This is equal to a growth of about two cords per acre per year. Stone Container Corpora- tion contends that on abandoned field sites growers in Ohio can expect survival rates of 90 to 100 percent with annual height growth rates for the first five to six years of three to five feet and diameter growth of one- half to one inch per year.

In addition to its rapid growth, hybrid poplar is a desirable species because it can be propagated from cuttings and regenerated from stump sprouts after harvesting. Poplars grow begt on sites with a pH of 5.5 or above.- The trees will not tolerate shade

?'~ersonal communications with Dr. Paul Sutton, Ohio Agricultural Research and Devel- opment Center dated August 18, 1980

l/Davidson, W. H. 1980. Hybrid poplars for spoil reforestation. Unpublished paper presented at the spring meeting of the American Council for Reclamation Research. Qy 6-7, 1980, !heeling, W.Va., 11' p.

and can only be successfully established where competing vegetation is controlled.

Black walnut provides a reforesgation opportunity which might yield significantly higher economic returns than hybrid poplar. This species develops best on deep, well drained, nearly neutral soils which are generally moist and fertile (Schlesinger and Funk 1 9 7 7 ) . Because of its site requirements, black walnut should only be considered for planting on the better reclaimed surface mine soils. Previous research indicates that walnut has good survival and growth on reclaimed land

5 / if planting sites are carefully chosen.-

Cow - calf enterprises

In order to develop a cow-calf enterprise budget for reclaimed surface mined land it was necessary to make several assumptions. These assumptions were derived after reviewing published and unpublished studies and consulting with a Soil Conservation Service Agronomist, Ohio Cooperative Entension Service personnel, and lease holders operating a large cow-calf operation on reclaimed land. The data that are presented represent 1980 costs and product prices which the typical investor might experience when developing reclaimed lands and marketing cattle.

The first assumption was that with the proper fertilization program, annual forage yield would be three tons per acre and that 40 lbs of forage would be needed per animal unit day (AUD). The 40 lbs per AUD may seem conservative, however it includes losses resulting from trampling and a safety factor to ensure adequate forage during dry years. During the five month period lasting from December through April the cattle would be fed baled hay. An area of 2.4 acres would be needed to support one animal unit. Beef gain was estimated to be 1.5 lbs per AUD. Calves and cows were assumed to have an average weight of 500 and 1100 pounds and to bring market prices of $81 and $44 per hundred weight, respectively.

S'~ogel, Willis 6 . 1979. Are trees neglected plants for reclaiming surface mines? Unpublished paper submitted to the West Virginia Academy of Sciences, November 2 9 , 1979, 27 p.

There was no charge for planting the pasture and hayland because this expense would normally be borne by the mining operator. Also, it was assumed that the necessary watering ponds would be constructed during reclamation and not require further expenditures for use by the livestock enterprise. Other assumptions are largely self explanatory (Table 1 ) .

Total receipts per acre were estimated to be $154.87 from which pasture cost ( $ 5 0 . 9 5 ) , livestock cost ($56 .92 ) and hay harvest cost ($37 .50 ) must be deducted. The return after these deductions was $9.50 per acre, excluding land and management charges. Major cost items were fencing, fertilization, interest on cow herd investment, and hay harvesting.

At present, reclaimed unimproved surface mine land in southeastern Ohio can be leased for cow-calf grazing at about $5 .00 per acre. Eight thousand acres of reclaimed land owned by Ohio Power Company has recently been leased by an Iowa based cattle company for a base price of $5.00 per acre plus an additional fee which is determined by prices at feeder calf sales in the state. The 1980 rental fee for this property was $9.95 per acre, which is slightly over our estimate of the return above livestock, pasture, and hay costs. The leasee plans to invest $3.2 million in land improvements and livestock during the 20 year lease period. The cow-calf operation is not expected to show any profit for at least three years.

Hybrid poplar plantations

Woodlands personnel from Stone Container Corporation provided establishment cost and yield estimates for a hybrid poplar pulpwood enterprise (Table 2). It was assumed that poplar plantations with an eight by eight spacing would be established in herbaceous cover using two herbicide applications. Three clearcuts yielding 49 tons per acre each were planned at 1 4 , 12 and 10 year intervals. The declining rotation age is possible because successive rotations can be established from stump sprouts. After the third cutting, the area would be re- planted. The stumpage price was assumed to be $2.00 per ton which is the 1980 price for well stocked hardwood stands with good access.

Total plantation establishment cost was estimated to be $143 per acre while stumpage sales for the three cuttings produced revenue of $294 per acre. The average

Table 1. -- Cow-calf enterprise budget for reclaimed surface

mines in southeastern Ohio, 1980

Item/explanation Value per acre

Receipts 225 lbs beeflac. @ $68.80 cwt.

Pasture costs Fence installation

$55/ac., 20 year life, i=8% Fence maintenance

5% of installation costs Clipping Annual fertilizer & lime application

100 lbs. N @ .25/lb 30 lbs. P205 @ .22/lb. 30 lbs. K20 C? .10/lb. .5 tons llme O $ 1 0 1 ~

pasture cost = $50.95

Hay harvest costs Mow, rake & bale @ $30/t'on

5/12 of forage baled

Livestock costs Building charge Interest on investment $5OO/cow x 8% x 5/12

Death loss: $500 x 1% x 5/12 Replacement costs: $500 cow sold @ $400

$100 t 7 yrs. x 5/12 Veterinary, salt, & minerals Breeding charge: $10 x 5/12 Livestock taxes & insurance Labor: $4.50/hr. x .4 hr./cow x 5 Marketing cost Miscellaneous charges

livestock costs = $56.92

a / Return above pasture & livestock costs - 47.00

a / Return above pasture, livestock & hay costs - 9.50

2' Excludes land and management charges.

Table 2. -- Hybrid poplar plantation for reclaimed surface mines in southeastern Ohio, 14 - 12 - 10 year rotations, 1980

Item/explanation Year Value per acre

Planting stock 8 x 8 spacing 640 trees/acre unrooted cuttings

Planting combination machine & hand 1

First herbicide application 1 simazine: pre-emergent spray round-up: post-emergent spray 3 foot wide strips

Second herbicide application 2 15

Total establishment cost = $143

First harvest 49 tonslac 3.5 tons/ac./yr. $2.00/ton stumpage

a / Second harvest - 49 tonslac. 4.1 tons/ac./yr. $2.00/ton stumpage

a/ Third harvest - 36 98 49 tonslac. 4.9 tons/ac./yr. $2.00/ton stumpage

Total stumpage income = $294

b/ Average annual net revenue - 4.19

b/ Internal rate of return - 3.06%

2' Second and third rotations established using coppice silvicul- tural system.

b1 Excludes land charge, property tax, fire protection costs and management charge.

annual net revenue was $4.19 per year. Given these assumptions, the planta- The internal rate of return was equal tion was capable of earning an annual net to 3.06 percent--a rate that is far revenue of $1,091 per acre and an internal too low to attract investors. rate of return of 9.34 percent (Table 3).

This rate of return is much higher than for Hardwood stumage prices for pulpwood the hybrid poplar plantation and is likely

are relatively low in Ohio because the to attract some investors. supply of poletimber exceeds demand. This depresses oportunities for commercial forest plantations. Nevertheless, Comparison of alternatives Stone Container Corporation in Coshocton, Ohio has established an eight acre nursery To compare the black walnut and hybrid with the capability to produce 300,000 poplar plantations to the cow-calf operation, poplar cuttings per year. The company the net present value of an infinite number is currently leasing small acreages of old of income streams was calculated for each fields for poplar plantations and is alternative lan use at eight percent com- cooperating with Peabody Coal Company in g 1 pound interest.- the establishment of experimental plantings on reclaimed land. Land Use Net Present Value

Pasture $119 Black walnut ~lantations

In evaluating the financial possi- bilities of establishing black walnut plantations, it was assumed that only the best sites would be planted. Walnut seedlings would be planted on an 11 x 11 spacing and interplanted with autumn-olive or European black alder. Both of these species fix nitrogen which will increase the growth of the walnut. They also reduce the need for pruning and provide wildlife food and cover. Because walnut is intolerant of shade, three herbicide applications and three mowings were believed necessary. Several prunings and thinnings were included in the budget to produce high quality veneer logs and sawlogs. It was assumed that the plantation would yield 2,500 board feet of sawlogs and 5,000 board feet of veneer logs in 50 years.

Current prices for black walnut stumpage were estimated to be $.50 per board foot for sawlogs and $5.00 per board foot for veneer logs. Hoover (1978) has shown that the price of black walnut stumpage has increased historically at a rate of 1.5 percent per year above the cost of other goods and services in the economy. If we apply this rate of increase in real value to 1980 prices, black walnut stumpage at rotation age will be worth $1.05 per board foot for sawlogs and $10.53 per board foot for veneer logs. These assumptions and accompanying cost and yield data reflect the experience of Pierson-Hollowell Company, a veneer manufacturing firm that is establishing and managing walnut plantations in Indiana. During the past year this company established plantations on reclaimed land for AMAX Coal Company.

Hybrid poplar plantation -94 Black walnut plantation 581

The hybrid poplar plantation had a negative land value indicating that from solely a financial standpoint, hybrid poplar plantations wrauld not be a desirable land use. Pasture had a positive land value, but not nearly as high as the black walnut plantation. These results suggest that the best land use strategy would be to plant black walnut on the most favorable sites and to use the remaining reclaimed land for a cow- calf enterprise.

ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS

In addition to return on investment, there are other considerations which will influence the postmining land use choice as related to forestry and pasture alternative. Landowners tend to select those land uses which are compatible with or complement their other business ventures. For example, wood- using industries that own coal bearing land usually return these lands to forest in order to protect their investments in secondary manufacturing. They already have the technical skills to establish and manage plantations and can provide their own market for the wood that is produced.

6'~n eight percent interest rate was suggested by Samuel M. Brock as appropriate for evaluating postmining land use alternatives when current prices are used. Unpub- lished paper. Selecting a higher and better postmining land use for surface mined land through budgeting. June 30, 1980. 22p.

Trees f o r Reclamat ion Symposium Proceedings. 1980. Trees f o r reclamat ion. Northeast. For. Exp. Stn. , Broomall, Pa. 135 p. (USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-61)

A c o l l e c t i o n of 30 papers presented a t t h e symposium on t r e e s f o r reclamation i n t h e Eas tern United S t a t e s held October 27-29, 1980, Lexington, Kentucky, and sponsored by t h e USDA Forest Serv ice and I n t e r s t a t e Mining Com- pact Commission.

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Keywords: S t r i p mining, a f f o r e s t a t i o n

Headquarters of the Northeasfern Forest Experiment Station are in Broomall, Pa. Field laboratories and research units are maintained at:

Amherst, Massachusetts, in cooperation with the University of Massachusetts. Beltsville, Maryland. Berea, Kentucky, in cooperation with Berea College. Burlington, Vermont, in cooperation with the University of Vermont. Delaware, Ohio. Durham, New Hampshire, in cooperation with the University of New Hampshire.

@ Hamden, Connecticut, in cooperation with Yale University. Kingston, Pennsylvania.

a Morgantown, West Virginia, in cooperation with West Virginia University, Morgantown. Orono, Maine, in cooperation with the University of Maine, Orono. Parsons, West Virginia. Princeton, West Virginia. Syracuse, New York, in cooperation with the State University of New York College of Environmental Sciences and Forestry at Syracuse University, Syracuse. University Park, Pennsylvania, in cooperation with the Pennsylvania State University. Warren, Pennsylvania.

Lexington, Kentucky October 27 29, 1980

Documents

Transcript of Lexington, Kentucky October 27 29, 1980