THE RESEARCH THE RESEARCH PROCESSPROCESS

Lecture 11Lecture 11

The process of research involves the The process of research involves the unfolding of a storyunfolding of a story

Begins with a properly framed questionBegins with a properly framed question

Involves Involves sixsix broad steps: broad steps:1.1. Generation of hypotheses, Generation of hypotheses, 2.2. Selection of measures of key variables, Selection of measures of key variables, 3.3. Selection of a research design, Selection of a research design, 4.4. Selection of a sample, Selection of a sample, 5.5. Hypothesis testing, Hypothesis testing, 6.6. Interpretation and dissemination of resultsInterpretation and dissemination of results

1. GENERATING HYPOTHESES1. GENERATING HYPOTHESES

Any piece of research begins with a questionAny piece of research begins with a question

To serve as the focus of scientific research, a To serve as the focus of scientific research, a question needs to be refined into a hypothesisquestion needs to be refined into a hypothesis

It reflects the researcher's best educated idea It reflects the researcher's best educated idea that can be tested that can be tested

Research aimed to predict, explain, or change Research aimed to predict, explain, or change human behavior is best represented as specific human behavior is best represented as specific testable hypothesis testable hypothesis

Research hypotheses can emerge from at Research hypotheses can emerge from at least three sources: least three sources:

1.1. Careful observations of a clinical caseCareful observations of a clinical case or or cases, cases,

2.2. A A theory concerned with human behavior theory concerned with human behavior or psychopathologyor psychopathology, and , and

3.3. The The results of previous researchresults of previous research..

Sources of HypothesesSources of Hypotheses

CAREFUL OBSERVATIONCAREFUL OBSERVATION

A skilled clinical researcher is first and foremost A skilled clinical researcher is first and foremost an astute observer of human behavioran astute observer of human behavior

One of the richest and most relevant sources of One of the richest and most relevant sources of observations: the clinical psychologist’s observations: the clinical psychologist’s interactions with clients or patientsinteractions with clients or patients

Observations of individual cases raise Observations of individual cases raise questions requiring other methods and questions requiring other methods and additional informationadditional information

THEORIESTHEORIES A Theory: an important source of hypothesesA Theory: an important source of hypotheses

Serves as a road map for a clinical psychologistServes as a road map for a clinical psychologist

A strong theory must lend itself to empirical A strong theory must lend itself to empirical evaluation and testingevaluation and testing

Hypothesis originating from theories can be Hypothesis originating from theories can be tested in relation to clinically relevant behaviorstested in relation to clinically relevant behaviors

PREVIOUS RESEARCHPREVIOUS RESEARCH Hypotheses can also emerge directly from the findings Hypotheses can also emerge directly from the findings

of of previous researchprevious research

Helps in avoiding repetition of investigationHelps in avoiding repetition of investigation

Helps in learning from the problems and mistakes of Helps in learning from the problems and mistakes of othersothers

Keeping abreast of research in psychology: a difficult Keeping abreast of research in psychology: a difficult task these daystask these days

Computerized programs; useful but lacking broad Computerized programs; useful but lacking broad understanding of areas of psychologyunderstanding of areas of psychology

2. SELECTION OF MEASURES2. SELECTION OF MEASURES Measuring Measuring key variableskey variables: The : The next stepnext step after after

developing hypothesesdeveloping hypotheses

Measurement involves assessment of different Measurement involves assessment of different characteristics of peoplecharacteristics of people

A number of difficult decisions must be made:A number of difficult decisions must be made:

First, researchers should measure only those First, researchers should measure only those factors that are factors that are most importantmost important to their to their hypotheseshypotheses

Second, specific methods must be selected to Second, specific methods must be selected to measure the variables of interestmeasure the variables of interest

These include: direct observations, self-These include: direct observations, self-reports, measures of psychological reactivity, reports, measures of psychological reactivity, and performance on experimental tasksand performance on experimental tasks

Each of the methods of measurement has its Each of the methods of measurement has its inherent strengths and weaknessesinherent strengths and weaknesses

One solution is to use different types of One solution is to use different types of measures in the same study measures in the same study

Third, the researcher must determine if a Third, the researcher must determine if a reliable and valid measure is usedreliable and valid measure is used

An example: research on anxiety disordersAn example: research on anxiety disorders

No single approach is the “right” way to assessNo single approach is the “right” way to assess

Differing results on different measures do not Differing results on different measures do not imply that any one of the measures is invalidimply that any one of the measures is invalid

However, it’s a challenge for the researcherHowever, it’s a challenge for the researcher

3. SELECTING A RESEARCH DESIGN3. SELECTING A RESEARCH DESIGN Selecting a design:Selecting a design: 3 3rdrd step in Research process step in Research process

Four basic types of research designs: Four basic types of research designs: Descriptive designsDescriptive designs, , Correlational designsCorrelational designs, , Experimental designsExperimental designs, and , and Single-case designsSingle-case designs

The two main methods of data collection: The two main methods of data collection: Survey Survey MethodMethod and and Observational MethodObservational Method

All designs All designs can becan be cross-sectionalcross-sectional or or longitudinallongitudinal

The choice of a design depends on the nature of the The choice of a design depends on the nature of the question being asked, and on their limitationsquestion being asked, and on their limitations

RESEARCH METHODSRESEARCH METHODS

There are two main categories of There are two main categories of research methods, both with their own research methods, both with their own respective sub-categories. These arerespective sub-categories. These are

  

1. SURVEY METHODS1. SURVEY METHODS

  

2. OBSERVATIONAL METHODS2. OBSERVATIONAL METHODS

1. SURVEY RESEARCH METHODS1. SURVEY RESEARCH METHODS Used to obtain people’s responses and Used to obtain people’s responses and

opinions regarding an issue or problemopinions regarding an issue or problem

The The aimaim of survey research: to measure certain of survey research: to measure certain attitudes and/or behaviors of a populationattitudes and/or behaviors of a population

Survey research Survey research focusfocuses on naturally occurring es on naturally occurring phenomenaphenomena

Gaining a Gaining a representative samplerepresentative sample is crucial in is crucial in survey researchsurvey research

SOME COMMON SAMPLING STRATEGIES:SOME COMMON SAMPLING STRATEGIES: 1. SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING1. SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLINGEach member of the population has an equal chance of Each member of the population has an equal chance of

being in the samplebeing in the sample

2. STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING2. STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLINGRespondents are selected at random from within the Respondents are selected at random from within the

relevant strata (sub-group)relevant strata (sub-group)

3. PROPORTIONATE SAMPLING3. PROPORTIONATE SAMPLINGThe sample must reflect the same proportions of sub-The sample must reflect the same proportions of sub-

groups as in real populationgroups as in real population

4. NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING4. NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLINGAny procedure in which the sampling strategy Any procedure in which the sampling strategy

does not give a representative sampledoes not give a representative sample

Examples of Examples of NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLINGNON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Convenience sampling (by convenience)Convenience sampling (by convenience)

Self-selected sampling (decision by own)Self-selected sampling (decision by own)

Snowball sampling (previous Snowball sampling (previous respondents respondents recruit subsequent ones)recruit subsequent ones)

POSSIBLE SOURCES OF BIAS IN POSSIBLE SOURCES OF BIAS IN SURVEY RESEARCHSURVEY RESEARCH

DEMAND CHARACTERISTICSDEMAND CHARACTERISTICS

ACQUIESCENCE (compliance)ACQUIESCENCE (compliance)

REACTIVITY (re-thinking)REACTIVITY (re-thinking)

RESPONSE BIAS (tendency to answer in RESPONSE BIAS (tendency to answer in extreme terms)extreme terms)

2. OBSERVATIONAL METHODS2. OBSERVATIONAL METHODS The The most basicmost basic and and pervasivepervasive of all research of all research

methods is observation.methods is observation.

Experiments, case-studies, and naturalistic Experiments, case-studies, and naturalistic approaches all involve making observations of approaches all involve making observations of different behaviors. different behaviors.

Types of observational methods:Types of observational methods:a. a. unsystematicunsystematic observation, b. observation, b. naturalisticnaturalistic

observation, c. observation, c. controlledcontrolled observation, d. observation, d. case case studiesstudies

a. UNSYSTEMATIC OBSERVATIONa. UNSYSTEMATIC OBSERVATION

Provides a basis for formulation of new ideasProvides a basis for formulation of new ideas

Helps in developing hypothesesHelps in developing hypotheses

b. NATURALISTIC OBSERVATIONb. NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION

More systematic and rigorousMore systematic and rigorous

Neither casual nor free-wheeling, but carefully planned Neither casual nor free-wheeling, but carefully planned in advancein advance

There is no real control exerted by the observerThere is no real control exerted by the observer

Limited to a relatively few individuals or situationsLimited to a relatively few individuals or situations

Can serve as a rich source of hypothesesCan serve as a rich source of hypotheses

Freud’s extraordinary clinical observation skillsFreud’s extraordinary clinical observation skills

c. CONTROLLED OBSERVATIONc. CONTROLLED OBSERVATION

Neither unsystematic nor naturalistic, but Neither unsystematic nor naturalistic, but controlled observation controlled observation

The investigator exerts some degree of control The investigator exerts some degree of control over the events.over the events.

Enables researchers to gain some real insight Enables researchers to gain some real insight into the nature of the participants' reactions. into the nature of the participants' reactions.

d. CASE STUDIESd. CASE STUDIES

Involves the intensive study of a client or Involves the intensive study of a client or patient who is in treatment.patient who is in treatment.

May include material from interviews, test May include material from interviews, test responses, and treatment accounts.responses, and treatment accounts.

Potentially rich sources of understanding and Potentially rich sources of understanding and hypothesis generating.hypothesis generating.

Case studies: especially useful for Case studies: especially useful for

(1) providing descriptions of rare or unusual phenomena (1) providing descriptions of rare or unusual phenomena or novel, methods of interventionor novel, methods of intervention

(2) disconfirming "universally" known or accepted (2) disconfirming "universally" known or accepted information; and information; and

(3) generating testable hypotheses. (3) generating testable hypotheses.

It is difficult to use individual cases to develop It is difficult to use individual cases to develop universal laws or behavioral principles that apply to universal laws or behavioral principles that apply to everyone. everyone.

Cannot lead to cause-effect conclusionsCannot lead to cause-effect conclusions

CROSS-SECTIONAL VERSUS CROSS-SECTIONAL VERSUS LONGITUDINAL APPROACHESLONGITUDINAL APPROACHES

Cross-sectional design compares individuals Cross-sectional design compares individuals (usually of different ages) at the same point in (usually of different ages) at the same point in time.time.

Cross-sectional approaches are correlational, Cross-sectional approaches are correlational, and can not be manipulative.and can not be manipulative.

Results only reflect differences among the age Results only reflect differences among the age groups employed, not age changes overall.groups employed, not age changes overall.

Longitudinal design follows the same subjects over Longitudinal design follows the same subjects over time.time.

Allows us to gain insight into how behavior or mental Allows us to gain insight into how behavior or mental processes change with age.processes change with age.

Enable investigators to better speculate about time-Enable investigators to better speculate about time-order relationships.order relationships.

They also help eliminate the third variable problemThey also help eliminate the third variable problem

Longitudinal studies: costly to carry out, and require Longitudinal studies: costly to carry out, and require great patience and continuity great patience and continuity

Expensive in both time and moneyExpensive in both time and money

4. SELECTING A SAMPLE4. SELECTING A SAMPLE Selection and recruitment of a sample is Selection and recruitment of a sample is

important to the ultimate generalizability of the important to the ultimate generalizability of the research findings.research findings.

Non-representative sample may bias or Non-representative sample may bias or influence results.influence results.

It is additionally important to determine the It is additionally important to determine the representative-ness of the clinical population.representative-ness of the clinical population.

5. TESTING HYPOTHESES5. TESTING HYPOTHESES

After data collection, psychologists rely on the After data collection, psychologists rely on the use of inferential statistics to evaluate the use of inferential statistics to evaluate the degree to which the null hypothesis has been degree to which the null hypothesis has been rejected. rejected.

Statistical procedures to be used depend on the Statistical procedures to be used depend on the design of the research.design of the research.

STATISTICAL VERSUS STATISTICAL VERSUS PRACTICAL SIGNIFICANCEPRACTICAL SIGNIFICANCE

After a statistic (such as a correlation After a statistic (such as a correlation coefficient) has been calculated, it can be coefficient) has been calculated, it can be determined whether the obtained number is determined whether the obtained number is significant.significant.

At 5 out of 100 chance factor, the result is At 5 out of 100 chance factor, the result is significant [written as “p<.05 (p less than .05”)]significant [written as “p<.05 (p less than .05”)]

With large samples, even small statistical With large samples, even small statistical values can be significant.values can be significant.

It is important to distinguish between statistical It is important to distinguish between statistical significance and practical significance when significance and practical significance when interpreting statistical results.interpreting statistical results.

Accepting significance levels of Accepting significance levels of .05.05 as non-chance as non-chance represents a kind of scientific tradition - it is not represents a kind of scientific tradition - it is not sacred. sacred.

In clinical settings, sometimes significance levels In clinical settings, sometimes significance levels of of .07.07 or or .09 can also be important..09 can also be important.

Clinical researchers need to look beyond the statistical Clinical researchers need to look beyond the statistical significance of the findings to understand their value significance of the findings to understand their value for people in the population.for people in the population.

6. INTERPRETING AND 6. INTERPRETING AND DISSEMINATING FINDINGSDISSEMINATING FINDINGS

The final step in the research process is to The final step in the research process is to place the place the meaningmeaning or or implicationsimplications of a study of a study in a broader context. in a broader context.

A first step in the process of sharing the results A first step in the process of sharing the results of research is to submit them for publication in of research is to submit them for publication in professional journals. professional journals.

E.g., E.g., Journal of Consulting and Clinical Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, Journal of Abnormal Psychology etc.Psychology etc.

Publication is not the only purpose of clinical Publication is not the only purpose of clinical researches.researches.

Another very important concern is Another very important concern is to improve to improve the conditions of people with psychological the conditions of people with psychological problems. problems.

Research results should be communicated to Research results should be communicated to the public, the clinicians, the policy makers the public, the clinicians, the policy makers etc. to bring positive changes in the area of etc. to bring positive changes in the area of mental health.mental health.

SUMMARY SUMMARY

The foundation of clinical psychology lies in The foundation of clinical psychology lies in researchresearch

The research process follows a series of steps The research process follows a series of steps that are all important to followthat are all important to follow

Several different types of research designs are Several different types of research designs are used, including single-case, descriptive, used, including single-case, descriptive, correlational, and experimental designs. correlational, and experimental designs.

RESEARCH ETHICSRESEARCH ETHICS

Just like clinical practice and all other areas of Just like clinical practice and all other areas of psychology, psychological research, too, psychology, psychological research, too, involves important ethical considerations. Like involves important ethical considerations. Like patients, research participants have rights, and patients, research participants have rights, and investigators have responsibilities to them.investigators have responsibilities to them.

APA’s Ethical Code for ResearchAPA’s Ethical Code for Research

1.1. Plan research according to recognized standards of Plan research according to recognized standards of scientific competence and ethical principlesscientific competence and ethical principles

2.2. Implement safeguards for the welfare of Implement safeguards for the welfare of participants, others that may be affected by the participants, others that may be affected by the research, and animal subjectsresearch, and animal subjects

3.3. Retain responsibility for ensuring ethical practices in Retain responsibility for ensuring ethical practices in researchresearch

44 Comply with pertinent federal and state law and Comply with pertinent federal and state law and regulationsregulations

5.5. Gain appropriate approval from host institutions or Gain appropriate approval from host institutions or organizations before conducting researchorganizations before conducting research

6.6. Establish clear and fair agreements with their research Establish clear and fair agreements with their research participants so that the rights and obligations of each participants so that the rights and obligations of each party are clarifiedparty are clarified

7.7. Obtain the informed consent of research participants, Obtain the informed consent of research participants, using language that is easily understandable to them, using language that is easily understandable to them, and document their consentand document their consent

8.8. Take great care, in offering inducements for research Take great care, in offering inducements for research participation, that the nature of the compensation participation, that the nature of the compensation (such as professional services) is made clear and that (such as professional services) is made clear and that financial or other types of inducements are not be so financial or other types of inducements are not be so excessive as to coerce participationexcessive as to coerce participation

9.9.Use deception as part of their procedures only Use deception as part of their procedures only when it is not possible to use alternative when it is not possible to use alternative methodsmethods

10. Protect participants from any mental and 10. Protect participants from any mental and physical discomfort, harm, and danger that physical discomfort, harm, and danger that might arise during the researchmight arise during the research

11. Inform research participants of the anticipated 11. Inform research participants of the anticipated use of the data and of the possibility of sharing use of the data and of the possibility of sharing the data with other investigators or any the data with other investigators or any unanticipated future usesunanticipated future uses

12. Minimize the invasiveness of research 12. Minimize the invasiveness of research proceduresprocedures

13. Provide participants with information at 13. Provide participants with information at the close of the research to erase any the close of the research to erase any misconceptions that may have arisenmisconceptions that may have arisen

14. Treat animal subjects humanely and in 14. Treat animal subjects humanely and in accordance with federal, state, and local accordance with federal, state, and local laws, as well as with professional standardslaws, as well as with professional standards

To Summarize,To Summarize, we can say that we can say that

A number of ethical considerations are involved in A number of ethical considerations are involved in conducting research including:conducting research including:

Obtaining informed consent, Obtaining informed consent,

Assuring confidentiality, Assuring confidentiality,

Using deception appropriately, Using deception appropriately,

Providing debriefing information, andProviding debriefing information, and

Protecting against fraud.Protecting against fraud.

CONCLUSIONCONCLUSION

By conducting researches, clinical By conducting researches, clinical psychologists have made significant psychologists have made significant contributions to the scientific study of contributions to the scientific study of

human behavior.human behavior.