Lem's Science Poject
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Transcript of Lem's Science Poject
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ScienceProject
Submitted to: Ms. Gertrudes P. Soliven
Submitted by: Lemuel B. Concepcion
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I. Instruments used to gather information about the outer spaceThere are many commonly available instruments that are designed and modified to work in
micro-gravity and at extreme temperatures. Here are four common instruments you'll be familiar
with. Mans quest to unravel the mysteries surrounding space has led to the unprecedented
growth in space science in the last century. There are a number of instruments used in outerspace exploration for the detailed study of different cosmological objects. These four tools you
will be familiar with, as they are also used on Earth. However, any instrument used in space is
specially designed to endure harsh conditions.
1. Telescopes:
The oldest instrument used in space exploration may be the telescope; the most
relied upon instrument of astronomers since the invention of the refracting telescope.
It was Galileo who revolutionized space science with his insightful observations
which he made using his modified refracting telescope.
The increasing difficulty in handling the refracting telescope forced scientists tolook for alternative instruments, and Sir Isaac Newton brought a radical change in
telescopes by replacing the primary lens in the refracting telescope with a mirror and
thus the era of reflecting telescopes began. In the following centuries differentscientists made valuable contributions in modifying the reflecting telescope.
The invention of radio telescopes made it possible to study radio waves from
distant objects in space. Advances in optical astronomy included the development ofmulti-mirror telescopes. Even though these were all used to explore space, they were
all based on the Earth. By the mid 20th century, space scientists were able to place the
first space telescopes in orbits above the Earth, thereby drastically changing ourperception of the space.
In 1989, Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) was launched, followed byhistoric reflector telescope theHubble Telescopein 1990, the Compton Observatory
in 1991, Chandra Observatory in 1999 and Spitzer Telescope in 2003. The James
Webb Space Telescopewhich will be launched in 2013 is expected to produce betterviews of the deep space. Solar telescopes, another type of telescope, are used
extensively in the study of the Sun
http://www.brighthub.com/science/space/articles/4322.aspxhttp://www.brighthub.com/science/space/articles/4322.aspxhttp://www.brighthub.com/science/space/articles/4089.aspxhttp://www.brighthub.com/science/space/articles/4089.aspxhttp://www.brighthub.com/science/space/articles/4089.aspxhttp://www.brighthub.com/science/space/articles/24201.aspxhttp://www.brighthub.com/science/space/articles/24201.aspxhttp://www.brighthub.com/science/space/articles/24201.aspxhttp://www.brighthub.com/science/space/articles/24201.aspxhttp://www.brighthub.com/science/space/articles/24201.aspxhttp://www.brighthub.com/science/space/articles/4089.aspxhttp://www.brighthub.com/science/space/articles/4322.aspx -
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.
Refracting Telescope
Hubble Space Telescope
James Webb Space Telescope
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2. Cameras:
Another invaluable instrument in space exploration is cameras. They are used to
take high resolution images of the surface and surroundings of cosmic bodies.
Navigation cameras and hazard cameras help control stations on Earth guide robots
across the surface of the planets. Microscopic imagers are specifically designed totake pictures of soil and rocks with very high precision to advance the study of
planetary geology.
3. Spectroscope:Spectrometers are another scientific instrument which astronomers dependon
greatly to learn more about the characteristics and composition of different cosmicbodies. Every space probe is fitted with spectrometers of different capabilities. For
instance Mars exploration rovers, Spirit and Opportunity are equipped with a
Miniature Thermal Emission Spectrometer, Mssbauer spectrometer and AlphaParticle X-Ray Spectrometer, each with different purposes. The cameras and
spectrometers of different capabilities are used in all missions.
http://www.brighthub.com/science/space/articles/48844.aspx?p=2http://www.brighthub.com/science/space/articles/48844.aspx?p=2http://www.brighthub.com/science/space/articles/48844.aspx?p=2 -
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4. Robots:One of the greatest challenges of space exploration is the highly hostile
environmental conditions, which make human exploration practically impossible in
most cosmic environments. Scientists overcome this obstacle by developing different
types of space robots. There are different types of space robots like flybys, rovers,robotic arms, humanoids and orbiters.
Flyby humanoid
Orbiter rover
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II. Characteristics of Stars1. Age
2. Chemical composition
3. Diameter
4. Kinematics
5. Magnetic field
6. Mass
7. Rotation
8. Temperature
1. AgeMost stars are between 1 billion and 10 billion years old. Some stars may even be
close to 13.7 billion years oldthe observed age of the universe. The oldest star yet
discovered, HE 1523-0901, is an estimated 13.2 billion years old.
The more massive the star, the shorter its lifespan, primarily because massive stars
have greater pressure on their cores, causing them to burn hydrogen more rapidly. The
most massive stars last an average of a few million years, while stars of minimum mass
(red dwarfs) burn their fuel very slowly and last tens to hundreds of billions of years.
2. Chemical composition
When stars form in the present Milky Way galaxy they are composed of about 71%
hydrogen and 27% helium, as measured by mass, with a small fraction of heavierelements. Typically the portion of heavy elements is measured in terms of the iron
content of the stellar atmosphere, as iron is a common element and its absorption lines are
relatively easy to measure. Because the molecular clouds where stars form are steadily
enriched by heavier elements from supernovae explosions, a measurement of the
chemical composition of a star can be used to infer its age. The portion of heavier
elements may also be an indicator of the likelihood that the star has a planetary system.
The star with the lowest iron content ever measured is the dwarf HE1327-2326, with
only 1/200,000th the iron content of the Sun. By contrast, the super-metal-rich star
Leonis has nearly double the abundance of iron as the Sun, while the planet-bearingstar 14 Herculis has nearly triple the iron. There also exist chemically peculiar stars that
show unusual abundances of certain elements in their spectrum; especially
chromium and rare earth elements.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Agehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Agehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Chemical_compositionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Chemical_compositionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Diameterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Diameterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Kinematicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Kinematicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Magnetic_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Magnetic_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Masshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Masshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Rotationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Rotationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_the_universehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HE_1523-0901http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mu_Leonishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mu_Leonishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mu_Leonishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/14_Herculishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peculiar_starhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rare_earth_elementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rare_earth_elementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peculiar_starhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/14_Herculishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mu_Leonishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mu_Leonishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HE_1523-0901http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_the_universehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Rotationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Masshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Magnetic_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Kinematicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Diameterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Chemical_compositionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Age -
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3. Diameter
Stars vary widely in size. Due to their great distance from the Earth, all stars
except the Sun appear to the human eye as shining points in the night sky
that twinkle because of the effect of the Earth's atmosphere. The Sun is also a star, but it
is close enough to the Earth to appear as a disk instead, and to provide daylight. Otherthan the Sun, the star with the largest apparent size is R Doradus, with an angular
diameter of only 0.057 arcseconds.
Stars range in size from neutron stars, which vary anywhere from 20 to 40 km
(25 mi) in diameter, to supergiants like Betelgeuse in the Orion constellation, which has a
diameter approximately 650 times larger than the Sunabout 900,000,000 km
(560,000,000 mi). However, Betelgeuse has a much lower density than the Sun.
4. Kinematics
The motion of a star relative to the Sun can provide useful information about the
origin and age of a star, as well as the structure and evolution of the surrounding galaxy.
The components of motion of a star consist of the radial velocity toward or away from the
Sun, and the traverse angular movement, which is called its proper motion.
Radial velocity is measured by the doppler shift of the star's spectral lines, and is
given in units ofkm/s. The proper motion of a star is determined by precise astrometric
measurements in units of milli-arc seconds (mas) per year. By determining the parallax of
a star, the proper motion can then be converted into units of velocity. Stars with high
rates of proper motion are likely to be relatively close to the Sun, making them goodcandidates for parallax measurements.
Once both rates of movement are known, the space velocity of the star relative to
the Sun or the galaxy can be computed. Among nearby stars, it has been found that
population I stars have generally lower velocities than older, population II stars. The
latter have elliptical orbits that are inclined to the plane of the galaxy. Comparison of the
kinematics of nearby stars has also led to the identification ofstellar associations. These
are most likely groups of stars that share a common point of origin in giant molecular
clouds.
5. Magnetic field
The magnetic field of a star is generated within regions of the interior
where convective circulation occurs. This movement of conductive plasma functions like
a dynamo, generating magnetic fields that extend throughout the star. The strength of the
magnetic field varies with the mass and composition of the star, and the amount of
magnetic surface activity depends upon the star's rate of rotation. This surface activity
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scintillation_(astronomy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R_Doradushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_diameterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_diameterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcsecondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_starshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supergianthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betelgeusehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orion_constellationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Densityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radial_velocityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proper_motionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doppler_shifthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilometrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc_secondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_velocity_(astronomy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_associationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamo_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamo_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_associationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_velocity_(astronomy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc_secondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilometrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doppler_shifthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proper_motionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radial_velocityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Densityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orion_constellationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betelgeusehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supergianthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_starshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcsecondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_diameterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_diameterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R_Doradushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scintillation_(astronomy) -
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produces star spots, which are regions of strong magnetic fields and lower than normal
surface temperatures. Coronal loops are arching magnetic fields that reach out into the
corona from active regions. Stellar flares are bursts of high-energy particles that are
emitted due to the same magnetic activity.
Young, rapidly rotating stars tend to have high levels of surface activity becauseof their magnetic field. The magnetic field can act upon a star's stellar wind, however,
functioning as a brake to gradually slow the rate of rotation as the star grows older. Thus,
older stars such as the Sun have a much slower rate of rotation and a lower level of
surface activity. The activity levels of slowly rotating stars tend to vary in a cyclical
manner and can shut down altogether for periods. During the Maunder minimum, for
example, the Sun underwent a 70-year period with almost no sunspot activity.
6. Mass
The combination of the radius and the mass of a star determines the surface
gravity. Giant stars have a much lower surface gravity than main sequence stars, while
the opposite is the case for degenerate, compact stars such as white dwarfs. The surface
gravity can influence the appearance of a star's spectrum, with higher gravity causing a
broadening of the absorption lines.
Stars are sometimes grouped by mass based upon their evolutionary behavior as
they approach the end of their nuclear fusion lifetimes. Very low mass stars with masses
below 0.5 solar masses do not enter the asymptotic giant branch (AGB) but evolve
directly into white dwarfs.Low mass stars with a mass below about 1.82.2 solar masses
(depending on composition) do enter the AGB, where they develop a degenerate helium
core. Intermediate-mass stars undergo helium fusion and develop a degenerate carbon-
oxygen core.Massive stars have a minimum mass of 710 solar masses, but this may be
as low as 56 solar masses. These stars undergo carbon fusion, with their lives ending in
a core-collapse supernova explosion.
7. Rotation
The rotation rate of stars can be approximated through spectroscopicmeasurement, or more exactly determined by tracking the rotation rate ofstar spots.
Young stars can have a rapid rate of rotation greater than 100 km/s at the equator. The B-
class star Achernar, for example, has an equatorial rotation velocity of about 225 km/s or
greater, giving it an equatorial diameter that is more than 50% larger than the distance
between the poles. This rate of rotation is just below the critical velocity of 300 km/s
where the star would break apart. By contrast, the Sun only rotates once every 25 35
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starspothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_loophttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_flarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maunder_minimumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absorption_linehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_masseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptotic_giant_branchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium_fusionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_burning_processhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernovahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectroscopyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectroscopyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starspothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achernarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achernarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starspothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectroscopyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectroscopyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernovahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_burning_processhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium_fusionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptotic_giant_branchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_masseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absorption_linehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maunder_minimumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_flarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_loophttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starspot -
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days, with an equatorial velocity of 1.994 km/s. The star's magnetic field and the stellar
wind serve to slow down a main sequence star's rate of rotation by a significant amount
as it evolves on the main sequence.
8. Temperature
The surface temperature of a main sequence star is determined by the rate of
energy production at the core and the radius of the star and is often estimated from the
star's color index. It is normally given as the effective temperature, which is the
temperature of an idealized black body that radiates its energy at the same luminosity per
surface area as the star. Note that the effective temperature is only a representative value,
however, as stars actually have a temperature gradient that decreases with increasing
distance from the core. The temperature in the core region of a star is several
million kelvins.
The stellar temperature will determine the rate of energization or ionization of
different elements, resulting in characteristic absorption lines in the spectrum. The
surface temperature of a star, along with its visual absolute magnitude and absorption
features, is used to classify a star.
III. ConstellationsEver since people first wandered the Earth, great significance has been given to
the celestial objects seen in the sky. Throughout human history and across many different
cultures, names and mythical stories have been attributed to the star patterns in the night
sky, thus giving birth to what we know as constellations.
When were the first constellations recorded? Archaeological studies have
identified possible astronomical markings painted on the walls in the cave system at
Lascaux in southern France. Our ancestors may have recorded their view of the night sky
on the walls of their cave some 17 300 years ago. It is thought that the Pleiades star
cluster is represented alongside the nearby cluster of the Hyades. Was the first ever
depiction of a star pattern made over seventeen millennia ago? (Rappenglck 1996)
The ancient Greeks were the first to describe over half of the 88 constellations recognised
by the IAU today. Forty eight of the constellations we know were recorded in the seventh
and eighth books of Claudius Ptolemys Almagest, although the exact origin of these
constellations still remains uncertain. Ptolemys descriptions are probably strongly
influenced by the work of Eudoxus of Knidos in around 350 BC. Between the 16th and
17th century AD, European astronomers and celestial cartographers added new
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constellations to the 48 previously described by Ptolemy; these new constellations were
mainly new discoveries made by the Europeans who first explored the southern
hemisphere.
Andromeda Antlia Apus
Aquarius Aquila Ara
Aries Auriga Botes
Caelum Camelopardalis Cancer
Canes Venatici Canis Major Canis Minor
Capricornus Carina Cassiopeia
Centaurus Cepheus Cetus
Chamaeleon Circinus Columba
Coma Berenices Corona Austrina Corona Borealis
Corvus Crater Crux
Cygnus Delphinus Dorado
Draco Equuleus Eridanus
Fornax Gemini Grus
Hercules Horologium Hydra
Hydrus Indus Lacerta
Leo Leo Minor Lepus
Libra Lupus Lynx
Lyra Mensa Microscopium
Monoceros Musca Norma
Octans Ophiuchus Orion
Pavo Pegasus Perseus
http://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Andromeda.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Andromeda.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Antlia.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Antlia.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Apus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Apus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Aquarius.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Aquarius.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Aquila.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Aquila.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Ara.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Ara.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Aries.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Aries.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Auriga.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Auriga.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Bootes.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Bootes.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Caelum.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Caelum.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Camelopardalis.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Camelopardalis.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Cancer.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Cancer.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Canes_Venatici.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Canes_Venatici.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Canis_Major.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Canis_Major.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Canis_Minor.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Canis_Minor.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Capricornus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Capricornus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Carina.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Carina.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Cassiopeia.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Cassiopeia.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Centaurus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Centaurus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Cepheus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Cepheus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Cetus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Cetus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Chamaeleon.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Chamaeleon.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Circinus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Circinus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Columba.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Columba.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Coma_Berenices.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Coma_Berenices.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Corona_Austrina.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Corona_Austrina.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Corona_Borealis.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Corona_Borealis.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Corvus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Corvus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Crater.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Crater.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Crux.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Crux.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Cygnus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Cygnus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Delphinus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Delphinus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Dorado.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Dorado.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Draco.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Draco.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Equuleus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Equuleus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Eridanus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Eridanus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Fornax.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Fornax.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Gemini.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Gemini.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Grus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Grus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Hercules.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Hercules.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Horologium.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Horologium.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Hydra.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Hydra.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Hydrus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Hydrus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Indus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Indus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Lacerta.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Lacerta.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Leo.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Leo.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Leo_Minor.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Leo_Minor.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Lepus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Lepus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Libra.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Libra.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Lupus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Lupus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Lynx.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Lynx.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Lyra.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Lyra.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Mensa.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Mensa.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Microscopium.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Microscopium.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Monoceros.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Monoceros.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Musca.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Musca.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Norma.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Norma.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Octans.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Octans.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Ophiuchus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Ophiuchus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Orion.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Orion.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Pavo.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Pavo.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Pegasus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Pegasus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Perseus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Perseus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Perseus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Pegasus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Pavo.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Orion.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Ophiuchus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Octans.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Norma.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Musca.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Monoceros.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Microscopium.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Mensa.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Lyra.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Lynx.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Lupus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Libra.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Lepus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Leo_Minor.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Leo.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Lacerta.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Indus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Hydrus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Hydra.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Horologium.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Hercules.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Grus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Gemini.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Fornax.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Eridanus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Equuleus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Draco.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Dorado.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Delphinus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Cygnus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Crux.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Crater.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Corvus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Corona_Borealis.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Corona_Austrina.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Coma_Berenices.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Columba.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Circinus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Chamaeleon.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Cetus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Cepheus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Centaurus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Cassiopeia.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Carina.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Capricornus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Canis_Minor.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Canis_Major.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Canes_Venatici.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Cancer.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Camelopardalis.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Caelum.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Bootes.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Auriga.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Aries.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Ara.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Aquila.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Aquarius.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Apus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Antlia.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Andromeda.html 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Phoenix Pictor Pisces
Piscis Austrinus Puppis Pyxis
Reticulum Sagitta Sagittarius
Scorpius Sculptor Scutum
Serpens Sextans Taurus
Telescopium Triangulum Triangulum Australe
Tucana Ursa Major Ursa Minor
Vela Virgo Volans
Vulpecula
IV. Galaxies
Our galaxy, the Milky Way, is typical: it has hundreds of billions of stars, enough gas and
dust to make billions more stars, and at least ten times as much dark matter as all the stars and
gas put together. And its all held together bygravity.
Like more than two-thirds of the known galaxies, the Milky Way has a spiral shape. At
the center of the spiral, a lot of energy and, occasionally, vivid flares. are being generated. Basedon the immense gravity that would be required explain the movement of stars and the energy
expelled, the astronomers conclude that the center of the Milky Way is a supermassive black
hole.
Other galaxies have elliptical shapes, and a few have unusual shapes like toothpicks or
rings. The Hubble Ultra Deep Field (HUDF) shows this diversity. Hubble observed a tiny patchof sky (one-tenth the diameter of the moon) for one million seconds (11.6 days) and found
approximately 10,000 galaxies, of all sizes, shapes, and colors. From the ground, we see very
little in this spot, which is in the constellation Fornax.
http://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Phoenix.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Phoenix.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Pictor.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Pictor.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Pisces.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Pisces.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Piscis_Austrinus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Piscis_Austrinus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Puppis.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Puppis.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Pyxis.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Pyxis.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Reticulum.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Reticulum.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Sagitta.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Sagitta.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Sagittarius.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Sagittarius.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Scorpius.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Scorpius.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Sculptor.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Sculptor.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Scutum.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Scutum.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Serpens.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Serpens.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Sextans.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Sextans.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Taurus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Taurus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Telescopium.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Telescopium.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Triangulum.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Triangulum.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Triangulum_Australe.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Triangulum_Australe.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Tucana.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Tucana.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Ursa_Major.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Ursa_Major.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Ursa_Minor.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Ursa_Minor.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Vela.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Vela.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Virgo.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Virgo.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Volans.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Volans.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Vulpecula.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Vulpecula.htmlhttp://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/2009/28/image/c/http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2005/sgra/http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2005/sgra/http://www.spitzer.caltech.edu/images/1925-ssc2008-10b-A-Roadmap-to-the-Milky-Way-Annotated-http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2008/blackhole_slumber.htmlhttp://chandra.harvard.edu/xray_sources/blackholes_sm.htmlhttp://chandra.harvard.edu/xray_sources/blackholes_sm.htmlhttp://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/2004/07/http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/2004/07/http://chandra.harvard.edu/xray_sources/blackholes_sm.htmlhttp://chandra.harvard.edu/xray_sources/blackholes_sm.htmlhttp://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2008/blackhole_slumber.htmlhttp://www.spitzer.caltech.edu/images/1925-ssc2008-10b-A-Roadmap-to-the-Milky-Way-Annotated-http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2005/sgra/http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/2009/28/image/c/http://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Vulpecula.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Volans.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Virgo.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Vela.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Ursa_Minor.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Ursa_Major.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Tucana.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Triangulum_Australe.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Triangulum.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Telescopium.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Taurus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Sextans.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Serpens.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Scutum.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Sculptor.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Scorpius.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Sagittarius.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Sagitta.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Reticulum.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Pyxis.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Puppis.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Piscis_Austrinus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Pisces.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Pictor.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Phoenix.html 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Galaxy Constellation Origin of name Notes
Milky Way
GalaxySagittarius(centre)
This is the galaxy that containsEarth, it is
named after the nebulosity in the night sky that
marks the densest concentration of stars of our
galaxy in the sky, which appears to blur
together into a faint glow, called theMilky
Way.
Andromeda Andromeda
Commonly justAndromeda, this, called
theAndromeda Galaxy,Andromeda
Nebula,Great Andromeda Nebula,Andromeda
Spiral Nebula, and such, has been traditionally
called Andromeda, after the constellation in
which it lies.
Bode's
GalaxyUrsa Major
Named forJohann Elert Bodewho discovered
this galaxy in 1774.
Cartwheel
GalaxySculptor
Its visual appearance is similar to that of a
spoked cartwheel.
Cigar
GalaxyUrsa Major Appears similar in shape to acigar.
Comet
GalaxySculptor
This galaxy is named after its unusual
appearance, looking like a comet.
The comet effect is caused by
tidal stripping by its galaxy
cluster,Abell 2667.
Hoag's
ObjectSerpens Caput
This is named afterArt Hoag, who discovered
thisring galaxy.
It is of the subtypeHoag-type
galaxy, and may in fact be
apolar-ring galaxywith the ring in
the plane of rotation of the central
object.
Large
Magellanic
Cloud
Dorado/Mensa Named afterFerdinand Magellan
This is the fourth largest galaxy in
theLocal Group, and forms a pair
with theSMC, and from recent
research, may not be part of the
Milky Way system of satellites at
all.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Way_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Way_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Way_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Wayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Wayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Wayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Wayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andromeda_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andromeda_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andromeda_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andromeda_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bode%27s_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bode%27s_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bode%27s_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ursa_Major_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Elert_Bodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Elert_Bodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Elert_Bodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartwheel_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartwheel_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartwheel_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sculptor_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sculptor_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cigar_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cigar_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cigar_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ursa_Major_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cigarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cigarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cigarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sculptor_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sculptor_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abell_2667http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abell_2667http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abell_2667http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoag%27s_Objecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoag%27s_Objecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpens_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpens_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_Hoaghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_Hoaghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_Hoaghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hoag-type_galaxy&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hoag-type_galaxy&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hoag-type_galaxy&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hoag-type_galaxy&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar-ring_galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar-ring_galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Magellanic_Cloudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Magellanic_Cloudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Magellanic_Cloudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Magellanic_Cloudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorado_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mensa_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mensa_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mensa_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_Grouphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_Grouphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_Grouphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_Magellanic_Cloudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_Magellanic_Cloudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_Magellanic_Cloudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_Magellanic_Cloudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_Grouphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mensa_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorado_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Magellanic_Cloudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Magellanic_Cloudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Magellanic_Cloudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar-ring_galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hoag-type_galaxy&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hoag-type_galaxy&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_Hoaghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpens_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoag%27s_Objecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoag%27s_Objecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abell_2667http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sculptor_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cigarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ursa_Major_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cigar_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cigar_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sculptor_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartwheel_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartwheel_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Elert_Bodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ursa_Major_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bode%27s_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bode%27s_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andromeda_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andromeda_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Wayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Wayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Way_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Way_Galaxy 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Small
Magellanic
Cloud
Tucana Named afterFerdinand Magellan
This forms a pair with the LMC,
and from recent research, may not
be part of the Milky Way system
of satellites at all.
Mayall's
ObjectUrsa Major
This is named afterNicholas U. Mayall, of
theLick Observatory, who discovered it.[6][7][8]
Also calledVV 32andArp 148,
this is a very peculiar looking
object, and is likely to be not one
galaxy, but two galaxies
undergoing a collision. Event in
images is a spindle shape and a
ring shape.
Pinwheel
GalaxyUrsa Major Similar in appearance to apinwheel (toy).
Sombrero
GalaxyVirgo Similar in appearance to asombrero.
Sunflower
GalaxyCanes Venatici
Tadpole
GalaxyDraco
The name comes from the resemblance of the
galaxy to atadpole.
This shape resulted from tidal
interaction that drew out a long
tidal tail.
Whirlpool
GalaxyCanes Venatici
From thewhirlpoolappearance this
gravitationally disturbed galaxy exhibits.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_Magellanic_Cloudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_Magellanic_Cloudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_Magellanic_Cloudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_Magellanic_Cloudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tucana_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tucana_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayall%27s_Objecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayall%27s_Objecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ursa_Major_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_U._Mayallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_U._Mayallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_U._Mayallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lick_Observatoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lick_Observatoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lick_Observatoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_galaxies#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_galaxies#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_galaxies#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_galaxies#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=VV_32&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=VV_32&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=VV_32&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arp_148http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arp_148http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arp_148http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinwheel_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinwheel_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinwheel_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ursa_Major_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinwheel_(toy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinwheel_(toy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinwheel_(toy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sombrero_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sombrero_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sombrero_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgo_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgo_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sombrerohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sombrerohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sombrerohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunflower_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunflower_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunflower_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canes_Venatici_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canes_Venatici_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadpole_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadpole_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadpole_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draco_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draco_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadpolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadpolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadpolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whirlpool_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whirlpool_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whirlpool_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canes_Venatici_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canes_Venatici_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whirlpoolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whirlpoolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whirlpoolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whirlpoolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canes_Venatici_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whirlpool_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whirlpool_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadpolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draco_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadpole_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadpole_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canes_Venatici_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunflower_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunflower_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sombrerohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgo_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sombrero_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sombrero_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinwheel_(toy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ursa_Major_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinwheel_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinwheel_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arp_148http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=VV_32&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_galaxies#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_galaxies#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_galaxies#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lick_Observatoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_U._Mayallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ursa_Major_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayall%27s_Objecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayall%27s_Objecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tucana_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_Magellanic_Cloudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_Magellanic_Cloudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_Magellanic_Cloud -
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V. The Universe
The universe is a huge wide-open space that holds everything from the smallest
particle to the biggest galaxy. No one knows just how big the Universe is. Astronomerstry to measure it all the time. They use a special instrument called a spectroscope to tell
whether an object is moving away from Earth or toward Earth. Based on the informationfrom this instrument, scientists have learned that the universe is still growing outward inevery direction.
Scientists believe that about 13.7 billion years ago, a powerful explosion calledthe Big Bang happened. This powerful explosion set the universe into motion and this
motion continues today. Scientists are not yet sure if the motion will stop, change
direction, or keep going forever.
VI. Space probes and their missions
Suisei
Designed to study Comet P/Halley, Suisei was part of an internatinal fleet of six Halley's comet
explorers called the Halley Armada. Suisei received its name (meaning Comet in Japanese) after launch.
It was the second of two Japanese probes launched toward Halley during the 1986 encounter. On March
8, 1986, at 13:06 UT, SUISEI approached 151,000 km in the side of the Sun away from halley's Comet,
returning ultraviolet images of the 20-million-kilometer hydrogen gas coma.
Giotto
Designed to study Comet P/Halley, Giotto was the first deep space probe launched by theEuropean Space Agency (ESA). Originally put forward as part of a joint NASA/ESA comet mission, the
United States eventually pulled out. There was little leeway for delays if the ESA planned to continue
alone. If the opportunity was missed, the next chance at Halley's Comet would be 75 years later.
Vega 2
Vega 2 - The Vega project was an ambitious deep space Soviet mission with three major goals:
to place advanced lander modules on the surface of Venus, to deploy balloons (two each) in the
Venusian atmosphere, and, by using Venusian gravity, to fly the remaining buses past the Comet Halley.
Vega 2 was the second of a set of twin missions. Discover Vega 2 mission to Venus.
Vega 1
The Vega project was an ambitious deep space Soviet mission with three major goals: to place
advanced lander modules on the surface of Venus, to deploy balloons (two each) in the Venusian
atmosphere, and, by using Venusian gravity, to fly the remaining buses past the Comet Halley. It was a
cooperative effort among the Soviet Union and Austria, Bulgaria, Hungary, the German Democratic
Republic, Poland, Czechoslovakia, France, and the Federal Republic of Germany.
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Redstone Rockets
The Redstone rocket was developed by Dr. Werhner von Braun and a group of US rocketry
specialists. On January 31, 1958, a modified four-stage Redstone rocket, known as Jupiter-C, lifted the
first American satellite, Explorer I, into orbit. A Redstone rocket also launched the Mercury capsules on
their sub-orbital flights in 1961, inaugurating America's human spaceflight program.
Beagle 2
Beagle 2's main mission was to search for signs of life - past or present - in the Martian soil. It
was also equipped to look for signs of water and study Mars' geology and atmosphere. Beagle 2 was
equipped with a robot sampling arm and a small "mole" (Planetary Undersurface Tool, or PLUTO) which
can be deployed by the arm and was capable of moving across the surface at a rate of about 1 cm every
5 seconds using a compressed spring mechanism.
Deep Space 2
The Deep Space 2 (DS2) project was a New Millenium mission consisting of two probes which
were to penetrate the surface of Mars near the south polar layered terrain and send back data on thesub-surface properties.
Fobos 1
Fobos 1, and its companion spacecraft Fobos 2, were the next-generation in the Venera-type
planetary missions, succeeding those last used during the Vega 1 and 2 missions to comet P/Halley. Each
spacecraft, with a newly designed bus, carried twenty-four experiments provided by thirteen countries
and the European Space Agency.
International Sun-Earth Explorer 3
The International Sun-Earth Explorer 3's was the 3rd of a trio of spacecraft sent into space tostudy interplanetary space. Among its accomplishments was being the first spacecraft orbit at a libration
point as well as the first to detect the solar wind approaching Earth. Later, it was renamed International
Cometary Explorer and sent to study comet Giacbini-Zinner and comet Halley. It was the first spacecraft
to fly past a comet, flying through the tail of comet Giacobini-Zinner.
Mars Astrobiology Field Lab Rover (AFL) Mission Information
The Mars Astrobiology Field Laboratory (AFL) will provide a major advance in astrobiology. The
mission will perform mutually confirming tests and measurements of biosignatures for past and present
habitation.
Mars Climate Orbiter
Mars Climate Orbiter was the second probe in NASA's Mars Surveyor program and was designed
to function as an interplanetary weather satellite and a communications relay for Mars Polar Lander.
The orbiter carried two science instruments: a copy of an atmospheric sounder on the Mars Observer
spacecraft lost in 1993, and a new, lightweight color imager combining wide- and medium-angle
cameras.
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Mars Global Surveyor
Mars Global Surveyor was the first successful mission to the Red Planet in two decades. The
Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) was designed to orbit Mars over a two year period and collect data on the
surface morphology, topography, composition, gravity, atmospheric dynamics, and magnetic field. This
data will be used to investigate the surface processes, geology, distribution of material, internal
properties, evolution of the magnetic field, and the weather and climate of Mars.
Mars Observer
Seventeen years after the successful Viking 1 and Viking 2 missions, Mars Observer, the first of
the Observer series of planetary missions, was designed to study the geoscience and climate of Mars. It
was designed to carry out a high-resolution photography mission of the Red Planet over the course of a
Martian year (687 days) from a 378 x 350-kilometer polar orbit.
Mars Odyssey
The 2001 Mars Odyssey is the remaining part of the Mars Surveyor 2001 Project, which
originally consisted of two separately launched missions, The Mars Surveyor 2001 Orbiter and the MarsSurveyor 2001 Lander. The lander spacecraft was cancelled as part of the reorganization of the Mars
Exploration Program at NASA. The orbiter, renamed the 2001 Mars Odyssey, will nominally orbit Mars
for three years.
Mars Pathfinder Mission Information
The rover was named in honor of Sojourner Truth, a 19th century abolitionist and champion of
women's rights. The name was suggested by Valerie Ambroise, 12, of Bridgeport, CT. Other suggestions
included Sacagawea, Athena and Thumbelina. Sojourner rover operated for 84 days - 12 times longer
than its designed lifetime of seven days. The Mars Pathfinder was the second of NASA's low-cost
planetary Discovery missions to be launched.
Mars Polar Lander Mission Information
The Mars Surveyor '98 program is comprised of two spacecraft launched separately, the Mars
Climate Orbiter and the Mars Polar Lander. The two missions were designed to study the Martian
weather, climate, and water and carbon dioxide budget, in order to understand the reservoirs, behavior,
and atmospheric role of volatiles and to search for evidence of long-term and episodic climate changes.
The last telemetry from Mars Polar Lander was sent just prior to atmospheric entry on 3 December
1999.
Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter Mission Information
The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) is designed to orbit Mars over a full martian year and
gather data with six scientific instruments, including a high-resolution imager. The science objectives of
the mission are to: characterize the present climate of Mars and its physical mechanisms of seasonal
and interannual climate change; determine the nature of complex layered terrain on Mars and identify
water-related landforms.
http://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/mgsmissioninfo.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/mgsmissioninfo.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/marsobserver.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/marsodysseyinfo.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/marspathfinder.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/marspathfinder.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/marspolarlander.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/marspolarlander.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/mromissioninfo.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/mromissioninfo.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/mromissioninfo.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/marspolarlander.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/marspathfinder.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/marsodysseyinfo.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/marsobserver.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/mgsmissioninfo.htm -
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Mars Sample Return Lander Mission Information
In the second decade of the century, NASA plans additional science orbiters, rovers and landers,
and the first mission to return samples of Martian rock and soil to Earth. Current plans call for the first
sample return mission to be launched in 2014, and a second in 2016. Options that would significantly
increase the rate of mission launch and/or accelerate the schedule of exploration are under study,
including launching the first sample return mission as early as 2011.
Mars Science Laboratory Mission Information
Mars Science Laboratory will be a long-range, long-duration mobile lab. Its mission will be to
continue the study of Martian geology from the surface and pave the way for a possible future sample
return. The lab will be delivered to Mars on the first of a new generation of smart landers.
Mars Scout 2 Mission Information
This next generation Mars Scout could take one of many forms - an airplane, balloon or small
lander. Scout missions are designed by the science community and will be shaped by discoveries of the
current fleet of Mars spacecraft. The first Mars Scout is Phoenix, which is scheduled to launch for Marsin 2007.
Mars Scout 3 Mission Information
This next generation Mars Scout could take one of many forms - an airplane, balloon or small
lander. Scout missions are designed by the science community and will be shaped by discoveries of the
current fleet of Mars spacecraft. The first Mars Scout is Phoenix, which is scheduled to launch for Mars
in 2007.
Nozomi Mission Information
Nozomi was Japan's first mission to another planet. Nozomi means hope in Japanese. Beforelaunch, it was known as Planet-B. The orbiter weighed 541 kg (1,193 pounds), including fuel. Intended to
be Japan's first Mars orbiter, Nozomi was Japan's fourth "deep space" probe. Nozomi was to be inserted
into a highly eccentric Mars orbit with a periapsis 300 km above the surface, an apoapsis of 15 Mars
radii, and an inclination of 170 degrees with respect to the ecliptic plane.
Opportunity Mars Rover Mission Information
Opportunity traveled roughly 491 million km (305 million miles) on its journey to Mars. On the
surface, the rover moves at a top speed of 5 cm (2 inches) per second. Opportunity's panoramic camera
will reveal Mars at about the same height as an adult person. Both rovers carry a unique camera
calibration target in the shape of a sundail. Opportunity found the strongest evidence yet that liquid
water once existed on the surface of Mars. It is one of the two rovers launched to Mars in mid-2003.
http://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/marssampret.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/marssampret.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/marslabinfo.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/marslabinfo.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/marsscout2info.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/marsscout2info.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/marsscout3info.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/marsscout3info.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/nozomimission.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/nozomimission.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/opportunitymiss.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/opportunitymiss.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/opportunitymiss.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/nozomimission.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/marsscout3info.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/marsscout2info.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/marslabinfo.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/marssampret.htm -
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VII. Achievements in space explorations
Date Achievement Details
07/05/1687 Publication of Principia
The English astronomer Sir Isaac newton publishes
the Philosophae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. This
three-volume work outlines Newton's three laws of
motion as well
December 17, 1904First Exposition of Rocket
Mechanics
The British mathematician William Moore
publishes Treatise on the Motion of Rockets. This work
features the first exposition of rocket mechanics based on
Newton's third law of motion.
March 17, 1905 Publication of Principia
Russian rocket scientist Konstantin Tsiolkovsky publishes
The Exploration of Cosmic Space by Means of Reaction
Devices. This is the first serious work to be published that
shows space exploration to be theoretically possible.
March 28, 1905 Goddard's Rocket Patents
U.S. rocket scientist Robert H. Goddard receives two
landmark patents for rockets. The first described a multi-stage rocket and the second described a rocket fueled with
gasoline and liquid nitrous oxide. These two patents would
become major milestones in the history of rocketry.
April 2, 1905Goddard's Famous
Publication
Robert Goddard publishes A Method of Reaching Extreme
Altitudes. The book describes Goddard's mathematical
theories of rocket flight and his research into solid-fuel
and liquid-fuel rockets. It is regarded by many as one of
the most important works in the science of rocketry and is
believed to have influenced the work of German rocket
pioneers Hermann Oberth and Wernher von Braun.
April 7, 1905Soviet Rocket Society
Established
The Soviet Union establishes the Society for Studies ofInterplanetary Travel. This group would soon be renamed
the Society for the Study of Interplanetary
Communications and would become the first Soviet rocket
society.
March 16, 1926First Liquid Fueled Rocket
Launched
U.S. rocket scientist Robert H. Goddard launches the first
liquid fueled rocket from his Aunt Effie's farm in Auburn,
Massachusetts. The 4-foot high rocket dubbed "Nell"
reaches an altitude of 41 feet and a speed of about 60
miles per hour. The flight lasts only 2 1/2 seconds, but
paves the way for the U.S. rocket program.
April 10, 1905 Rocket Club
The Verein fr Raumschiffahrt (Society for Space Travel) is
formed as an association of amateur rocket enthusiasts inGermany. This group brings together many of the
engineers who would eventually make important
contributions to space flight.
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April 16, 1905 Aggregate Rocket Series
Work begins in Germany on the Aggregate series of
rockets. Under the direction of German rocket scientist
Wernher von Braun, this program eventually leads to
development of the V-2 rocket, one of Nazi Germany's
most powerful weapons of destruction.
April 25, 1905 First Suborbital Flight
After two previous failures, Germany successfully launches
their V-2 rocket. It is the first man-made object to achieve
sub-orbital spaceflight, reaching an altitude of 100 km (62
miles). The V-2 is the progenitor of all modern rockets
including the U.S. Apollo program's Saturn V moon rocket.
May 10, 1946 First U.S. High Altitude Flight
The U.S. military achieves its first high-altitude space flight
using a rebuilt German V-2 rocket. Launched from the
White Sands Proving Ground in New Mexico, the flight
reaches an altitude of 70 miles.
May 22, 1946First American-Designed
Rocket Reaches Space
The United States launches its first American-designed
rocket. Known as the Wac Corporal, the rocket reaches the
edge of space at an altitude of 50 miles after being
launched from the White Sands Proving Ground in NewMexico.
February 20, 1947 First Animals in Space
Fruit flies become the first animals in space as a V-2 rocket
is launched from the White Sands Proving Ground. Inside
are several vials containing fruit flies, rye seeds, and
cotton seeds. The flight reaches an altitude of 60 miles,
and the payload is later retrieved intact.
August 21, 1957First Intercontinental Ballistic
Missile
The Soviet Union launches the first Intercontinental
Ballistic Missile (ICBM). Known as the R-7 Semyorka, it
travels a total distance of 6000 km (3728 miles). A
modified version of this missile would be used later to
launch the world's first artificial satellite,
October 4, 1957 First Artificial Satellite
The USSR beat the United States into space by launching
Sputnik 1. At 184 pounds, it was the world's first artificial
satellite. Sputnik transmitted radio signals back to Earth
for only a short time, but it was a major accomplishment.
November 3, 1957 First Live Animal in Space
Following the success of Sputnik 1, the Soviets launched
Sputnik 2 on November 3, 1957. The spacecraft contained
a pressurized container that housed a dog named Laika.
The capsule contained a controlled atmosphere, food
supply, waste collection system and biological sensors.
Laika lived 8 days until the food supply ran out, and proved
that animals could survive in space.
January 31, 1958 First American Satellite
America launched its first satellite. Weighing only 30
pounds, Explorer 1 was launched into orbit by the Army on
a Jupiter-C rocket. The satellite contained several scientific
instruments. This mission discovered the radiation belts
surrounding the Earth.
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October 1, 1958 NASA is BornThe National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is
founded, taking over the responsibilities of the existing
National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics.
January 2, 1959First Spacecraft to Achieve
Solar Orbit
The Russian satellite Luna 1 is launched in an attempt to hit
the Moon. The spacecraft misses the Moon and is flung out
into space by the Moon's gravity. It becomes the first man-made object to achieve an orbit around the Sun.
September 12, 1959First Spacecraft to Impact on
the Moon
The Russian satellite Luna 2 is launched. On September 13, it
becomes the first man-made object to hit the Moon. The
spacecraft was sterilized to avoid contaminating the Moon
with terrestrial bacteria.
October 4, 1959 First View of Moon's Far SideThe Russian satellite Luna 3 is launched, orbiting the Moon
and photographing 70 percent of the Moon's far side.
April 1, 1960 First Weather Satellite
Tiros 1, the first successful weather satellite, is launched by
the United States. Two television cameras in the satellite
returned views of clouds above the Earth. Tiros 1 was only
operational for 78 days, but proved that satellites could be
useful tools for surveying weather conditions from space.
April 12, 1961 First Man in Space
Russian Cosmonaut Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin became the
first human to venture into space. The Vostok 1 spacecraft
made one complete orbit around Earth in 108 minutes, and
reached altitudes of 112 to 203 miles. The flight lasted only
one hour and 48 minutes.
May 5, 1961 First American in Space
On May 5, 1961, Astronaut Alan Shepard became the first
American to be launched into space. Shepard's suborbital
flight lasted only15-minutes, during which time he
experienced about 5 minutes of "weightlessness" and tested
the maneuvering capability of his Mercury capsule.
May 25, 1961President Kennedy's Historic
Speech
Just 20 days after Shepard's flight, President John F. Kennedy
made his historic speech to Congress. He challenged the
nation to land "a man on the Moon and return him safely to
Earth" before the end of the decade.
February 20, 1962 First American in Orbit
Astronaut John H. Glenn was launched into orbit aboard an
Atlas D rocket, where he became the first American to orbit
the Earth. Glenn made a total of 3 complete orbits, and the
flight time was 4 hours and 56 minutes.
March 18, 1965 First Space Walk
Commander Pavel I. Belyayeu and Pilot Alexei A. Leonov into
Earths orbit were launched into orbit aboard Voskhod 2.
Alexei Leonov performed the first, tethered space walk
outside of his spacecraft while in Earths orbit. This historic
venture into space lasted a mere 12 minutes.
July 14, 1965 First Close-up Images of MarsMariner 4 arrived at Mars and gave scientists their first views
of the planet at close range. The resulting photos showed no
sign of the famous "canals" and no evidence of life.
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February 3, 1966first Spacecraft to land on
the Moon
The Russian spacecraft Luna 9 completed a 250,000-mile trip
and successfully became the first spacecraft to soft-land on
the Moon. Luna 9 transmitted pictures of the Moon's surface
back to Earth. The mission demonstrated that the Moon's
surface was strong enough to support the weight of a large
spacecraft.
June 2, 1966 First American Spacecraft onthe Moon
Surveyor 1 became the first American spacecraft to soft-land
on the Moon. After a journey of 63 hours and 36 minutes,
Surveyor 1 successfully landed only 9 miles off its target in
the Oceanus Procellarum. The spacecraft transmitted more
than 11,000 high-resolution photographs before its energy
sources were depleted.
January 27, 1967 First U.S. Space Tragedy
During a routine test on the launch pad, a spark caused a fire
to start in the crew compartment of the command module.
Gus Grissom, Ed White, and Roger Chaffee, were killed in this
tragic incident. It was later determined that faulty wiring
caused the spark, and the pure oxygen environment in the
capsule was to blame for the rapid spreading of the blaze.
April 23, 1967 First Spaceflight CasualtySoviet Soyuz 1 is launched, carrying Vladimir M. Komarov. On
April 24 it crashed, killing Komarov, the first spaceflight
fatality.
October 18, 1967 First Venus ProbeThe Soviet probe Venera 4 sends a descent capsule into the
Venusian atmosphere, returning data about its composition.
September 15, 1968 First Moon OrbitThe Soviet Zond 5 is launched. It becomes the first spacecraft
to orbit the Moon and return.
October 11, 1968 First Manned Apollo MissionApollo 7 is the first manned Apollo mission with Walter M.
Schirra, Jr., Donn F. Eisele, and Walter Cunningham. It orbited
the Earth once.
December 21, 1968 First Manned Moon Orbit
Apollo 8 is launched with Frank Borman, James A. Lovell, Jr.
and William A. Anders, the first Apollo to use the Saturn V
rocket, and the first manned spacecraft to orbit the Moon,
making 10 orbits on its 6-day mission.
July 20, 1969 First Manned Moon LandingApollo 11 makes the first successful soft landing on the
Moon. Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin, Jr. become the first
human beings to set foot on another world.
April 11, 1970 Apollo 13 Launch
Apollo 13 is launched, suffering an explosion in its SM oxygen
tanks. Its Moon landing is aborted, and the crew, James A.
Lovell, Jr., John L. Swigert, Jr. and Fred W. Haise, Jr., returns
safely after several harrowing days in space.
September 12, 1970First Automated Return of
Lunar Soil
The Soviet Luna 16 is launched, conducting the first
successful return of lunar soil samples by an automatic
spacecraft.
November 17, 1970 First Robotic Lunar Mission
Luna 17 lands on the Moon, with the first automatic robot,
Lunokhod 1. Driven by a five-man team on Earth, the craft
travels over the lunar surface for 11 lunar days (322 Earth
days). During this time, it returns 20,000 TV images and 206
high-resolution panoramas in addition to performing a host
of experiments including soil analysis.
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December 15, 1970 First Landing on Venus
The Soviet Venera 7 is the first probe to soft-land on Venus,
transmitting for 23 minutes. The spacecraft send back a few
images of the planet's surface before succumbing to the
extreme heat and pressure of Venusian atmosphere.
April 19, 1971 First Space StationThe Salyut 1 space station is launched by the U.S.S.R. It
remains in orbit until May 28, 1973.
June 6, 1971First Occupation of Space
Station
Soyuz 11 carried Cosmonauts G.T. Dobrovolsky, V.N. Volkov,
and V.I. Patsayev to Salyut 1, the first manned occupancy of
an orbital station. Tragically, on June 29, the Cosmonauts
died upon Soyuz 11's reentry.
July 30, 1971 First Lunar Rover Mission
Apollo 15 astronauts David Scott and James Irwin drive the
first moon rover while exploring the Moon's surface. The next
year, Apollo 17 astronaut Harrison Schmitt drives a similar
rover.
November 13, 1971First Spacecraft to Orbit
Another Planet
American space probe Mariner 9 (launched May 30, 1971) is
the first spacecraft to orbit another planet, Mars. Over the
next year, it maps 100 percent of the Martian surface.
December, 1972 First Black Hole CandidateAstronomers designate Cignus X-1 as the first probable black
hole This binary star system emits strong bursts as X-rays as
matter is crushed out of existence by the black hole.
May 14, 1973 First U.S. Space StationThe United States launches Skylab, the first U.S. space
station. It will be occupied by three crews and be an
important arena for a number of scientific experiments.
May 25, 1973 First Skylab CrewThe United States launches Skylab 2, carrying the first crew to
visit Skylab. The crew repairs damage sustained by Skylab
station during its launch.
July 17, 1975 First International SpaceRendezvous
American Apollo (18) and Soviet Soyuz 19 dock in what is the
first international spacecraft rendezvous. Known as theApollo-Soyuz Test Project, this important mission proved that
U.S. and Russian crews could work together successfully in
space.
October, 1975 First Surface Images of VenusSoviet Venera 9 and 10 send the first pictures of the Venusian
surface to Earth.
July 20, 1976 First Surface Images of MarsThe first pictures of the surface of Mars are sent back to
Earth by Viking 1, the first U.S. spacecraft to successfully land
a on another planet.
September, 1976
Discovery of Water Frost on
Mars
Viking 2 lands on Mars on the Plain of Utopia, where it
discovers water frost and sends back stunning images of theMartian surface.
August-September, 1977Launch of Historic Voyager
Missions
The Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecraft leave Earth to meet
with Jupiter in 1979 and Saturn in 1980.
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December, 1978 U.S. Probes Arrive at VenusTwo U.S. Pioneer spacecraft reach Venus. One drops four
probes into the atmosphere, while the other maps the
surface.
March 5, 1979 Voyager 1 Arrives at JupiterThe U.S. Voyager 1 spacecraft, launched in 1977, arrives at
Jupiter and begins sending back amazing images of the giant
planet and its moons.
July 9, 1979 Voyager 2 Arrives at JupiterThe U.S. Voyager 2 spacecraft, launched in 1977, arrives at
Jupiter and