Lecture II: WORD STRUCTURE AND FORMATION

I. Word structure Morpheme

Root M Affixal M( bound )

free M bound M gram/functional M derivational M

boy terribletable terror (inflections) prefix infix suffix

terrorize girl open unkind salesman kindlyinclude girls opens mislead fisherman leaderexclude sportsmanconclude washerwoman

doomsday Word

Simple Derived Compound (R) ( R+A ) ( R+R ) heart hearty sweetheart

II. Word formation

AFFIXATION1. PrefixationClassification of prefixes:Prefixes Meaning Examplesun-, dis- negative unhappy .unlucky, uneven;dishonest, disunion,non-, il- disaffection; non-stop, non-party, nonsenseim-, in-, illiterate, illegal, illogical; impossible, improperir- inactive, inaccurate, incapable; irregular

irrational, irresponsible.un-, dis-, reversal, unlock,undo,unpack;disagree,disappear, de-, re- repetition decentralize, demobilize, decontaminate; rewriteanti-, opposite, review, retell; antiwar, antiaircraft, antithesiscounter- meaning counter-attack,counter-weight,counter- revolution

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anti-,ante relationship antechamber, anticipate; ex-president, ex- championex- fore-, in time, ex-manager; foresee, forecast, forefrontpre-, pre-historic,pre-war, precondition; postwarpost- post-graduate, postposition;up-, sub- place upstairs, upgrade, uplift; subdivision, submarine,trans- subtitle; transplant, transatlantic, transcontinental

inter-, manner international, interlace, interrelation, extraordinaryextra-, extramural, extranuclear, withstand, withdrawwith-, co- co-exist, cooperate, co-chairman; endangeren-, em- enable, enclose, embed, empower, emplacement;

super-, degree superman, supernatural, supersonic;over-, overflow, overcoat, oversleep; outweigh,out", outcast, out-distance; undergrowth,under-, underestimate, undersized; ultraviolet,ultra ultramodern, ultraradical; polysyllabic,

poly-,bi- quantity polysemantic; bicycle, bilateral,dis-,duo- dissyllable; duodecimal, duologue,,mono- state monologue, monosyllabic, monolingual.a-, evaluation awake, afresh, anew, aloud, alike, alone,mis- afar, misunderstand, mislead, misbehave

+ Productive and non-productive prefixesNon-productive a- : arise, apathy, anonymous; amphi-( on,both): amphitheatre, amphibious; ab-(from, away): abnormal, abstain; ad-(to, toward): admit, admonish; ante-anti-: antechamber, anticipate; con-, co-(with, together): confrontation, cooperate; de-( down, away): decrease, depart; dis-, di-: disyllable, diphthong; duo- : duodecimal; en-, em- (in, make) :enact, encircle, embark, embargo; fore-: forearm, foretell; forth-:forthcoming, forthright; in-: inmate, insight; on-, (onset, onslaught), per- (thoroughly): perfect, persuade; poly-: polysyllable, polyglot; re-: retract, return; with- withstand, withdraw+ Living (still in use) and dead (out of use) prefixesDead prefixes : a- :aware, awaken, ashamed; circum-(around): circumstance, circumference; op- (against): opposite, oppress

VII Explain the meanings of the following words and phrases(a) a pseudonym : the name that ab author/writer uses instead of their real name

( bí danh , bút danh) Tip : nym~name(b) arch-rivals: the highest-ranking rivals (đại kình địch)

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(c) maladministration : inefficient administration ( quản lý yếu kém , k hiệu quả) (d) out-size clothes: extra-large clothes (XL) ( quần áo ngoại cỡ)(e) malnutrition : poor nutrition ( suy dinh dưỡng) (f) pseudo-religious:pretending to be religious ( giả danh/ lợi dụng tôn giáo) (g) an arch-villain : ??? (h) to outstay your welcome: stay somewhere too long so that people want you to

leave VIII. a- (not, without) hyper- (extremely, too) fore- (before, in front of) neo- (new, revived)(a) The British Museum was built in the middle of the last century in the neo-classical style popular at that time tân cổ điển(b) Who can ………..tell what the future holds for us?(c) It's no use asking him about the political system or the parties. He didn’t know or care. He's completely apolitical ( không quan tâm chính trị , k đảng phái)(d) It's quite normal to complain if you think something is wrong, but I do feel that you are sometimes ……….critical.(e) The authorities are concerned at the activities of a small ………-Nazi movement.(f) You must be very careful what you say about her poems. She's a…….sensitive person.(g) She didn’t know the difference between right and wrong She had no conscience of all. She was simply ……….moral(h) The police claimed that she had some ……….knowledge of the murder attempt and could have prevented it(i) He was standing in the middle, in the ……….ground of the picture.(j) Young children can sometimes be ………..active, which means that they can’t keep still.IX Explain the meanings of the following words and phrases.

(a) neo-imperialism : the modern form of imperialism ( CNĐG kiểu mới) (b) an atheist: s.o who believe that God doesn’t exist ( vô thần) (c) a foretaste : indication of what is to happen in the future(d) a hypermarket : extremely large supermarket like Melinh Plaza(e) hypertension : very high blood pressure ( chứng vô cùng cao huyết áp) (f) a foregone conclusion : a conclusion which was known/expected before (g) an asymmetrical shape : not symetrical/ irregular shape ( bất đối xứng)

(h) a neo-Fascist: the modern/new form of Facist or s.o who support this form. X uni-, mono- (one) duo-, bi- (two) tri- (three) quad-, quart- (four) pent-, quin- (five) sex- (six) sept- (seven) oct- (eight) non- (nine) dec- (ten) cent- (hundred)Complete the words in the passage below

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George Willis was born in 1900 and was too young to go into uniform in the First World War, which took place in the second decade of the century. Instead he finished his schooling and went to university. Like most Oxford colleges, his college was built round a quadrangle and a photograph of him there shows him wearing a monoglass in his eye, one of his many eccentricities-điểm lập dị. He rode a tricycle, declaring it to be safer and more stable than a bicycle. His subject was zoology. Initially he studied biology, but soon tired of two-legged creatures and took an interest in quad…….., developing a special affection for elephants. However, all animal life fascinated him and he was often to be seen in the Oxfordshire countryside, observing wildlife through his bi…….. or setting up his tripod to record it in photographs. Marine creatures also attracted him, especially, for some reason, the octopus . He was also creative in such diverse fields as engineering (he proposed a scheme for monorail transport in London) and music (he formed a jazz sextet , which later became a quintet when the drummer joined the navy, a quartet when the violinist was run over by a bus and a tritet when the trombonist was imprisoned for bigamy). He travelled widely and spoke French so well that he was completely bil ingual. He was a fine sportsman and won many prizes in the pentagon. In 1972, although by this time a septuagenarian, he wrote his first play, a strange piece which consisted of a dueloge between Shakespeare and Churchill. He is still active and talkative, although conversations with him tend to be monolog. He talks and others listen. Always optimistic, he looks forward to continuing his busylite as a nonagenarian and to becoming a centuagenarian. He lives with his wife, a lively octagenarian, and has two sons and a daughter, whose birth as tri in 1927 he describes as the happiest event in his eventful life.

Bigamy /ˈbɪg.ə.mi/the crime of marrying a person while already legally married to someone elseEx: In court, he admitted that he had committed bigamy.Compare: Monogamy Polygamy XI Explain the meanings of the following words.

(a) bicentenary: a 200 anniversary of an event(b) pentagon (c) centenary

(d) tricolour: flag with 3 colors ( cờ tam tài) (e) monotonous (f) decathlon (g) sexagenarian (h) quintuplets(i) bisect: cut, divided into 2 parts

(j) cent: a hundredth of a dollar (k) biplane: aircraft with 2 pair of wings

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(l) bicameral: lưỡng viện ( House of Lords : thượng viện vs House of Commons : hạ viện - UK) In US : + + +King-maker state : bang lập vuaSwing state : bang dao động

(i) unicycle: cycle decided with 1 wheel (n) quadruplets (o) unicorn Practice:Decide which following statement are T or F. If T, give an example. If F, give an explaination

1. The morpheme realization “er” is a derivational morpheme but some cases it is not simply derivational. T

( Hình vị được thể hiện / được nhận ra bằng er là hình vị phái sinh nhưng trong nhiều trường hợp k đơn giản chỉ là hình vị phái sinh) Example : +villager grammar morpheme (person living in a certain place)Or fast-faster+washerman derivational morpheme ( infix –trung tố)

2. The morpheme realization “s” is a derivational morpheme but some cases it is not simply derivational T

Completely similar to the 1st statementExample : +girls+salesman , sportsman , spokesman ( người phát ngôn) , statesman/stateswoman ( nhà chính khách, chuyên gia có uy tín lớn của 1 tổ chức )

3. All root morphemes occur in isolation and function as independent words FRoot morpheme is divided into 2 types : free morpheme and bound morpheme. A free morpheme like boy, table could be a independent word but bound morphemes like ‘ter’ in terrible,terror, terrify could not stand on its own.

4. Affixial morpheme is the lexical centre of the word F Root morpheme is the lexical centre of the word , affixial morpheme just modifies for root morpheme

2. Suffixation

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Classification of suffixes :a. According to the parts of speech+ Noun-forming suffixes-age (state,place,progress,collectiveness) :village,blockage;-al,-ial (act) :refusal,burial;-ance,-ence (act, state, quality, condition)assistance, appearance, existence, audience;-an,-ian (agent, follower, resident) :republican, guardian, Cambodian;-ant,-ent (agent) :assistant, student;-ancy,-ency (state): vacancy, emergency;-ard (depreciatory) :drunkard, coward;-ate (agent, function) :advocate, magistrate;-asm,-ast (state, condition, agent) :enthusiasm, enthusiast;-cy (state, condition, office) :bankruptcy, agency;-dom (state, condition, collectiveness) :freedom, kingdom;-er,-or(agent, instrument, resident) :teacher, cooker, villager, visitor;-ee,-ey,-y (receiver/object/result of action) :employee, attomey, inquiry;-eer (person,profession) :pioneer, engineer;-ess (feminine) :actress, tigress;-eur (person) : amateur;-hood (state, condition) :childhood, neighbourhood;-ice (act, quality, condition) :service, justice;-ics (art, study, science) :phonetics, linguistics;-ie,-y (diminutive) :birdie, granny-ier (agent) -.cashier, -ing (art, fact, activity) : learning, feeling;-ion,-tion (condition, state, result, act) :tension, organization, discussion;-ism,-ist (doctrine, theory, system, result, follower, specialist) :socialism, scientist;-ity (state) :clarity, similarity;-let (small, young) :booklet, piglet; -ling (diminutive) :seedling, duckling; -ment (act, state, progress, result, manner) :statement, agreement, improvement;-mony (state, condition, result) :lestimony, ceremony;-ness (state, quality, condition, degree) goodness, darkness, seriousness;-ology (study, system) :biology, psychology;-or,-our (condition, quality) :error, favour;-ry (state, condition, collectiveness) :machinery .poetry;-ship(state, condition, quality, office, profession) :friendship, citizenship;-ster (agent, depreciatory) :youngster, gangster;-th (state, quality) strength, length; -tude (state, quality) :latitude, attitude; -ty (quality, state, condition) : liberty, poverty; -ure (act, process, state, result, rank) :pleasure, pressure;

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+adjective- forming suffixes-able, -ible (capable of, characterised by quality) :fashionable, possible;-al, -ar, -ic, -ile (capable of, of the nature of, belonging to) :global, classical, circular, popular; necessary, secondary; domestic, historic; mobile, infantile;"an, -ean (originated from, belonging to) :Roman, European;-ent ,-ant (quality) :independent, different;important,distant;-ese (resident) :Vietnamese, Chinese;-fold (having a specified number of): twofold, tenfold;-ish (having a small degree of like) :reddish, foolish;-vie (related to, causing) :active, effective;-less (without, lacking, unable) :useless, harmless; -ful (full of, characterised by): hopeful, careful; -like (resembling) :businesslike, comradelike; -ly (quality, character):friendly, womanly, lovely, lively, silly, sickly, motherly, cowardly, costly; -ous (causing, characterised by) :glorious, dangerous;-some (causing, tending to) :troublesome, lonesome;-ward (in the direction of) :sideward, northward;-y( characterised by) :mighty, needy, hearty, lofty;

+ Numeral-forming suffixes-teen (fifteen), -th (fourth), -ty (sixty)

+ Verb -forming suffixes

-ate (facilitate), -fy (horrify), -en (brighten), -ize (specialize),

vaccinate simplify darken legalize

liberate classify shorten fertilize

+ Adverb -forming suffixes-ly (coldly), -ward (s) (upward (s), -wise (likewise), -long (sidelong), -way(s) (crossways) headlong

b. According to the lexico-grammatical meaning + Abstract nouns : -age, - ance, - ence, -ancy, -ency, -ation, -doom, -cy, -hood, -ing,-ion, -tion, -ism, -ice, -merit, -ness, -ship, -th, -ty+ Personal nouns: -ant,-an, -ian, -ee, -ent, -er, -ier, -ist, -ey,eer+ Feminine nouns: actress, heroine, suffragette, testatrix+ Derogatory suffixes: drunkard, underling, gangster, simpleton+ Diminutive suffixes: auntie, hanky, chicken, booklet

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c. Productive and non-productive suffixes: Non-productive: -ade, -age, -ance, -ant, -ar, -ard, -ate, -cy, -dom, -en, -eer, -ese, - ence, -ean, -fy, -hood, -ier, -ics, -me, -ic, -ian, -ice, -ive, -long, -ly, -ment, -or, -ster,-th, -tude, -ward(s), -wise, -y+ Living and dead suffixes :Dead suffixes : -t (flight, height), -d (deed), -lock (wedlock)

d. Polysemantic suffixes (a great number)-er: doer of the action : speaker, player, teacher person living in a certain place: villager, Londoner device, tool or instrument: eraser, cooker, boiler, starter, screwdriver-y : characterized by : windy, rainy full of, composed of: watery, muddy, sandy, starry intimate : daddy, mummy, dolly resembling : bushy, inky, rosy-ment: state, quality, condition: amazement action: arrangement process, manner, government, development continuance:

Exercises on suffixesI. Deduce the meaning of the following derivatives from the meanings of their constituents. Explain your deduction. What are the meanings of the affixes in the words under examination? reddish, a. ………………………………………………………………………..overwrite, v. ……………………………………………………………………..irregular, a………………………………………………………………………...illegal, a…………………………………………………………………………..retype,v. ………………………………………………………………………….old-womanish, a. …………………………………………………………………disrespectable, a. …………………………………………………………………inexpensive, a. …………………………………………………………………..unladylike, a. …………………………………………………………………….disorganise, v…………………………………………………………………….renew, v. ………………………………………………………………………….eatable, a. ………………………………………………………………………..overdress, v. ……………………………………………………………………...disaffection, n…………………………………………………………………….snobbish, a……………………………………………………………………….handful, n. …………………………………………………………… …………

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tallish, a…………………………………………………………………………..sandy, a. …………………………………………………………………………breakable, a………………………………………………………………………II. Explain the difference between the meanings of the following words produced from the same root by means of different affixes. Translate the words into Vietnamese.watery - waterish, ……………………………………………………………embarrassed - embarrassing. …………………………………………………manly- mannish, ……………………………………………………………colorful - colored, ……………………………………………………………distressed - distressing, ………………………………………………………respected-respectful-respectable………………………………………………exhausting- exhausted, ………………………………………………………bored -boring, ………………………………………………………………..touchy - touched - touching. …………………………………………………III -phobia (fear or hatred of) -cide (killer, killing) -gamy (marriage)Put each of the above suffixes in its correct place in the sentences below.(a) Those rose-bushes need protection. Spray them with insecti……. .(b) He gets very tense and nervous in enclosed spaces like lifts and the underground. He suffers from claustro……. .(c) The custom of having more than one wife or husband is known as ‘poly……’(d) Some people, and some animals, are terrified of water. This aversion is known as aqua……. .(e) His problems overwhelmed him and he finally comitted sui…… .(f) When he was arrested and charged with bi…….., both his wives stood by him.(g) His Anglo……. comes from some bad experiences he had in England.(h) Following the man's death, his wife was charged with homi……. .IV Explain the meanings of the following words and phrases.

(a) germicide (d) a monogamous society(b) xenophobia (e) tratricide(c) patricide (f) agoraphobia

V -maniac (obsessed person) -phile (lover of) -monger (dealer in)Instructions as above.(a) A person who makes and exploits war is called a war…….. .(b) He has always been a biblio……… and has amassed a vast collection of books over the years.(c) He has a shop selling pots and pans, tools and other metal goods.He's an iron…. .(d) He's unbelievably self-centred and arrogant. He's a complete ego…….. .(e) She loved the year she spent in Italy and has been an Italo…….. ever since.(f) Some journalists are perfectly honest and well-meaning but she just makes a profit from gossip and rumour. She’s just a cheap scandal.…….. .

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(g) A klepto……. is a person who has a compulsive desire to steal.(h) His fondness for drink became an addiction, and his doctor says he's now a dipso……… .VI Explain the meanings of the following words and phrases

(a) a pyromaniac (d) an Anglophile(b)Francophilia (e) a mania(a) a fishmonger (f) a film maniac

VII -worthy (deserving, fit for) -like (similar to) -most (furthest) (a) To me, at 14, the film-stars I saw at my local cinema were god…….. creatures. (b) John O'Groats in Scotland is the northern…….. town in mainland Britain.(c) We are pleased to present you with this award for your praise……. work among the poor of this city.(d) In the old days it was not considered lady……… for a woman to smoke in public, if at all.(e) Architecture during that period was very boring. Almost every building was a box-___ structure, with no variation or decoration to please the eye.(f) We're looking for an honest, reliable, trust........ person to handle our legal affairs.(g) He betrayed the inner……. secrets of his country's government to the enemy.(h) A small accident like that won't appear in the papers. It isn't news……. enough.VIII Explain the meanings of the following phrases.

(a) a business-like manner (d) a noteworthy comment(b) his foremost thought (e) a life-like statue(c) a roadworthy car (f) outermost defences

IX -wards(in the direction of) -esque (like, in the manner of) -some (causing, making)(a) I have a backache which is a bit trouble………. at times.(b) He cast his eyes heaven……….. as if imploring God for help or pity.(c) It's very pictur……… here, with the trees attractively framing the view of the river.(d) From Colombia we went south…….. through Equador, Peru and Bolivia to Argentina.(e) Man's first view of the earth from space was an awe…… sight.(f) The back garden faces sea……. so you can always be sure of a pleasant view.(g) I'm afraid I find her constant chatter gets a bit weari.......... after a while.(h) The architecture here is rather Roman……. . Look at the round arches and thick walls.X Explain the meanings of the following phrases

(a) quarrelsome boys (d) a downward movement(b) outwardly confident (e) a tiresome person(c) a statuesque figure (f) a Kafkaesque novel

XI -scape (scenery) -scope (means of observing) -ette, -let, -ling (small)(a) Even the most powerful tele…….. does not make the smallest stars visible. (b) I watched a drop…… of rain move slowly down the window.(c) His most famous sea…. was painted in 1879 and hangs in the National Gallery.(d) A gos…….. is a young goose.

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(e) The award takes the form of a silver statu……. of the Greek god, Adonis.(f) The first television picture of the hitherto mysterious moon……. was the most dramatic sight I have ever seen.(g) His home is in the country and he's wondering if he can afford to buy a flat…. in London too.(h) The crew of a submarine just below the surface can see what is happening above by looking through the peri…… .(i) Travelling by car, you have the chance to stop in the countryside to admire the land……… .XII Explain the meanings of the following words and phrases.

(a) a microscopic insect (d) a kitchenette(b) a piglet (e) a marvellous cloudscape(c) a duckling (f) a booklet

XIII -istMake sentences by connecting each person on the left below with the correct phrase on the right.(a) An ornihologist(b) A philatelist(c) A feminist(d) A numismatist(e) A philanthropist(f) A pathologist(g) A linguist(h) A dramatist(i) A seismologist(j) A manicurist(k) A pharmacist(l) A meteorologist(m) An arsonist(n) A taxidermist(o) A misogynist(p) A somnambulist(q) A Sinologist(r) A chiropodist(s) A graphologist

…….speaks many languages.……performs post-mortems on dead bodies.……is interested in birds.……writes plays.……sets fire to property.……is interested in stamps……stuffs dead animals.……is interested in coins,……believes in equal rights for women,……hates women.……is an expert on China.……gives targe amounts of money to charity.……is an expert on earthquakes……makes up medicines.……looks after people's feet.……looks after people's hands and fingernails.……is a handwriting expert.……studies the weather.……walks in his or her sleep.

III. WORD COMPOSITION1. Definition :A compound word (compound) consists of at least two root morphemes. The components of a compound may be either simple words, derived words or even other compound words, one of which has inflections.

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e.g.(n) blackboards, store-keepers, mothers-in-law, passers-by(v) handwash, handwashes, handwashing, handwashed(adj) heart-breaking, heart-broken, middle-aged, first-rate(adv) meantime, midway, wherever(pr) somebody, anything, whoeve2. Criteriaa. Phonological criterion+ Most of compounds have a stress on the first componente.g. 'classroom, 'greenhouse, "boy-friend, to 'whitewash, to'bottlefeed, "snub- nosed, 'forget-me-not, 'mothers-in-law, 'passer-by, 'dancing-girl cf. free word groups : a green 'house, a dancing 'girl e.g. A : Look at that beautiful dancing 'girl. B : She's a well-known 'dancing-girl.If you don't drive the 'bluebottle away, I will throw the blue 'bottle on your face .+ Some compounds have double stress (even stress)eg. 'good'egg, 'bread-and-' butter, 'gray-'green, 'easy'going, 'happy-go-'lucky, 'new-'born, "self-'control, 'All- 'Fools- 'Day, 'passenger 'train, 'merry-go- 'round.+ Stress helps to differentiate the meaninge.g. 'over-work (viÖc lµm thªm), 'over-'work (viÖc qu¸ søc)'bookcase (tñ/gi¸ s¸ch), 'book'case (b×a bäc s¸ch),man'kind (loµi ngêi), 'mankind (nam giíi, ®µn «ng)b. Criterion of the structural integrityCompounds are indivisible and it is impossible to insert any other words . Endings are added to the whole word.e.g. black-markets, blackbirds, blackmail, blacklist, blacklegs, red-tape, fair- hairedc. Criterion of semantic integrityThe meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, i.e. the meaning of the whole compound is not a mere sum of the meanings of its components like in a free word group.e.g. dirty work (dishonorable proceedings)fuss-pot (person easily excited and nervous about trifles)slow-coach (person who thinks and acts slowly)chatterbox (person who talks a great deal without saying anything important)blue-stocking woman (woman who affects literary tastes and learning)lip-service (superficial service from the lips only)lip-reading (interpretation of the motion of the lips)lipstick (a stick of cosmetics for redding the lips)

d. Graphic (spelling) criterionA compound can be spelt in three ways : with a hyphen between two components, with break and without break.e.g. air-line, air line, airlinematch-box, match box, matchbox

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Few compounds have connective elements (infixes).e.g. statesman, handicraft, savings-bank, goods-train, Anglo-Saxon

3. Classificationa. Structural classification+ According to the structure of the immediate components- simple stems : handbag, film-star- derived stems : skyscraper, long-legged, ill-mannered, teenager- abbreviated stems : maths -teacher, H-bomb, X-ray- at least one compound stem: aircraftcarrier, waste paper basket- v + adv : break-down, cut-back+ According to the part of speech- compound nouns : girlfriend, greengrocer, splashdown- compound adjectives : red-hot, peace-loving, man-made, middle-aged- compound verbs : to whitewash, to carpet- bomb, to streamline- compound adverbs : whole-heartedly, shamefacedly, self-confidently- compound prepositions : onto, into, hereafter+ According to the type of composition- compounds formed by juxtaposition : backache, heart-broken, railroad- compounds formed by morphological means (with an infix}: spokesman, Affo- Asian, speedometer. - compounds formed by syntactical means:(word group —> compound ): up-to-date, forget-me-not, cash-and-carry- compounds formed by morphological and syntactical means :kind-hearted : with a kind heartblue-eyed : with blue eyesteenager : a person in his teens+ According to the relation between components- Coordinative components (both are independent) :socio- economical, brainmaster, mother-earth, parent-teacher- Subordinative components (one component dominates over the other): wrist-watch, gate-keeper, spaceship.

b. Semantic classification+ Non-idiomatic (morphologically motivated): The meaning of the whole can deduced from the meanings of the components : door-handle, headache, rose-bush, life-boat, bedroom, sunlight.+ Idiomatic (non-motivated): no semantic relation between components:nightmare, lotus-eater, lip-service, eyewash, horse-sense, monkey-business.c. Phonetic classification:They are reduplicative compounds which fall into three subgroups :

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+ reduplicative compounds proper: hush-hush, pooh-pooh, murmur, quack-quack, puff-puff, fifty-fifty.+ ablaut combinations: the second basic morpheme is repeated with a different vowel: sing-song, chit-chat, ding-dong, ping-pong, zip-zag, tip-top.+ rhyme combinations: two pseudo- morphemes is joined to rhyme : walkie-talkie, willy-nilly, hotch-potch, hurry-scurry, lovey-dovey.

How to make Compound wordsA compound word is formed by the juxtaposition of two or more words together to make a new one.1. Compound nounsa) Noun and noun b) adjective and noun

Horse-race sweetheartRace-horse gentlemanFootball midnightMoonlight quicksilver

c) Verb and nouns d) Gerund and noun Tell-tale looking-glass Pickpocket dotting -paper Stopcock reading -clamp Railroad writing- tablee) Participle and noun. f) Verb and adverb. Singing-bird drawback Running-hand keepsake Flying-machine send-off Moving-pictures go-between g) Adverb and verb h)preposition(or adverb) and noun Income afternoon Outcome forethought Upstart upland Offshoot insidei,Several words together forget-me-not note-of-hand stick-in-the-mud2. Compound adjectivesa) Noun and adjective b) noun and present participle Sky- blue money-making Homesick man-eating Airtight heart-rending

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c) Noun and past participle d)noun and imitation of past participle Hand-made earth-coloured Heart-broken lion-hearted Horse-drawn long-tonguede) Adjective and adjective f) adjective and present participle Ready-made ill-smelling Red-hot sweet-smelling High-born dull-looking g) Adjective and past participle h) adjective and imitation of past participle Ill-bred old-fashioned Ill-gotten quick-eared White-washed slow-wittedi) Adverb and present participle j) adverb and past participle Hard-working out-spoken Long-suffering well-worn Ever-lasting well-known

k) Several words together Up-to-date Up-to-the-minute Well-to-do Hole-and-glove Hand-to-hand3. Compound verbsa) Noun and verb b) adjective and verb Waylay whitewash Typewrite safeguard Henpeck dry-cleanc) Adverb and verb d) verb and adverb Upset turn over Backslide put on Overhear switch off4. Compound adverbsa) Adjective and noun b) adverb and position Midway herein Otherwise therefore Meantime hereaboutc) Noun and noun sidewards Lengthways Clockwise

IV. SHORTENINGA very productive way of word building used in colloquial speech, documents and advertisements.

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Types of shortening:1. Abbreviationa. Acronyms: words built from the initials of components+ Monograms:UK: The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandGB: Great BritainUSA: The United States of AmericaUNO: United Nations OrganizationUNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization,UNICEF: United Nations Children's Emergency FundUNFPA: United Nations Fund for Population ActivitiesESCAP: Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the PacificWHO/OMS: World Health Organization/ Organization Mondiale de la Sante'OPEC: Organization of Petroleum Exporting CountriesNATO: North Atlantic Treaty OrganizationTV: televisionVIP: very important personMP: Member of Parliament, Military Police, Mounted PoliceGNP: gross national productGDP: gross domestic productSOS: Save our soulsPOW: prisoner of warMIA; missing -in-actionGPO: General Post OfficeGIs, GI's: government issues, US soldiersBBC: British Broadcasting CorporationVOA: Voice of AmericaRAF: Royal Air ForceUSAF; United States Air ForceSALT: Strategic Arms Limitation TalksF: FahrenheitC: Celsius, centigrade41BC: the year 41 before ChristAD185: (L. Anno Domini) in the year 185 of the Christian eraH: hydrogenO: oxygenCl: ChlorineNa: (L. natrium) sodiumetc.: etcetera; and so oni.e.: (L. id est) that is (to say)eg. (L. exempli gratia) for exampleibid. ( L. ibidem) in the same book, chapter, page, etc. quoted before

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op.cit. (L. opere citato) in the work citedet al. (L. et alii) and othersviz. (L. videlicet) that is, namelyNos. : numbersc/o: care ofv/vs: versusw/o: withoutam: (L. ante meridiem) before noonpm: (L. post meridiem) after noonh: hourmin: minutesec:secondml: millilitrekg: kilogrammecc: cubic centimetre; chapterspp: pages, past participlell: linesff: following (pages, lines, etc.)nn: notescf: compareR.S.V.P./ r.s.v.p.: (Fr. Reppondez s'il vous plait) please replyCOD/c.o.d.: cash on delivery f.o.b.: free on board Co.: companyCorp.: corporationInc. included, including, incorporatedLtd.: limited fax (facsimile)BA: Bachelor of ArtsBSc: Bachelor of ScienceMA: Master of ArtsMSc: Master of ScienceLitt.B.: Bachelor of Letters, Bachelor of LiteratureMBA's: Master of Business AdministrationPh.D.: Doctor of PhilosophyMFA: Master of Fine ArtsFDR: Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1882-1945) 32nd US President.JFK: John Fitzgerald Kennedy (1917-1963) 35th US President.I.O.U: I owe youJeep: general purpose carRadar: radio detection and rangingLaser: light amplification by stimulated emission of radiationSonar: sound navigation and ranging

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Scuba: self-contained under-water breathing apparatus+ Homonymy-based acronyms: I.O.U

b. Clipping+initial: car (motor car), plane (air plane), phone (telephone), bus(omnibus) drome (airdrome).+ final: exam(examination), lab(laboratory), prof (professor), doc(document), ad (advertisement), ref(reference, referee, refund, reformer),vet (veteran, veterinarian),poppopular), prefab(prefabricated building materials), fig (figures, figurative), fan(fanatic), veg (vegetarian), gym(gymnastics), bull(bulletin), str(street), sec(second), h(hour), min(minute), Co(Company), Corp(Corporation), Inc.(Incorporated) , incl(included, inclusive), repoff (representative office), Lat(Latin), Gr(Greek), BrE(British English), AmE(American English); Jan(January), Feb(February), Nov (November) ; Hon(Honorable), Rev. (Reverend), rev.(revenue)Sen-(Senator, senior), Jr.(junior), Esq.(Esquire) + inito-final: fridge( refrigerator), flu(influenza), tec(detective).+medial: maths(mathematics), specs(spectacles), V-day(Victory Day), H-bomb(Hydrogen bomb), fancy(fantacy), Mr.(Mister), Mrs., Mmes. Ms.(Messrs, Messieurs), Dr(Doctor), St(Saint), Rd(Road), ma'am(madam), sec'y(secretary), ass'n (association), dep't (department), agcy(agency), ltd.(limited)

+ elliptic-conversational: sit-down(demonstration), pop(popular music), perm(permanent wave, prelim(preliminary examination), coed(coeducational school or college), pram(perambulator), demob(demobilization).

2. Blending: parts of two words merge into a new word: brunch (breakfast + lunch), smog( smoke+fog), telecast(tele-broadcast), medicare ( medical care),telex (telegramme express), motel (motorists' hotel), transreceiver (transmitter-receiver), fruice (fruit juice)

V. CONVERSIONProcess of coining a new word in a different part of speech without adding any element (zero derivation). Reason : lack of affixesTypes of conversion : 1. Substantivation of adjectives : (adj n) and verbs ( v n)- a native , a female, a relative, a daily, elastic, a private, an intellectual, a criminal, a conservative, a radical, a red, a grown-up.- the blind, the rich, the happy, the good.- a go, a find, black-out, take-over, a stand, a must, a walk, a move.

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2. Adjectivization of nouns (n adj)a silver cup, a gold ring, an iron knife.3. Verbalization of nouns or adjectives (n/adj v)to hand, water, land, pocket, arm, elbow, silence, skin, bottle, railroad, honeymoon, rubber-stamp, machine-gun, head, eye, finger, fish, shoulder, better, black, up, down, lower, narrow, clear, clean, cool, quiet4. Adverbalization of adjectives (adj adv)fast ,long, high, pretty, hard, wrong, dead5. Partial conversion to have a look/ talk/ smoke/ swim/ wash/ chat/ drink/ sleep/ dance/ restto give a ring/kick/ blow/ cry/ laugh/ whistle/jerk/jump/start/ answerto take a ride / walk/ the leadto make a move/dive/request/suggestion/ attempt/agreement6. Individual coinage in conversation'Hello, dear!' He hello-deared everybody.I'm tired of his 'hello-dear'.

VI. SOUND AND STRESS INTERCHANGE1. Sound interchangefood-feed, speak-speech, life-live, advice-advise, bath-bathe, belief-believe, proof-prove, loss-lose; long-length, wide-width, deep-depth, strong-strength, full- fill, sing-song, high-height.2. Stress interchange'accent(n) ac'cent(v) 'frequent(adj) fre'quent(v)'conduct con'duct 'absent ab'sent'decrease de'crease 'perfect per'fect'object ob'ject 'concrete con'creteHowever, many disyllable verbs and nouns have the same stress :- on the first syllable : exile, figure, preface, quarrel, focus, process, program, triumph, rivet, etc...- on the second syllable : accord, account, advance, amount, approach, attack, attempt, concern, defeat, distress, escape, exclaim, research, etc...

VII. SOUND IMITATION (onomatopoeia / echoism)- Sound and movement of water : babble, blob, bubble, flush, gurgle, gush, splash, etc...- Sound and movement of things :bang, boom, bump, clash, crash, clink, hum, rattle, rustle, smack, thud, tinkle, whack, whick, whip, etc...

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- Sound expressing human feelings : babble, chatter, coe, jabber, giggle, grumble, grunt, hum, murmur, mutter, smack, whine, whisper, titter, etc...Sound produced by animals, birds, insects: bee-buzz, hum tiger-roar wild goose-honk frog - croak dog- bark, woof cock- crow crow-croak cat-mew, purr hen-cackle snake-hiss mouse-squeak cow/ox-moo bird-twitter, chirp pig-squeak, grunt buffalo-snortwolf- howl duck - quack horse- neighlion- roar goose- honk mosquitoes-buzzmonkey-jabber

VIII. BACK FORMATION/ BACK DERIVATION:Building of a new word by subtracting a real or supposed affix from the existing word:beggar to beg house-breaking to house-breakbaby-sister to baby-sit house-keeping to house-keepeditor to edit tape-recorder to tape-recordescalator to escalate trouble-shooter to trouble-shootbrainwashing to brainwash window-shopping to window-shopair-conditioner to air-condition

More exercises on word formation

I. Rewrite the following sentences below forming a compound adjective from the underlined words.

1. Then entered a man with a pale face2. She has just bought a pair of gloves knitted by hand3. He went hunting but returned with his hand empty4. They have just invented a material proof against fire5. The man was proved to be a murderer thirsty for blood6. He behaves like a man with a mind of a child7. The crow was stricken with panic by the storm8. She felt sick from the sea travel as she was on the voyage for the first time 9. The southern off shore waters were found rich of oil10. Their teacher was a man with kind heart11. She was wearing shoes with high heels12. This coat in expensive because it is proof against bullet13. He only works part of the time

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14. This is a piece of work that consumes a lot of time.15. Suddenly appeared a beautiful girl with curly hair.

II. Explain the meaning of the underlined words.1. The clerk was eyeing him expectantly.2. An aggressive man battled his way to Stout's side 3. How on earth do you remember to milk the cows ?4. Restaurants in all large cities have their ups and downs.5. Ten minutes later I was speeding along in the direction of Cape Town 6. "A man could be very happy in a home like this if he didn't have to poison his days with work,"said Jimmy.7. The desk clerk handed me the key.8, The upshot seemed to be that I was left to face life with the sum of $ 1249, My seat was in the middle of the row .I couldn't leave without inconveniencing a great many people , so I remained.10, Under the cover of that protective din he was able to toy with a steaming dish which his waiter had brought.

III. Replace the underlined words by one word.1. He was nominated to be at the head of the army.2. She wanted to be a star in a new film 3. They decided to lay the resolution on the table 4. They put up prices as inflation increased.5. She turned a cold shoulder on him.

Word FormsFill each space in the sentences below with the correct form of the word in bold print above it. E.g. decide(a) We must come to a …….. very soon.(b) We beat them ……….. . We won 7-0.(c) He can never make up his mind. He's very ……….Answers: (a) decision (b) decisively (c) indecisive1 beauty(a) She is very ………….(b) She's training to be a ………….(c) They're going to…………… the town with more trees and parks.2 pay(a) To buy this car I made a monthly ………….of $280 for two years.(b) Please make your cheque ………….. to John Watson.(c) The person a cheque is made out to is called the …………..

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3 receive(a) She works as a ………… at a hotel in Scotland.(b)' Ask for a ………………when you buy something, in case you need to return it.(c) I made several suggestions to improve production, but the management was not very ……………… to my ideas.4 hero(a) He received a medal for his ………………..(b) They fought …………. in the war.(c) She was described as a……………..5 produce(a) …………… of the new sports car has been halted by a strike.(b) China is one of the world's leading …………….. of rice.(c) I'm afraid the talks were totally…… . We didn't reach agreement on anything.6 explain(a) An …………….. leaflet is given to all purchasers of the machine.(b) His disappearance is very strange, in fact quite …………………. .(c) I think you owe me an ……………….. for your behaviour.7 compare(a) This is ……………… better than that. In fact, there is really no……………….. .(b) Scientists have made ………………. tests on the new drugs.8 advise(a) Until the situation has settled down, it is ………………… to travel to that country.(b) The government set up an ……………… body on 'he upc of drugs in sport. (c) I doubt the …………of drinking alcohol while undergoing that medical treatment.9 admirea) She was a pleasant, attractive girl, always surrounded by ………………...(h) I am full of ……………… for what she has achieved.(c) I approves of him wholeheartedly. He is an ………………… man.10 stable(a) To ……………… the boat in rough sea, we redistributed the weight.(b) Between 1860 and 1900 the country had a number of revolutions and uprisings. It was a time of great …………………… .(c) The exchange rate is going up and down dramatically. It's very …… at the moment.

11 economy(a) We're spending too much. We must …………………...(b) This car uses a lot of petrol. It's terribly ……………………..(c) The Chancellor (Minister of Finance) is responsible for ………………….. affairs.

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12 reside(a) Buckingham Palace is the Queen's official ……………………. in London.(b) There's no industry or entertainment here. It's a …………………….. district.(c) All ………………….. of the neighbouring houses were warned of the gas leak.13 comfort(a) In that tense situation I found the good news very ………………………(b) I felt rather ……., so I put a soft cushion behind me.(c) She sat in terrible ………………….. on the hard chair for over an hour14 dead(a) The increasing number of ….. in traffic accidents is alarming.(b) Be careful! That's a ………….. poison!(c) The doctor gave him an injection to ………….. the pain.15 demonstrate(a) The ………………… marched through the streets chanting slogans(b) Grandfather rarely showed the affection he felt for his family. He was a very …………………. person.(c) What you say is ……………….. false. Let me show you the facts.16 imitate(a) The bag is made of …………………. leather.(b) Small children are very …………… in their behaviour. They just copy what they see.(c) His acting style is …………………. No one can copy him.17 argue(a) She had an ……………….. with her husband last night.(b) He's s very bad-tempered, ……………………. chap. He's always quarrelling(c) She is ……………….. the finest pianist in the world.18 repeat(a) He lost his temper and used disgusting, ………………… language.(b) In this essay you've said the same thing several times. It's very ………………….(c) I hope there will be no …………….. of this shocking behaviour.19 fall(a) She is very efficient and ………polite to the customers.(b) He considered himself a……….. He had succeeded in nothing.(c) It was difficult to see much in the ……………….. light.20 courage(a) His friends tried to ………………… him from attempting the dangerous climb.(b) She ………………… stood in the way of the escaping robbers.(c) His parents gave him a lot of …………………… in his studies.21 real

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(a) I think it's a bit ……………….. to hope that world peace can be gained so easily.(b) He spends all his time in romantic daydreams. He's lost touch with ……………….(c) Ladies and gentlemen, I am a ……………. and I think we must face facts.22 false(a) She was accused of ………………….. the financial accounts.(b) It is a ………………. to say he did it when you know he didn’t.(c) The ………………….. of his argument was obvious to everyone.23 prophesy(a) I am not a ___ and I would not like to make a …………. on whether the world can survive this age of nuclear weapons.(b) What he wrote in 1930 was ………… . Much of what he described has come true.24 describe(a) The damage caused by the earthquake cannot be imagined. It was ………………...(b) The teacher asked them to write a ………… passage about their home towns.(c) The witness was able to give a full ………………….. of the wanted man.25 friend(a) The ………………… between the two soon developed into love.(b) In London she was ……………………by a rich woman who looked after her and helped her.(c) The desert is a dangerous, ……………………. place.26 sense(a) He felt a strange, painful …………………… in his back.(b) Even the most …………………… person ought to appreciate the beauty of this music.(c) What an idiotic, ……………………. thing to do!27 famous(a) The ………………….. of the Beatles soon spread outside Britain.(b) The day of the massacre will go down in history as a terrible, ……………. day. It was a day of …………………………….28 defend(a) I just want to ask you a few ordinary questions, so why don't you relax? Why are you so ……………………?(b) The government's policy on arms is shocking. It is quite …………..(c) We must do all we can for the ……………….. of this nation against possible attack29 agree(a) What an unpleasant, ………… old woman she is!(b) We finally reached ………………….. on the matter at midnight.(c) I liked the place. I found the people, the weather and the food very …………..

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30 possess(a) In his will he left all his money and ………………….. to his wife.(b) She was a very ……………… mother. She gave her son very little freedom.(c) The actor playing the main part should be the ………………. of a very good voice, good looks and a very strong physique.31 different(a) I'm afraid I have to …………………. . I don't agree with you at all.(b) Politeness is one thing. Real kindness is another. You must learn to …………. between the two.(c) We get along pretty well, although of course we have our ……………….. from time to tine.32 active(a) The firm maintained that the strike was organized by a group of political …………...(b) The fire-prevention system is ……………… by any small increase in temperature.(c) It is quite safe to go near the volcano. It has been ……………… for years.33 form(a) It is especially important for children to have love and affection in their ……….. years.(b) The slight ……….. in his left hand was corrected by surgery.(c) The police are considering the ……………….. of a new anti-drugs unit.34 compel(a) Military service is no longer .............. in Britain(b) Membership of the Students' Club is entirely voluntary. There is no ………… whatsoever.(c) All staff should attend the meeting. Only the most ……… reasons for absence will be accepted.35 enthusiasm(a) They threw themselves ………… into the new project(b) He's a real golf …………… . He loves the game(cj They didn't really ………… over my idea. In fact there was some opposition.36 create(a) lan Fleming, the ………... of James Bond, died in 1964.(b) Although she is very able technically, she isn't …… enough forthis kind of work.(c) The ………... of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization took place in1949.37 necessary(a) We regret that the present economic difficulties will ………….a reduction in our work force.(b) I sympathize with his point of view, but I don't always…… agree with him,

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(c) He lives very simply, with just the basic ........ of life,38 destroy(a) The control centre is deep underground and completely ……….except by a direct hit from a nuclear missile.(b) War plans include the immediate ………….... of all enemy military bases.(c) His criticism of my work was entirely ………... There was nothing useful or constructive in it at all.39 manage(a) Talks between workers and ……………… have broken down and a strike now seems unavoidable.(b) The boy was very violent and his parents found him …………………..(c) To improve his qualifications he's taking a course in …………………. skills.40 believe(a) It was an incredible story, quite …………………...(b) She is a person of very strong religious ………………………...(c) His explanation was obviously false and the judge made no attempt to hide his …….

CONVERSION

1. Explain the meanings of the underlined nouns1. He is a liberal. 2. He is such a dear. 3. We are all equals. 4. You needn't go into particulars of the case. 5. There are two large stands for paper in the room . 6. It was always a must with him. 7. The night watch rushed to his help. 8. She couldn't turn the switch. 9. The station is half-an-hour's walk from our house. 10. You are still worrying yourself with stupid ifs and wheres.

2. Express the following in one word :to become/make quiet to become/ make dull to become pale to make empty to make tame

3. Explain the meaning of the underlined verbs:

1- He cleaned the suit. 2. The bright light blinded him. 3. The trees began to thin out. 4.

Their methods were bettered. 5. She busied herself with papers.

4. Express the following in one word :

1. to strike with a hammer ; 2. to stir with a spoon ; 3. to fasten something with buttons 4.

to mark with a brand; 5. to cover something with sand.

5. Explain the meaning of the underlined verbs :

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a. to anger one's mother; to chair a meeting; to book a passenger; to elbow one's way; to

head a delegation

b. She upped and threw a teapot at him. He upped and awayed to London. 3. He had

never outed before. 4. They downed the tools. 5. The boy downed his drink.

6. Form partial conversion with the following verbs, using the verbs 'to have', 'to take',

"to give', 'to make'

to smile ........................ to drink ...............................

to kiss............................... to attempt.............................

to breathe ....................... to sleep .…………………..

to advice .......................... to request…………………

to support...................... to suggest…………………

Lecture III: SEMASIOLOGY (SEMANTICS)

Semasiology (Gr. semasia-signification + sema-sign) a branch of language study dealing with the word meaning, esp. lexical meaning only.I. Type of meaning

Word meaning

Gram.meaning Lexical meaning

functional words notional words

Lexical meaning

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Denotational connotational (denote) (how to denote)

abstract things concrete things

significative demonstrativebeauty table

emotion: daddy-fathers speaker's evaluation: clique-group intensity: adore-love social stylistic colouring:

sphere lay-kill

semantic structure

Monosemantic words polysemantic words

( few ) (majority )

primary/direct/ secondary/indirect/ literal meaning derived/transferred figurative meaning

(no context) (in context/combined with other words)

head headtable table

e.g. He's the head of the army.He did his best to keep the table amused.

Motivation of words

Motivation

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(direct relationship)

Morphological M. Phonetical M. Semantic M.(morph. structure+ (phonetic structures + (direct/literal meanings+meaning) meaning) indirect/ figurative meaning)teacher bang the foot of the mountainaircraft carrier tick-tack the head of a page(easily guess the mew the heart of the matterword's meaning) (imitate the sound) (figurative meaning)

II. POLYSEMY

1. Polysemy and Context

Context: - environment which helps us to understand the meaning of a word.

- the minimal stretch of speech that determines each meaning of a word.

Context

linguistic non- linguistic(situational)

lexical grammaticaleg.+ Grammatical context (syntactical structure) I couldn't make him understand a word I said. Yesterday I gave her a ring and asked her to go out with me.She went to visit her aunt in late summer.+ Lexical context (polysemy)black thoughts/despair (sad, dismal)black days/period (unhappy, full of hardships)yellow look/mood/feelings (jealous, envious, suspicious)the yellow press (unscrupulously sensational)+ Non- linguistic context (actual situation)Polysemy exists only in language, not in speech. A word can only have one meaning in speech.eg. to set has 126 meanings in maximumI won't set my foot in his house.You must set your name to this document.The machine was set in motion.

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They set the value of this picture at a sum of USD 20,000.

2. Types of polysemy:a. Radial polysemy: all the transferred meanings are formed on the basis of one literal/direct meaning.eg: table

2 1. a thin flat piece of stone/metal/wood with four legs2. part of a machine tool, on which the work is operated

3<— 1 —> 5 3. a level area, a plateau4. the persons seated at a table

4 He made the whole table roar with laughtereg. table 5. the food on a table

b. Chain polysemy: the second meaning is formed on the basis of the first, the third on the basis of the second, and so on.eg. head 1 2 31. part of the body; 2. a human being; 3. a leader/chiefThere is semantic relation between different meanings (lit + fig) of a word.

III. HOMONYMY1. DefinitionHomonyms (Gr. homes (similar) + onoma (name)): words identical in pronunciation and/or spelling, but different in meaning. They are not connected semantically (They have no semantic relation). They are quite different words.eg. He ran fast (quickly)They stand fast. (firmly)Who feasts till he is sick, must fast till he is well. (go without food) (proverb)A clean fast is better than a dirty breakfast (proverb)2. Types of homonymsHomonyms are classified into:a- according to form:+ Full/perfect homonyms: words identical both in pronunciation and spelling. Theyare of the same part of speech.e.g. ball: a round object used in games.ball: gathering of people for dancingseal: a sea animalseal: a design printed on paper by means of a stamp.+ Partial homonyms: words identical both in pronunciation and/or spelling. They are homonymous only in some of the forms of their respective paradigms. They may be found both within the same part of speech and in different parts of speech.eg. to found - (he) foundpail (n) - pale (adj)

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lie, lied, lied lie, lay, lain lay, laid, laidb. according to meaning:+ Lexical homonyms: words of the same part of speech, but of different meanings and there is no semantic relation between them.eg. match: que diªm; trËn ®Êuboard: tÊm v¸n, boong tµu, ñy banspring: mïa xu©n, suèi, lß so+ Grammatical homonyms: words of different parts of speech .eg. work (n) - work (v) asked (simple past) - asked (PII)

brothers - brother's light (n) - light (adj)From a different angle, homonyms are classified into:+ Homophones: words identical in pronunciation, but different or coincidental in spelling.eg. son - sun air - heir night - knight

ear - ear not - knot buy - by - byerace - race piece - peace write - right - rite

+ Homographs: words of the same spelling, but of different pronunciation.eg. tear/ti∂/ - tear /te∂/ bow /b∂u/ - bow / bau/

wind/wind/ - wind/waind/ lead /li:d/ - lead / led /

3. Discrimination between polysemy and homonymyIn some cases it is rather difficult to tell polysemantic words from homonyms.Different criteria of discrimination can be used.a. Semantic criterion: connection between meaningsHomonyms Polysemantic wordsgame: trß ch¬i, cuéc thi ®Êu hand: part of bodygame: thó s¨n help

skill pointer of a clock

b. Derivational criterion: homonyms have their own derivation.eg. air - aircraft, airfield, airlineair (suggestive appearance) - no derivativesto have an air of importanceto put on airsto put on an air of innocencec. Criterion of synonyms: homonyms have different synonyms.eg. bay (n) - syn. gulfbay (n) syn. barkingd. Criterion of combination: homonyms have different valency (combination ability) or different paradigms.eg. game, games: trß ch¬i, thi ®Êu long(adj)- longer, longestgame: thó s¨n long (v)- longed, longing

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IV. SYNONYMY1. DefinitionSynonyms are words (two or more) of the same part of speech, similar in their denotational meaning, but different in their phonetic and graphic forms, connotational meaning and combinability.eg. to help, to aid, to assist to succour main, chief, principalUsually in such a synonymic group, there is a synonymic dominant which is the most general, neutral word.English vocabulary is extremely rich in synonyms, mainly due to the abundant amount of borrowings- There are about 8,000 synonymic groups in English.2. Types of synonyms+ Absolute synonyms: words having the same denotational and connotational meanings. They are few in number. This is a result of borrowing and territorial synonyms.eg. Br E - team (in a football match) Am E - squad

luggage baggage autumn fall lift elevator

flat apartment+ Semantic synonyms: words differing in shades of meaningeg. beautiful, pretty, good-looking, nice, lovely, fairto ask, to beg, to entreat, to ask, to question, to interrogate+ Stylistic synonyms: words belonging to different stylistic layers, differing in emotive value, expressiveness.eg. policeman - bobby (colloq.) - cop (sl)father - dad (colloq.) - daddy (colloq., emotional)man - fellow, chap (colloq), ladto begin - to commence (lit., official)- Euphemisms: words or expressions synonymous to those denoting unpleasant notions or processes and sounding pleasant or basing on the desire not to hurt other people's feelings.eg. to die - to pass away, to depart this life/worlddead - late, deceased to dismiss —to sack, fire,corpse - remains poor - underprivilegedcrisis -recession, slow-down, depression drunk-merry, intoxicated+ Semantic-stylistic synonyms: words differing both in shades of meaning and stylistic aspect.eg. house - shack, slum, pad (sl.)to dismiss, to sack, to fire, to expel, to lay off, to kick out (sl)+ Phraseological synonyms: words differing in their combinability.eg. do exercises make money native tongue foreign language

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to raise/lift a finger to raise prices/wages/questionsto say smth (to sb) to tell sb smth

V. ANTONYMY1. DefinitionAntonyms are words of the same part of speech, but opposite in meaning.Many words, especially those denoting concrete objects (chair, tree, tiger) have no antonyms. Usually adjectives denoting qualities, verbs denoting actions or state and abstract nouns have antonymseg. old - young ; give - take ; joy - sorrowPolysematic words may have different antonyms for different meanings.eg. a dull pupil - a bright pupila dull book - an interesting booka dull knife - a sharp knifedull colours - bright colours2. Types of antonymsa. Antonyms proper: words of different forms and having completely opposite meaningseg. old - young; kind - cruelb. Derivational antonyms: two words of the same root, one of which having a negative affix.eg. appear - disappear pleasant - unpleasant

logical - illogical regular - irregularuseful - useless normal - abnormal

VI. DEVELOPMENT OF MEANING (SEMANTIC CHANGE)Although many words appear in the English language by means of word building proper (word derivation and word composition), a still greater number of new words are created by means of the so-called semantic change or development of meaning.A. Main ways of semantic change.

1. Extension /generalization of meaningExtension: the number of meanings of the same word can be expended, which leadsto polysemy. eg. ready - OE (be prepared for a ride) - Mod E ready (be prepared for anything) pipe - OE pipe (a musical instrument) - Mod E pipe (any long hollow tube)Generalization: not only the word widens its meaning but passes from specialized vocabulary into commonly used one.eg. camp (mil): place where troops are lodged in tents temporary quarters.

greedy : hungry eager to obtain and keepboot - legger: an illegal dealer in liquor an illegal dealer

2. Narrowing/ specialization of meaning

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Narrowing: the narrowing of the number of meanings that a word expresses eg. meat: - OE mete (food in general) - Mod E meat (animal flesh as food)

queen: -OE swen (wife) - Mod E queen (king's wife)deer : -OE deor (animal) - Mod E deer (con h¬u)

Specialization : development of meaning from the more general to the more specific eg. girl: -OE gor - ME girle (child) - Mod E (female child/young woman)

starve: -OE steofan (die) -Mod E starve (die of hunger/suffer from hunger/feel very hungry).3. Degradation of meaningSome words have got less nice emotive meaningeg. knave: - OE cnafa (boy, servant) - Mod E knave (unprincipled or dishonest man)artful: L artis (art) - OE - ME - Mod E artful (of person/action; crafty, deceitful)4. Elevation of meaningSome words have got more pleasant ant nicer emotive meanings.eg. noble : L (g) nobitis - OFr - ME - (aristocratic) - Mod E (lofty)minister : L minister (servant, attendant) - OFr - ME - Mod E (head of a state department/ministry)

B. Transference of meaningA word is said to be used in a transferred meaning when it is meant to refer simultaneously to the object or, notion which it generally denotes and to another object or notion which is in some way related with the first one on the basis of similarity or association.Transference from literal meaning to figurative meaning is expressed by the figures of speech.The most popular figures of speech are : metaphor, metonymy, hyperbole and irony1. Metaphor (Gr .meta = change +phero = bear)Metaphor : a figure of speech based on similarity (hidden comparison between the object/notion generally denoted by the word and the object/notion in question.).Metaphor gives freshness and vivacity to speech.a. Types of similarity+ similarity of appearance: (like part of the body)leg of a table, needle's eye, arm of a chair/a river, mouth of a river, tongues of a flame.+ similarity of shape: head of cabbage, teeth of a saw, nose of a plane, bottle neck.+ similarity of size: midget submarine, elephantine task, jumbo jetplane. + similarity of position: foot of the mountain/hill /page, head/ tail of a procession,bottom of a page. + similarity of movement: caterpillar of a tank, to worm, foxtrot + similarity of function: head of school/delegation/army, key to the mystery/ a problem+ similarity of colour: an orange coat, rosycheeks, lips+ similarity of sound : The room rang. The hall roared with laughter+ similarity of quality : a lion, a fox, a bee/beaver, a filmstar

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+ similarity of behaviour: a snake, crocodile's tears, an angel, a bookworm, a wirepuller, an Othello, a Cicero.+ Some metaphoric words are the result of the transfer of space relation upon psychological and mental notions (relation between concrete and abstract) : to catch/grasp an idea, to take a hint, to throw light upon life span.b. Types of metaphor+ Living metaphor; expression of individual vision or in poetry'She lent wings to his imagination...' (J. London) 'Peace is our fortress' ... And the winds are rude in Biscay's sleepless bay And beyond them stood the forest, Stood the groves of singing fine-trees Green in summer, white in winter,Ever sighing, ever sighing. (H. Longfellow) + fade (trite) metaphor: that has lost its freshness.Her voice is sweet, fruitful effortHe's an Othello, golden youth+ dead metaphor: no longer felt as a metaphorto ponder : L. ponderare (to weigh) - Mod E (to think over, to consider+ sustained /prolonged metaphor: the image/is expanded /prolonged 'Mr Pickwick paused, bottle up his vengeance and corked it down.''Mr Dumbay's cup of satisfaction was so full at the moment that he felt he could afford a drop or two of it contents, even to sprinkle on the dust in the by-path of his little daughter'. (Ch. Dickens) 2. Metonymy (Gr. metonymia-meta(change)+onoma (name)Metonymy: a figure of speech based on contiguity (proximity) or close relation between two objects or notions.Types of relation:+ Relation between container and the thing contained:eg. The kettle is boiling.

He drank two glasses.+ Relation between parts and the whole:eg. Two heads are better than one.

She has got good ear for music.I used to live without a roof over my head.+ Relation between the notion and its symbol:eg. Grey hair should be respected,

from the cradle to the grave,the White House, the Pentagon, Wall Street, Fleet Street, Downing Street, the crown (monarchy).+ Relation between the place and its inhabitants:

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eg. the town, the city, the House of Commons, the House of LordsThe hall burst into applause.+ Relation between the material and the thing made of it:eg. an iron, eye glasses, the silver, the brass.+ Relation between the instrument and its function:e.g.- to knife, to eye+ Relation between proper names and common names:- name of place and name of products made there china, champagne, tweed, havana, bikini, morocco- name of inventor and name of the inventionsandwich, mackintosh, pullman, volt, ampere, ohm, diesel, watt, wellington, victoria. - name of the author and name of his works to read Dickens, to possess a complete Shakespeare.3. Hyperbole: a deliberate overstatement or exaggeratione.g. I beg a thousand pardons.I haven't seen you for ages.I'm dying of hungerI'd give the world to see himShe's got a sea of troubles.4. Irony: Its contextual meaning is contrary to the literal meaning for the sake of ridicule, sarcasm.e.g. He speaks English so well that nobody can understand.What a nice mess !It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one's pocket.

Exercises on lecture III: Semantic1.Explain the meanings of the underlined words.make

She makes 200 cakes a day. ( produces/manufactures)The news made her happy.(caused)We made a good breakfast before leaving.(had/ate)This won't really make any difference.(create)He soon made a fortune on the stock exchange. (earned/ gained)

run Tired as I was, I began to run frantically home.(go quickly)I caught the bus that runs between C and B.(travels)It makes the blood run cold.(becomes)This self-service shop is run by the co-op.( operated/managed)Don't leave the engine running.( working)I can't afford to run a car.(own)Rivers run into the sea.( flow)I can run you up on to town.( take/ drive)

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The car runs on petrol.( uses)Your nose is running.( liquiding)

paper Give me a sheet of paper.Have you read the evening papers?He's writing a paper on pollution.This applicant looks good on paper.The exam paper is difficult.

face The stone struck him on the face.Her face is her fortune.They disappeared from the face of the earth.He was wearing a long face when I met him.They pretended to be on good terms so as to save their faces.

II. HOMONYMY1. Comment on the type of homonyms.can (v) - can (n) mine (n) - mine (pr)case (n) - case (n) park (n) - park (v)drill (n)- drill (v) saw(n) - saw (past. II)fair (adj) - fair (n) train (n) - train (v)grave (n) -grave (adj) well (adj) - well (n)2. Comment on the following words, whether they are polysemantic (P) or homonymous (H)1. She is a good match for you.The match ended in draw. / /2. The bride and the bridegroom exchanged rings at the wedding ceremony.The people were standing in a ring. / /3. Don't spit in the well, you may need its water.All is well that ends well. / /4. The voting was done by the show of hands.There were 100 hands employed at that firm- / /5. He struck his enemy a heavy blow on the head.Give your nose a good blow. / /3. Give the homophones of the following:allowed........... nose .......... caught ............berry ........... principle.......... die ............blue .......... saw .......... board ............higher ........... stares ........... guest ............male ............. way ............ whether............III. SYNONYMS1. Give synonyms to the underlined words1) He merely closed the programme and held it.2) Does he realise his error yet?

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3) She felt timid at having to address the man.4) The building consisted of four tall redbrick blocks.5) He stood there so quiet.2. Comment on the types of synonymsbiscuit - cookie merry- gay-jollypair - couple house - dwelling - residencemuch - many petrol - gasoline - gasto answer - to reply gather - collect-assembleto continue - to go on strike - stay-out - walk-out.3. Give euphemisms of the following words.to die - pass away / on, be no more, go to heaven, breathe one's last, bite the dust/ground/sand (colloq.), kick up one's heel,; turn up one's heel; join the majority, go the way of all flesh, kick the bucket, (sl),mad " crazy, insane, mentally deranged.toilet - W.C, lavatory(Am), loo, retiring room, public comfort station,go to the bathroom, wash one's hands.servant - help , maid-pregnant - in the family way

EuphemismsTo avoid referring too directly to unpleasant, embarrassing or personal matters we often prefer to use more indirect words or phrases, which are called euphemisms.1 Rewrite the following sentences, replacing the euphemisms, in italics, with more simple, direct words or phrases.(a) I'm afraid Mrs Wild passed away last night.(b) Excuse me, where's the nearest public convenience?(c) Senior citizens are entitled to free bus travel.(d) Sadly, my grandmother is no longer with us.(e) In the middle of the exam I had to answer a call of nature.(f) His hat had seen better days.(g) We had to have our dog put to sleep.The following sentences are very direct. Rewrite them, replacing the parts in italics with euphemisms.E.g. She's very old.She's not as young as she was/getting on/advanced in years.(a) He's fat and ugly. (d) You were drunk last night.(b) I'm going to vomit. (e) This work is very careless.(c) She's a terrible cook. (f) Grandpa can hardly walk.2 Instructions as in the first exercise above.(a) We were obliged to dispense with Miss Fan's services last month.

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(b) He has been asked to leave the country due to his involvement with activities incompatible with his diplomatic duties here.(c) The state has an obligation to assist the less privileged members of the community.(d) The estate agent says the house needs some attention.(e) The ambassador said the talks were likely to have a negative outcome. (f) Tourists are advised to avoid the less salubrious parts of the city.(g) Mr West has shown insufficient effort in the execution of his duties.Instructions as in the second exercise above.(a) Your representative lied to us.(b) The talks were a waste of time.(c) He's always late for work.(d) Your product is very badly-made.(e) Our relations with your country are awful.(f) It would be stupid to go on strike now.(g) You owe us money.(h) We were very angry with your letter.

Lecture IV PHRASEOLOGY

I. INTRODUCTION1. Definition

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Phraseology is the study of set expressions called phraseological units. These "set expressions are completely or partially idiomatic and reproduced in speech as ready- made units.2. Structural featuresSet expressions are characterized by the stability of its lexical components and grammatical structure.e.g. red flower/pen/car/flag/tape(sing./plu)- free word groupred-tape (bureaucratic methods)- set expression.3. Semantic and stylistic featuresThe meaning of a set expression is not a mere sum of the meanings of it components- Set expressions are said to be completely or partially idiomatice.g. to pull smb's leg (to tease him) ' - completely idiomaticto be in high feather (to be in good spirits) -ibid-to break the ice (to overcome formality or reserve in conversation,to get people on friendly terms) - partially idiomatic , transferred meaningto show one's teeth (to take up a threatening attitude) -ibid-- Set expressions exist in language and are reproduced in speech as ready-made units, whereas free word groups or combinations are created in speech every time we need them.e.g. to show the white feather (to show fear) - set expressionto show one's anger/great courage/... -free word group- Set expressions may contain different figures of speech such as metaphor, metonymy, etc...e.g. snake in the grass; to be a dog in the manger; to have a card up one's sleeve

to be all ears- Set expressions are based on alliteration and contrast:e.g. now or never ; through thick and thin; to kill or to cure; give and take-synonymy :

to pull one's leg, to make a fool of somebodyto hit the right nail on the head, to take the wrong sow by the earby hook or by crook; fair and square

-polysemy:at large : at liberty, free: The escaped prisoner is still at large.

at full length, with details: He talked/wrote at large.in general : Did people at large approve of the government policy ?at random, without definite aim : They scattered accusations at large.

II. CLASSIFICATION1. Classification based on the degree of motivation (degree of idiomacity)a) Phraseological fusions: completely idiomatic set expressions :the meaning of the whole has no connection with the meanings of its components, e.g. to be in high feather, to beat about the bush, white elephant.b) Phraseological unities: partially idiomatic set expressions:

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the meaning of the whole can be perceived as the figurative (metaphoric) meaning of the componentse.g. to fish in troubled waters; to show one's teeth; to wash dirty linen in publica slip of the pen /the tongue; to be Jack of all trades and master of none.Phraseological fusions and unities are called phraseological units proper. In many cases it is difficult to tell whether a given set expression belongs to fusions or unities, whether it is completely or partially idiomatic (non-motivated), because motivation often depends on the speaker's education and knowledge.c) Phraseological combinations: non-idiomatic word combinations, which contain one component used in direct meaning while the other is used metaphorically and restricted in its valency ability to be combined with other words. They may be called traditional phrases.e.g. to do one's duty, to make a mistake, to meet the requirements, a burning question, acute pain, blank took/face/expression2. Classification based on the function in speechSet expressions can be classified as parts of speech equivalents :2.1 Noun equivalents :a) Ph. fusions :e.g. rank and file, high tea, slow coach, pretty kettle of fish, brain trust, pain in the neck (sl)b). Ph. unities : fe.g. a man in the street, brown bread, a slip of the tongue. Jack of all trades2.2. Verb equivalents :a) Ph. fusions :e.g. to show the white feather, to blow one's own trumpet, to sit above the saltb). Ph. unities :e.g. to clutch/ catch at a straw, to dance on a tight rope, to hold the trump card, to break the ice, to play the first/second fiddle2.3. Adjective equivalents :a). Ph. fusions:e.g. above-board, spick and span, mad as a hatter, dead as a door nailb). Ph. unities :e.g. high and mighty, brittle as glass, cold as charity, sharp as a needle2.4. Adverb equivalents :a) Ph. fusions:e.g. at sixes and sevens, (right) on the nail, with might and main, in the trice.b). Ph. unities :e.g. at hand, in full swing, through thick and thin, in the twinkling of an eye, far and away, (be driven) from pillar to post, (be) over head and ears.2.5. Connecting word equivalents:a) Prepositions: by means of , in order to, in front of, in view of, with the view to, by virtue of.

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b) Conjunctions : as well as , as soon as.2.6. Interjection equivalents:Oh dear! Dear me ! My Goodness! Goodness gracious ! Well, I never ! My stars!2.7. Modal particle equivalents :After all, as it were, in fact, so to say, to be sureThey are of parenthetical character.Some phraseological units have homonyms among free word combinations.e.g. red tape, red - tape ; to hold a trump card, to hold a trump cardIII. VERBAL COLLOCATIONS:Verbal collocations are combinations of verb and particles :They are treated as set expressions, i.e. the meaning of such combinations can not be easily derived from the meaning of the verb and the particle. They have idiomatic character (non-motivated) and are different from free combinations (motivated).Verbal combinations consist of :- phrasal verb (verb + adverbial particle): to turn down- prepositional verb (verb + preposition particle): to take after- prepositional phrasal verb ( verb + adverb + preposition): to put up with1. Phrasal verbs :a). With transitive phrasal verbs, the position of the adverbial particle is determined by the nature of the object.- Verb + object + adverb particle / Verb + adverb particle + object.They managed to put the fire out (extinguish) They managed to put out the fire .- Verb+ pronoun + adverb particle.You can't count me out (exclude)The customer turn it down. (rejected)- Verb + adverb particle + object (a long noun phrase)They turned down lots of perfectly good suggestions (rejected)b). With intransitive phrasal verbs, the adverb particle comes immediately after the verb.He broke off as I came into the room. (stopped talking)2. Prepositional verbs:The prepositional particle comes immediately after the verb.John obviously takes after his father, (resembles)3. Prepositional phrasal verbs :Verb + adverb particle + preposition particleI refused to put up with his rudeness any longer, (tolerate)The plan came in for a lot of criticism .(met)Some of the verb-preposition combinations function transitively in one of their meanings and intransitively in another of their meanings.Transitive IntransitiveTake off shoes (remove) The plane will take off in ten minutes, (leave the

ground)We must break down these My car was broken down last night

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figures accurately. (went out of order)(make an analysis of)Please, pass out these papers. He passed out from the heat.

(distribute) (fainted)+ Comparison verbal collocations and free verb combinations:1a He looked/up the chimney.1b. He looked up/ the meaning of the word. (search for)2a. He came/ across the road.2b. He came across/ an interesting book. (find/meet by chance)+ Compound words derived from phrasal verbs :break down (v)break up (v)break out (v)call up (v)clear out (v)draw back (v)drop out (v)hold up (v)knock out(v)take over (v)try out (v)turn out(v)bring up (v)

break -down(n)break -up(n)break-out, outbreak (n)call- up (n)clear -out (n)draw-back (n)drop-out (n)hold-up (n)knockout(n)takeover(n)try-out(n)turnout(n)upbringing (n)

IV. PROVERBS AND QUOTATIONS1. ProverbsProverbs are historically created folk quotations or sayings, which express popular wisdom, a truth or a moral lesson in a figurative, imaginary way. They have the form of a complete sentence and play the most important role in phraseological units, as:- their lexical components are also stable, constant;- their meaning is mostly figurative;- they are ready-made units.Many proverbs are peculiar only to the English language, reflecting national features, history and traditions of the English people:e.g. He dances well to whom fortune pipes.You can't eat your cake and have it.The pot calls the kettle black.To carry coal to Newcastle.The proof of the pudding is in its eating.Some English proverbs are of international character: they exist in many languages.e.g. Two heads are better than one.

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Don't cast pearls before swine.The devil is not so black as he is painted.Habit is the second nature.Sometimes they are translation loans from other languages, mainly from French.Appetite comes with eating (L'appetit vient en mangeant)Besides, many set expressions are created from proverbs and sayings.e.g. It is the early bird that catches the worm - the early birdNew broom sweeps clean - a new broomThe last straw breaks the camel's back - the last straw2. Quotations:Quotations are expressions coming from literature which is part and parcel of the language. There are literary quotations (created by famous writers):Something is rotten in the state of Denmark.Brevity is the soul of wit. (Shakespeare)To err is human, to forgive divine- (Pope)Fools rush in where angels fear to tread. (Pope)and biblical quotations (taken from the Bible).It was the last straw that broke the camel's back.3. ClichÐsClichÐs are quotations that are so often used and become stale. They have lost their original expressiveness.e.g. the acid test; the irony of fate; to stand shoulder to shoulder; swan song; tender mercies, etc.All these above mentioned set expressions are mostly emotionally coloured and ready-made.

Exercises on lecture IVI. Read the following proverbs. Give their Vietnamese equivalents or explain their meanings.• A bargain is a bargain.…………………………………………………………………………………………….• A cat in gloves catches no mice.…………………………………………………………………………………………….• Those who live in glass houses shouldn't throw stones.…………………………………………………………………………………………….• It's the first step that counts.…………………………………………………………………………………………….• A new broom sweep cleans.……………………………………………………………………………………………• Fasting comes after feasting.………………………………………………………………………………………..• Might goes before right.………………………………………………………………………………………………

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• The dog will not howl if you beat him with a bone.……………………………………………………………………………………………..• To shape a coat for the moon.……………………………………………………………………………………………..• Faults are thick where love is thin.……………………………………………………………………………………………..II. Match each of the following common proverbs with the most appropriate situation from the list below.a Actions speak louder than words.b Don't look a gift horse in the mouth.c When in Rome, do as the Romansd Don't count your chickens before they're hatched.e Blood is thicker than water.f Prevention is better than cure.g One good turn deserves another.h Make hay while the sun shines.

1) Yes, you’re probably pass the exam, but don't depend on it till you near the result.2) Make the most out of life while you can, while you're young and without any big responsibilities.3) Well, the cassette recorder he gave you may have a few defects, but you shouldn't complain. It cost you nothing.4 I'm not impressed by fine speeches. Why doesn't the government do something?5) Don't wait till you've got flu. Try not to catch it.6) If you're in a foreign country, you should get used to the customs there.7) I'll probably lose my job by going there to help him, but he's in trouble and he is my brother.8) Yes, of course I’ll help you. You lent me a hand last week.2 Instructions as above.(a) Nothing venture nothing gain.(b) It never rains but it pours.(c) Once bitten, twice shy.(d) A bad workman blames his tools(e) Too many cooks spoil the broth(f) It's no use crying over spilt milk(g) Pride comes before a fall.(h) Absence makes the heart grow fonder.1 Well, it’s a pity but it’s in the past now and there's nothing we can do about it

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2) Oh, my God, I’ve got tickets for the wrong day and they ruined my suit at the cleaners and my wallet was stolen and I forgot my wife's birthday3) My wife’s spending a week with her parents. I do miss her4) I’m not investing my money in that company again. I lost everything last time I did5) Ask her out to dinner. If you don't, you'll never know if she likes you.6) He was over-confident. He thought he couldn't go wrong, but then he got complacent and failed the all-important exam.7) Do we really need so many of us to do this job? Won't we get in each other's way?6) It's not my fault I haven't finished this typing yet. It's not a very good machine and the stuff I have to copy is very difficult to read.III. Give the English equivalents for the following Vietnamese phrases and proverbs:a/ ¨n ®Õn n¬i, lµm ®Õn chèn…………………………………………………………………………………………….b/ Cã c«ng mµi s¾t cã ngµy lªn kim…………………………………………………………………………………………….c/ Cèc mß cß x¬i…………………………………………………………………………………………….d/ Chã cËy gÇn nhµ, gµ cËy gÇn chuång…………………………………………………………………………………………….e/ Chã chª mÌo l¾m l«ng…………………………………………………………………………………………….f/ Chim thÊy tªn ph¶i cµnh cong còng sî…………………………………………………………………………………………….g/ Cña cho chí so ®o it nhiÒu…………………………………………………………………………………………….h/ §ãi ¨n vông tóng lµm cµn…………………………………………………………………………………………….i/ §em ®µn g¶y tai tr©u…………………………………………………………………………………………….j/ MÐo mã cã h¬n kh«ng…………………………………………………………………………………………….k/ MÌo khen mÌo dµi ®u«i…………………………………………………………………………………………….l/ Lêi nãi thËt hay mÊt lßng…………………………………………………………………………………………….m/ Lßng v¶ còng nh lßng sung…………………………………………………………………………………………….n/ Nhµn c vi bÊt thiÖn

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…………………………………………………………………………………………….o/ Ph¶i mét bËn c¹ch ®Õn giµ…………………………………………………………………………………………….p/ Tèt gç h¬n tèt níc s¬n…………………………………………………………………………………………….q/ Tr¸nh voi ch¼ng xÊu mÆt nµo…………………………………………………………………………………………….r/ Tham th× th©m…………………………………………………………………………………………….s/ Th¶ con s¨n s¾t b¾t con c¸ r«…………………………………………………………………………………………….t/ ¤ng bá ch©n giß, bµ thß chai rîu…………………………………………………………………………………………….u/ Ngu tÇm ngu, m· tÇm m·…………………………………………………………………………………………….

Mét sè bµi kiÓm tra hÕt m«nTest IPart A: TheoryI. Fill in the blank with one suitable word:

1 , A compound word differs from a free word group in terms of …………. and…………. integrity.2, Shortening is one of the main ways of word-building, forming a new word by …………..the root.3, Metaphor is a method of naming things through ………… comparison.4, English words are polysemantic in different …………………..

II.What are the main ways of word-building? Illustrations?III, Comment on the semantic structure and types of meaning of English word based on their semantic structure? Illustrations?Part B: Exercises I - Underline the metaphors in these combinations and state what type of similarities they express a, the wing of bird - the wing of a buildingb, the eye of a man - the eye of a needle c the hand of a child - the hand of a clock d, the heart of a man - the heart of the matter e. the Head of Government - head of the lion II. Discuss the relation in metonymy

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a, She is the apple of her mother's eyes.b, The dinner party cost US 8 a head.c, The pit loudly applauded. d. She was all ears trying to understand what the stranger said. III. Replace the underlined words by a single adverb of equivalent meaning, making any necessary change in punctuation and word order. a, I think that this plan is downright ridiculous.b, The ship's generator broke down and the pums had to be operated by hand instead of by machine.c, The music festival was held every year.d, I'll be with you straight away.e, I'm afraid that Carol's writing is quite illegible. IV - Make compound words (with hyphen if necessary) according to the definitions, using the word given as the first part of the compound. 1, overa, covered with cloudsb, sum of money drawn or borrowed from a bank in excess of one's deposit.c, failure to notice something 2, playa, someone who often goes to the theatre.b, dramatist.c, piece of land for children to play on.Test IIPart A : Theory (40 pts )I - Fill in the blank with one suitable word.1, The main difference between suffixation and prefixation is merely positional. A prefixis fixed to the………………. of the stem while a suffix to the……………….of the stem.2, Substantivation is the type of conversion, forming a noun by adding ……………to an adjective.3 . The cases of metonymy are names of container used instead of things……………..or ………. ………. names used as common names.4. Homonymous words differ from polysemantic words in terms of ……………,………………….,……………,….. ……………… .II. On what cases is metonymy based on ?III, State the types of synonyms. Give examples?Part B :. Exercises (60 pts)I - Underline the metaphors in these combinations and state what type of similaritiesthey express. a. the bridge across the river - the bridge of the noseb: the tongue of a person - the tongue of a bell .c, the tooth of a boy - the tooth of a comb d, the coat of a girl - the coat of a dog

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e, birds fly to the South - he flew down the road -II - Discuss the relation in metonymya, I've just bought a new mackintosh.b, Don't let the kettle boil dry.c, She gave her heart to the grocer's young. d, The whole village came to the communal hall to lake part in the festival.III - Replace the underlined words by a single adverb of equivalent meaning, makingany necessary change in punctuation and word order.a, In the accident that occurred last night, two men were so badly injured that they died.b, He won the first prize three years one after another.c, Harry's work has improved a great deal.d, The two sisters were dressed in exactly the same way.e, Diana just wants to know the truth.IV - Make compound words (with hyphen if necessary) according to the definitionsusing the word given as the first part of the compound. (15 pts)1. BYa, a road that enables the traveller to avoid going through the centre of a townb, regulation made by a local authorityc, substance made or obtained during the manufacture of some other substance

2. BOOKa, person who keeps accounts b, person devoted to readingc, support to keep books upright when they are not kept on a shelf

Test IIII. What is prefixation ? give an example ?II. True or false: Metonymy is based on the close relation between two objects ornotions:....................... .III - Fill in the blanks with proper words1 My sister is .............................. of rats. TERROR2, He's so nice. It's a .............................. working for him. Pleasure3, She's reading a .............................. paper. DAY4, I'd love to come to your party, but …….. I'm very busy. Fortunate5, What time do you.............................. start work? USEIII. Rewrite the sentences below, forming a compound adjective from the underlined words. 1, She was wearing shoes with high heels. 2, This coat is expensive because it is proof against bullet. 3, He only works part of the time. 4, This is a piece of work that consumes a lot of time. 5, Suddenly appeared a beautiful girl with curly hair.

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V. Mark the underlined words in each pair of sentences with /P/ if they are polysemantic or with /H/ if they are homonymous.1 a, He was under house arrests. b, This hostel can house 200 students . 2, a, I'd like to sit in the front row. b, Shall I row you across the river?3, a, She's got a light- coloured dressb, He's a light-hearted man.4, a, What time does the next class begin? b, They preferred travelling first-class .5, a, There's nothing to be done. b, He does the cooking and she does the washingVI - Match the words in column A with those in column B: A Bfew …….……. bookslittle …………. peoplemuch …………. milkmany …………. sugarplenty of ………….. traffic

VII - Write down the opposite of each of these words:1 dark ............. 4, the rights .............2, raise ............. 5, remember ............3, rapidly .............VIII. Underline the metaphoric expressions and state what type of similarity theyexpress:1 head of state; headache ………………….2, dark brown eyes; the dark side of things. .............................3, bottom of the mystery; bottom of the river . .............................4, the sinking sun; a sinking feeling …………………..5, the tip of the tongue ; a tongue of flame ………………….

IX. Discuss the relation in metonymy:1 I'd like to have a word with you. .............................2, He has a good eye for beauty. .............................3, All the brass and silver were stolen. .............................4, The whole village assembled in the commune hall …………………..5, Would you like some more tea? Yes, give me another cup ………………….

X- Rewrite these sentences correctly:1. He's got an important information.

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…………………………………………………………………………………………2.I'm so tired. I can hard walk. …………………………………………………………………………………………3. There was a lot of mistakes in your composition. …………………………………………………………………………………………4. The speaker didn't begin before the audience had quieted down. …………………………………………………………………………………………5. They knew a few French and got a little words of Chinese.. . . . .. . . . . . . …………………………………………………………………………..

Test IVI. What is suffixation ? Give example.II. Fill in the blanks with proper words:1 It is becoming ............................. difficult to find a job nowadays. INCREASE2, He is probably the most .............................. man among SUCCESSthe graduates.3 , Many people s till refuse to believe that smoking is . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HARM4 , It is very doubtful whether there will ever be true . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .EQUALbetween the sexes.5, There was a lot of .............................. in the new supermarket ACTIVEthis morning.III. Rewrite the sentences below forming a compound adjective from the underlinedwords:1 Then entered ¹ man with broad shoulders.2, This tent material is proof against water.3. His father was ¹ man with strong mind.4. They came to the counter which displayed the goods free from taxes.5, Standing on the balcony they were watching the beautiful landscape lit by the moon.IV. Make the underlined words in each pair of sentences with /P/ if they are polysemantic1 , a, He was placed behind prison barsb. poverty is a bars to happiness. 2, a, His house was on the south bank of the river.b , She deposits all her money in a bank. 3, a, He's very busy. He has little free time.b, If your wages are very small, they'll be free of income tax . 4, a, He took her arm and led her across the road.b, Don't forget to take your bag with you . V. Underline the metaphoric expressions and state what type of similarity they express:1, bright green; bright faces. .............................2, the rising moon; the rising generation ............................3, the heart of the forest; a heart attract .............................

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4, key to an exercise; keys of a piano .............................VI. Discuss the relation in metonymy1, Have you ever read Shakespeare in the original? ...........................2, I'd like to have a sandwich for breakfast. .............................3, The party dinner cost USD 10 a head. . ............................4, The children tried to learn the song by heart. . .............................VII. Rewrite these sentences correctly:1 Does Mary spend many time on her English? -2, There seemed few he could add.3, I'm very happy to hear such a news. 4, You should work hardly so as to pass the examinations5. You'd better hand in your application until it's too late.

Test VI. What are the different types of shortening? Give examples as illustrations.II. True or false: Generally speaking, a prefix is added to a word to form a new word of a different part of speech: ...………….III. Fill in the blanks with proper words.1 , I think there won't be too much . . . . . . . . . . . to pass the exams DIFFICULTif you work hard. .2 , The man was drowning . But I stood and watched . . . . . . . . . . . . . POWERto help as I couldn't swim.3 , Some people claim to be able to . . . . . . . . . . . . . the future . TELL4 , All matters concerning finance in his office are his . . . . . . . . .. . . . RESPONSIBLEbecause he is the boss. 5, 1 could never be a teacher. I'm far too .................... PATIENT

IV, Rewrite the sentences below forming a compound adjective from the underlined words.1 He behaved like a man with a mind of a child.2. The crowd was stricken with panic by the storm.3. She felt sick from the sea travel as she was on the voyage for the first time.4. The Southern off shore waters were found rich of oil.5 . Their teacher was a man with kind heart.V. Mark the underlined words in each pair of sentences with /P/ if they arepolysemantic or with /H/ if they are homonymous.1 a. The greater part of what you heard is only rumour.b. He acted his part very well.2 a. What country do you know is the biggest on earth ?b. She filled the pot with earth and planted a rose in it. 3 a. He is writing a book about Vietnamese culture.b. Seats on trains should be booked far in advance before Tet.

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4 a. Please post this letter for me.b. She has got a new post as secretary. 5 a. The slow train is pulling up at the station.b. He is slow to make a decision.VI. Underline the metaphoric expressions and state what type of similarity theyexpress.1. the foot of the cow; the foot of the staircase. 2. The nose of the car; the nose of the child. 3. The man's legs; the legs of the chair. 4. The woman's head; the head of the family. 5. His voice sank to the whisper. The ship sank. VII. Discuss the relation in metonymy.1, His son has been a sorrow for him.2, She has just bought a new mackintosh. 3, During the fight he was knifed in the back.4, The whole town was talking about the scandal5, He was dead drunk as he had drunk half a bottle.VIII. Rewrite these sentences correctly.1 There isn't nothing to be said.2. I didn't meet her so far.3. Give us a little bananas, please.4. Waiter, please the the table for two.5. I can't get used to live in cold countries.

Test VII. What is the basis of English word structure ?II. True or false ?Polysemy exists only in speech. A word can have many meanings in speech.III. Fill in the blanks with proper words1 I would like to book a ...................... to Hong Kong FLY2. This knife is very blunt. It needs ......................... SHARP3. I don't want my money back. I want a ........................ REPLACE4 I’m afraid this iron you sold me is ........................ FAULT5 We have had a lot of ....................... from customers today COMPLAINIV. Form compound nouns from these words1 a person who goes on holiday 2. the gap between generations 3. the tax charged on somebody's income 4. a person who is willing to give his blood for medical purposes. 5. something that is placed between pages of a book to mark the place for reading V. Read the following pairs of sentences and mark the underlined words with /P/ if they are polysemantic and with /H/ if they are homonymous

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1 The children are at play.He lost $50 in one evening's play2. She's preparing a salad at the kitchen sink.I saw the sun sink beyond the horizon. 3, Her husband is rather mean over money matters.What do you mean by saying that? 4. They're going to build a new railway to join the two towns. Many countries are joining forces to fight against terrorism.5. Rest is necessary after hard work.Please keep the rest of the food in the fridge.VI. Underlined the metaphors in these combinations and state what type of similarity they express 1 There often happen traffic jams at peak hours. 2. 1 hope your hard work will bear fruit3 Let' s try to get to the root of the matter.4. She gave a sour smile at her misfortune.5. His mind wandered back to his college days.

V. Discuss the following cases of metonymy 1 1’ve just bought a pair of wellington for the rainy season. 2. Be careful! The soup pot is boiling.3. The class was cheerful at the news of their success in the exams. 4. They had a heated discussion. At last they fought tongue and nail.5. He decided to sell no more muscle and become a vendor of brains .

VIII. Revise the following1.One must take care of his health.2. Our college principle is a very imminent person.3. She suffers with loss of memory.4. Have you a license for your motorcycle?5, Could you lie the table for tea?

Test VII

I What are the different types of homonyms ? Give examples

II True of false ?American English differs from British English mainly on grammar.III. Fill the blanks with proper words.1. The cash and carry price is only $50 but they charge extra for . . . . . . . .DELIVER2 . These shoes look smart but they're terribly . . . . . . . . COMFORT3. Always read a label on a product , it can give you so me useful . . . . inform4. lt's a nice shop and the assistants are all polite and very …... help

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5. When I have to wait for a long time to be served 1 start to feel ............ patient IV. Form compound nouns from these words1. a set of coloured lights used for controlling and directing the traffic.2. a person who breaks or violates the law. 3. a device used as a warning against burglars. 4. a person that makes dresses. 5. a marked way for pedestrians to cross the street.V. Read the following pairs of sentences and mark the underlined words with /P/ if they are polysemantic and with /H/ if they are homonymous1 If you’re late again tomorrow, you’ll get the sackShe's just bought a large leather sack.2. They are living in a ten-roomed house.This table takes up too much room. 3 Shall I fry the fish for dinner?They took up a lot of small fry from the pond. 4. Keep still while 1 fasten your shoes.Are you still here? You should have gone home hours ago. 5. He got dead tired after working long hours.She soon got the children ready for school. VI.Underlined the metaphors in these combinations and state what type of similarity they express .1 It is said money is the root of all evil. 2.His knowledge is the fruit of his study. 3 Sales have reached a new peak. 4. Don't let your thoughts wander. 5. The road was a ribbon of moonlight across the valley. VI. Discuss the following cases of metonymy 1 They toasted the bride and bridegroom with glasses of champagne. 2.The prince succeeded to the crown. 3 Have you lost your tongue, Jack? 4. He has made a valuable collection of ancient coppers. 5. A lot of ham, chicken and cheese sandwiches were served at the party. VIII. Rewrite these sentences correctly.1 Mary is different than Jane is.2. He's just got a bad news.3. She raised to greet the guests.4. What will the weather be to morrow?5. It was all together a lovely evening.

Test VIII1. Paraphrase the following sentences using affixes:

1 These people are from village.

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2. These snakes do not h¹rm.3 . Our teacher has got much experience.4. This task caused me a lot of pain.

II. Classify the following compounds according to their meanings by putting them into columns:

sun-tanned, well-off , long-standing , credit card , mouthpiece, blood donors, data processing, shop-lifter, heart attack ,dress-rehearsal.

III. Explain the meaning of the underlined words:1.He slowly corked the bottle.2.They finally caught the criminal and jailed him.3 The child tried to parrot the grown-ups.4. The actress powdered her face before the play.5 .The women in the village tried to hide and nurse the wounded.

IV. Rewrite these sentences, replacing the underlined words by proper words.1 She made the skirt short by an inch.2. The shop lifter secretly put the bra into her pocket.3 . The authorities tried to make the rate of crimes lower.4. She started to put him ¹ question about the missing photograph.5. They lived in a camp out in the woods.

V. Read the following pairs of sentences and mark the underlined words with /P/ if they are polysemantic and with /H/ if they are homonymous.

1 He slipped and fell to the ground. They lived on the ground floor.

2. They bathed in the spring at the foot of the mountain. My match stopped working because the springs were broken.

3 .Many old houses have been demolished to make way for modern high buildings. We can house you and your friends if the hotels are full.

4. They were brought to f in a TV interview. He redecorated his living room and put a new on it.

5. His silence alone is proof of his guilt.There were seven people in the car; let alone a pile of luggage and three days.

VI. Give synonyms to the underlined words:1 I want you to help me. 2 . She met an old friend of hers by chance last night3. I can’t go with you in everything you say. 4 . The colour of her dress doesn' t go well with her eyes . 5 . What you are doing goes against my principles

VI - Give antonyms to the underlined words: .1 Is he tall or .....................'? Average, I should say.2. I'm telling you the truth.. Why should I tell you a ....................3. They were talking about their old classmates, the fortunate and the……………4: I shall have something to give that people will be glad to………

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5 . His thoughts have been much occupied with the ups and . . . . . . . . . . . of his life

VIII . Underlined the metaphors in these combinations and state what type of similarity they express 1 the neck of a girl; the neck of a bottle 2 a fruitless effort; a fruitless tree

3 a fading flower; fading beauty 4. the mouth of a man; the mouth of a pot 5. the head of a stream; the head of a bird IX Discuss the following case of metonymy

1 They came in a luxurious Ford. 2 Ladies and gentlemen, please lend me your ears. 3. All hands in the factory went on strike. 4. The pen is mightier than sword. 5. Nearly the whole town. was watching the 1998 World Cup all night.

X Rewrite the following sentences correctly1 Waiter, would you lie the table for two.2. The river raised rapidly during the rainy season.3 . There should be no formality among you and me.4. There is fewer heat today.5. He was very lazy. He didn’t do nothing at all.

Test IXI. Paraphrase the following sentences using affixes :1, The government is trying to make imported goods legal.2, Her behaviour made him mad.3, The story was made simple for the schoolchildren's reading.4, His feelings for her made him blind to her faults..5, He's a man whose occupation is to produce films.II - Classify the following compounds according to the meanings and put them into the columns:hot dog, trolley bus, door handle, man-of-war, sweetheart, air lift, bread-and-butter, red-tape, editor-in-chief, dancing hall,III - Explain the meaning of the underlined words:1 , He went to Britain to better his English. 2, The reactionaries usually back old regimes. 3, I asked the maid to air the room. 4,The captain proposed to man his ship. 5, During the war the artillery downed many enemy planes. IV - Express the following phrases in one word:1, He was nominated to be at the head of the army. 2, She wanted to be star in a new film.

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3, They decided to lay the resolution on the table. 4,They put up prices as inflation increased. 5, She turned a cold shoulder on him.V - Read the following pairs of sentences and mark the underlined words with /P/ if they are polysemantic and with /H/ if they are homonymous. Match the marks with the numbers1, She has beautiful long fair hair. Leave me my fair share or else all is over between us. 2, She wore a long face at the sight of their appearance.He didn't want to lose face in front of her. 3, They were camping on a sand bank.He held a senior post in a foreign bank. 4, His hearing became worse every day.The hearing of the case was fixed for 5 p.m.5,We went downstairs into the court.The prisoner was brought to court for trail.VI- Give the synonyms to the underlines words.1, He's been occupied with his secretaries all day. 2, I want to be quite frank with you. 3, It was astonishing how amusing life could be. 4, She set out to her next interview at a large hospital in Ho Chi Minh city.5, He proposed to give her a handsome sum of money.VII- Give antonyms to the underlined words:1 , He is a competent teacher. 2, I came in while you were asleep3, All the seats were occupied4, Food and water were scarce during the long summer.5, He always wore striped shirts with attached collars. VIII- Underline the metaphors ill these words combinations and state what type of similarity they express:1, the root of a tree; the root of a word 2, the wings of an aeroplane; the wings of a bird 3, the neck of a girl; the neck of a bottle 4, white people; white collar 5 , the ship sank; her heart sank IX- Discuss the following cases of metonymy .1, She was the pride of her school.2, The coffee pot is boiling.3, I've never read Balzac in the original. 4, He earned his living by his pen. 5 ,The waitress laid a new set of table silver for dinner.X - Rewrite the following sentences correctly

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1, He didn't do nothing.2, Prices raise up everyday.3, The criminal has been hung for murder.4, Everyone should bring their own food.5, There is a wooden fence between each garden.

Test X1. Paraphrase the following sentences using affixes:1 , They are people who live on an island.2, There are no languages that have no grammar.3, He's far from being polite while his wife is too polite.4, They didn't make public what had been discussed in the talk.5, The local authorities are trying to reduce the damage caused by the fire to the minimum.II - Classify the following compounds according to their meanings and put them into columns:Non-idiomatic Idiomaticboyfriend, long-leggedspeedometerbuttonholecowboy

boyfriend, long-legged, give-in, speedometer, underdog, buttonhole, cowboy, mother-of-pearls, lotus-eater, lip- service.III-Explain the meaning of the underlined words:1, He downed his gun. 2, She had never outed before. 3, He voiced his dream. 4, She tiptoed to the bedside of the sleeping child. 5, He put his fingers into his mouth to cool them. IV- Express the following phrases in one word:1, to make fat 2, to put sth into one's pocket. 3, to catch sth with a net 4, to put sth into a bottle. 5, to put sb into jail. V- Read the following pairs of sentences and mark the underlined words with /P/ if they are polysemantic and with /H/ if they are homonymous. Match the marks with the numbers.1, a, Children, put up your right hand, please.

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b,I think I have no right to know that. 2, a, What a nice ball pen. b,They made snow balls and threw at one another. 3, a, What can I do for you? b,Give me a can of beer, please. 4, a,They are going to build a new house. b,The whole house was woken up. 5,a, He felt he had lost face because of his failure. b,They seemed to have disappeared off the face of the earth. VI - Give the synonyms to the underlined words.1, He returned to his lodgings late. 2, They started early in the morning. 3 , He's been very sweet to his mother. 4, She is absent on account of ill health. 5, He tried to make his leg go quicker.VII- Give antonyms to the underlined words:1, He looked tired and old. 2, I think he's hard to please. 3, She was very quick at learning. 4, He was as pleasant and cheerful as usual. 5, He was very glad to see me. He seemed to be in great spirits. VIII - Underline the metaphors in these words combinations and state what type of similarity they express:1, a green apple; green with envy2, seeds of virtue; seeds of a plant 3, a fruitless tree; a fruitless effort 4, the foot of a dog; the foot of a wall 5, mouth of a river; the child's mouth IX- Discuss the following cases of metonomy.1, The pen is mightier than the sword.2, He has just bought a nice sandwich. 3, The cocktail cost 20 USD a head. 4, I broke my heart over his cruelty. 5, They are the best brass players here. X- Rewrite the following sentences correctly1, We lied on the grass in the sunshine.2, He rose his hand to ask questions.3, Less people can afford to big houses these days.4, I agree to you that we cannot approve on his plan.5, Can I go out? - Yes, you may.

C©u hái «n tËpSupport each of the following statements by briefly giving reasons and examples

1. A morpheme is not independent and occurs in speech only as part of a word.

2. The root morpheme is also called the lexical morpheme.60

3. The derivational morpheme carries both lexical and grammatical meaning.

4. A derived word is one that consists of a root and one or more derivational morphemes.

5. A compound word is one that has at least two roots, with or without derivational

morphemes.

6. The prefixes such as 'over-','out-', 'up-'…. can be considered as homonymous to the

words such as : over, out, up.

7. Prefixes are classified in many ways, either according to their origin or meaning or

function.

8. Partial conversion is the building of some nouns from verbs.

9. Sound imitation is also called phonetical motivation.

10. Some words formed by sound imitation have developed figurative meaning.

11.Back-formation is the opposite process to affixation.

12. Lexical meaning is the realization of concept or emotion.

13. Grammatical meaning is what unites words with different lexical meanings.

14. Notional words are those whose lexical meaning is clear.

15.Functional words are those whose prevailing meaning is grammatical.

16.Lexical and grammatical meaning do not exist separately but always go together to

make up the meaning of words.

17. Connotation can be considered as an additional meaning to the denotation.

18. Morphological motivation is the relationship between morphemes of the word.

19. There is similarity between the sound-form of the word and the sound produced by

the object the word denotes.

20. Homonymy is a source of ambiguity.

21.The development of meaning in the figures of speech is called' transference' . It is not

accurate to say " transference of meaning "

22. Both metaphor and simile are forms of comparison. The former is indirect and the

latter direct.

23. Metaphor may be extended into simile and simile may be condensed into a metaphor.

24. Set expressions can be either unchangeable or changeable.

25. Set expressions can function as nouns, verbs, adjectives,………..

26.The meaning of proverbs is usually figurative and they are ready-made units.

27. ClichÐs are quotations or sayings which are so frequently used that they have lost

their expressiveness and therefore better avoided.

28.English words vary in their phonological (syllable) and morphological structure

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29.Stress- placement also takes part in English word-formation

30.English compound words differ in level of their semantic motivation

31.Metaphor and metonymy are often used in English idioms

32. From a given word we can never form a new word without changing its

morphological feature.

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LexicologyI, What is morpheme and types of morphemes ?

1, Morpheme : is the smallest indivisible meaningful language unit.

2, Types of morphemes :

a, Root morphemes:

- Free : eg: book, man, table, pen ……..

- Bound : e.g. terror, terrible, terrific, …….

b, Affixal morphemes :

- Grammatical morphemes : -s , -ed, -ing ……..

- Derivational morphemes :

+ Prefixes : un-,dis-,non-,……

+ Suffixes : -er,-ness,-ful,………

II, What is a word and types of words ?

1, Definition :Word is an independent language unit that has both sound and spelling

form and meaning. A word is capable of forming a sentence by itself.

2, Types of words : There are three types of words :

a, Simple word : has only one root morpheme

e.g. good, rain, sun ……

b, Derived word : has a root morpheme with one or more than one derivational

morpheme.

E.g. teacher, unhappy, returning ,………

c, Compound word : has at least two root morphemes with or without derivational

morpheme.

E.g., boy friend, lady-killer, mother-in-law,………..

III, What is the difference between a word and a morpheme ?

- Morpheme is the smallest indivisible meaningful language unit.

- Word is an independent language unit that has both sound and spelling form

and meaning. A word is capable of forming a sentence by itself.

IV, What is word formation and ways of word formation ?

1, Definition : Word formation is the process of building new words from the existing

material in a language according to certain patterns and formulae .

2, Ways of formation :

a, Affixation : Affixes either prefixes or suffixes

e.g., un- + happy- unhappy

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happy + -ness happiness.

b, Compounding

Eg, black + board blackboard

Forget+ me+ not forget-me-not

c, Shortening:

+ Abbreviation : - acronym : Master of Arts M.A

- clipping : Telephone phone

Influenza flu

+ Blending : Breakfast+Lunch brunch

Smoke+fog smog.

d, Conversion -Adj N female a female

Relative a relative

- V N to walk a walk

must a must.

- Adj V cool to cool

better to better.

- N V hand to hand

air to air.

e, Back formation. Beggar to beg

Baby-sitter to baby- sit

f, Sound imitation

g, Sound and stress interchange.

h, Name motivation : China, sandwich , watt,…………

V, What is affixation ? The difference between prefixation and suffixation ?

Affixation is the formation of new words with the help of affixes. Affixes are either

prefixes or suffixes, so affixation is either prefixation or suffixation .

a, Prefixation : rarely forms new parts of speech and this is considered to be their

distinctive feature as compared with suffixes. Prefixes have three groups of meaning :

- Negative meaning

- Denoting reversal or repetition of an action

- Denoting space and time relationship.

b,Suffixation usually change the meaning of stem and transfer words to different

parts of speech.

VI, What is compounding and how are compound words classified ?

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Compounding is a formation of a new word by joining two or more word together. A

compound word has at least 2 root morphemes.

Classification:

1, according to their structure :

simple stem compound : doorhandle, car park………

Derived stem compound : lady-killer, bookseller ……..

Abbreviated stem compound : maths teacher ……..

Compound stem compound : Wast paper basket ……..

2, according to parts of speech :

compound nouns :

compound adjectives

compound adverbs:

compound verbs

compound prepositions

3, according to their meaning :

motivated compound (non-idiomatic ) : Its meaning can be deduced from the

meaning of the components

non-motivated compound (idiomatic) : Its meaning cannot be deduced from

the meaning of the components.

VII, What is the difference between a compound and a free-word group ?

In order to distinguish a compound word and a free word group we need to rely on the

three following criteria :

Phonological criterion : compound words usually have stress on the first

component whereas free word groups have double stress.

Structure integrity criterion : the structure of compound is stable . It is

impossible to insert any element between the components.

Semantic integrity criterion : The meaning of the compound is often idiomatic

i.e. is often not a mere sum of the meaning of the components.

VIII, What is shortening and types of shortening ?

Definition : Shortening is a way of building new words by leaving out some

part or parts of words

Feature : A very productive way of forming new words .

Types:

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1, Abbreviation :

- acronyms are words built from the initials of several words eg. VAT,

NATO ..

- clipping parts of words are clipped eg : phone , flu, vet, ………

2, Blending : parts of words merged together ; eg, motel, brunch.

IX, What is the difference between affixation and back-formation ?

affixation : is the formation of new words with the help of affixes .

back formation : is the process of forming a new word by subtracting a real or

supposed affixes .

the difference between affixation and back formation is that the latter is an

opposite process to the former.

X.State types of meaning of words ?

There are two types of meaning found in a word : lexical and grammatical meaning

Lexical meaning : is the realization of concepts or things : thin, hot, expensive

Grammatical meaning : is what unites words of different lexical meanings

into identical groups eg: house, student ,….. ( common,singular, count nouns )

XI. State stylistic classification of the English vocabulary ?

Stylistically English words are divided into two main layers , we have standard

words and non-standard words.

1, Standard words:

Neutral words : man, boy, father, ………

Colloquial words : fellow, bike, dad,…….

Bookish words : infant, lexicology,………

2, Non-standard words :

Slangs : buck, mug, cop …….

Vulgar words : dam, hell, bloody ……….

Dialectal words : loch= lake ……..

XII.What is the difference between polysemy and homonymy ?

Semantic criterion : if there is a logical relationshiop between the meanings

of a word , this word is a polysemantic word . On the contrary,if there is no a

logical relationship between the meanings of a word , this word actually not

one word, but one of the homonymous words. In other words , homonymous

words are not semantically connected words.

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Derivational criterion : Homonymous words have different derivatives

Synonymy-based criterion : Homonymous words have different synonymy.

Combinability criterion : Homonymous words have different combinability

XIII, What is metaphor ?

Definition : is a figure of speech based on similarity between two objects or notions

i.e. we call one object by the name of another because we compare these objects

and find some common features between them.

Types :

Similarity of appearance Similarity of shape: Similarity of position: Similarity of

colour: Similarity of quality: Similarity of function : Similarity of movement:

Similarity of behaviour: Examples are shown in the texbook pages :

XIII, What is metonymy ?

Metonymy is the transference of meaning from one object to another based on

contiguity(proximity) of notions i.e. instead of the name of one object or notion we use

the name of another because these objects are associated and closely related .

Types of metonymy : based on the relation .

XIV, What is idiomatic expression and its study ?

Definition : Phraseology is the study of set expression called phraseological

units.

Features :

- structural features are characteried by the stability of their structre and lexical

component.

- Semantic and stylistic features :the meaning of a set expression is not a mere

sum of the meaning of the components. Set expressions are partially or

completely non-motivated. Set expressions exist in the language and are

reproduced as ready made units .Set expressions may contain diferent figures

of speech such as metaphor, metonymy ,……..

XV. What is the difference between idioms and proverbs/saying ?

Proverbs are set expressions which show a wisdom , a truth, or a moral lesson.Idioms are different from proverbs in the way that they are not moral or instructive in nature.

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