Legends of Holy Men of Early Japan

8/12/2019 Legends of Holy Men of Early Japan

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LEGENDS OF HOLY MEN OF EARLY JAPANAuthor(s): Susanne Andrea AndersonSource: Monumenta Serica, Vol. 28 (1969), pp. 258-320Published by: Monumenta Serica InstituteStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40725897 .Accessed: 25/04/2014 04:45

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LEGENDSOF HOLYMENOF EARLYJAPAN*

Susanne Andrea Anderson

Abbreviationsnd ReferencesDBZ DainihonbukkyenshoKT ShinteizhokokushitaikeiNKBT NihonkotenbungakutaikeiTYKS TeihonYanagita Kunio shZGR ZokugunshoruijZMK Zenkokumukashibanashikiroku

ZTB ZokuteikokubunkoAarne,Antti and Stith Thompson."The Types of the Folktale,"in FF

Communications84(Helsinki, 964).Bascom,William. Four Functions of Folklore, in Journal of American

Folklore67(1954)33&-349.. "TheForms of Folklore ProseNarratives,"nJournal of Ameri-

can Folklore77(1965)3-20.Beowulf Translatedby BurtonRaffel. New York,1963.Bett, Henry. English Myths nd Traditions. London,1952.Blinkenberg,hr. TheThunderweaponn Religionand Folklore.Cambridge,

1911.

Bohner,Hermann.Legendenus derFrhzeitdes apanischenBuddhismus.Nippon-Koku-Gemb-Zenaku-Ry-1-Ki,n Mitteilungender DeutschenGe-sellschaft r Natur- und Volkerkunde rtasiens27(1934).

Brown,Norman. The Indian and Christian Miraclesof Walkingon theWater. Chicago,1928.

Campbell,Joseph. The Hero With a Thousand Faces. NewYork,1967.Chambers, .W. Beowulf.Cambridge,932.Christiansen,eidarTh. "TheMigratory egends," n FF Communications

175(Helsinki,958).Daijmmeijiten jz A # ft. EditedbyShimonakaYasaburT ^ MH 6P.

10vols. Tokyo,1957.Dainihonbukkyensho^ 0 * ft fc ^. 151 vols. Tokyo,1912-1939.DeBenneville,amesS. Saito Musashi-boBenkei. 2vols. Yokohama,910.

* Thispaperwaswritten s a Master'sthesis at the University f California,osAngeles.I wish o thank he three professorsn mycommittee or their kind assis-tance Professor nshoAshikagafor his help nthe use of Buddhisterminology,ro-fessor en Befuforhis criticisms ith regardto bothstyleandcontent, nd ProfessorWaylandD. Hand for his instructionn folkloremethods nd techniques.

258

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LEGENDSF HOLYMENOF EARLYJAPAN 259

DeVisser,M.W. The BodhisattvaTi-tsang (Jizo) in China and Japan.Berlin, 914.DeVries,Jan. HeroicSongand HeroicLegend. London,963.

Dorson,RichardM.,ed. FolkLegends ofJapan. Rutland,Vermont, 962.EmiSuiinin [ tKPed. Bukkykakush zoku ksjitsudenfft c# ^ iffi

Mft S *, in ZTB 49. Tokyo,1903.FujisawaMorihikoH WMM- Nihonminzokudensetsu ensh. 0 ;$: M

m t *. 10vols. Tokyo,1955.. ZusetsuNihonminzokugakuenshHIB^gfS^P^^. 8

vols. Tokyo,1960.Funk and WagnallsStandardDictionaryofFolklore,Mythologynd Legend.

Edited hv Maria T,eaoh. 2 vols. New York. 1949.Gerould.GordonHall. Saints* Lea ends. Boston.1916.Getty,Alice. The Godsof NorthernBuddhism. Rutland,Vermont, 962.GikeikiMg IS, in NKBT 37.Editedby OkamiMasaom LJE . Tokyo,

1959.GoldenLegendof Jacobusde Voragine. Translatedby GrangerRyan and

HelmutRipperger. 2 vols. London,1941.Grimm'sFairy Tales. Translatedby Josef charl. NewYork,1944.Gygidaibosatsugyjki h S * # S h tt S, in ZGR16. Editedby

Hanawa Hokiichig B - . Tokyo,1929.Hartland,Edwin S. Legend ofPerseus. 3 vols. London,1894-96.HasuoKanzenS 11#. KbDaishi denik%kU. Tokyo,1931.Hole,Christina.Saints in Folklore. NewYork,1965.

Hope,RobertCharles. TheLegendaryLoreof the HolyWellsof England.London,893.HoriIchiro. Folk Religionin Japan. Chicago,1968.

. "Onthe Conceptof Hijiri(Holy-Man),"n Numen 5 (April, 958)128-160.

ImahoriBun'ichiro M - P-DengyDaishi m tfc ES-Tokyo,1962.IshidaEiichiro. "The Mother-Sonomplexn East AsiaticFolklore,"n Die

WienerSchuleder Vlkerkunde.Wien,1956.Iwaki mukashibanashi sh$* $ =g fc, n ZMK 2. Editedby Iwasaki

Toshio m *. Tokyo.1942.IwanoShin'yug ff . "Shukomakadaikyaidai * fF* PJ jM JH,

inKokuyaku ssaikyS M

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Horienbu* W SB

4.Tokyo,

1929.Jushin t fa ShishuhyakuinnenfiSBi, in DZ 148. Tokyo,1912.KamiyaToshio# r^. lo&oats/ii godenki3 ESM*HS.Tokyo,

1943.Kikai-ga-shimamukashibanashi shf- ^ |j fgl,m ZMK 4. Editedby

IwakuraIchiro^ # - P. Tokyo,1944.Kitagawa, JosephM.Religionin JapaneseHistory. NewYork,1966.Kojidan"* Wt,n T778. Editedby Kuroita Katsumim U $?- Tokyo,



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1933.

Kojiki if 12,in NKBT 1. Edited by KuranoKenji fgSfl. Tokyo,1958.Kokonchomonjt 3a M , in HfcMkokubunshofEgili 17.

Editedby Ikebe Yoshikata ft t ft. Tokyo, 1915.Konjaku monogatari4*Kr eS in NKBT 24.Edited by YamadaYoshio

Iffl et al. Tokyo,1961.Krappe,AlexanderM. 77&ecienceof Folklore. NewYork,1964.KakitaIojig ffl "gfc. Ttc/iambakhi sh p fj ft p 5$ fc. Tokyo,

1925.Loomis,C.Grant. JFfcite agic. Cambridge,948.McCullough,elenCraig. Yoshitsune.Stanford, 966.Minzokugakuiten g f& PS$ft- Editedby Minzokugakuenkysho fS

* ffl m Tokyo,1963.Miyamotosuneichig^f - et al., eds. Fvdoki NihonJIb 0 # 6

vols. Tokyo,1960.Miyoshi TameyasuH H jRft. Sfci;?oden fjtffi^, in D5Z 107.

Tokyo,1916.Mochizukibukky aijiten S J ft ^c Wft. 10vols. Tokyo,1954.NakagawaKiunc^illH- Tyowarabegf, in Kinsei bungei sshoig

ti* 1. Tokyo,1910.Nihondensetsumeii B ^ Wtft - Editedby Nihonhs kykai 0 ;$:

S f#. Tokyo,1950.Mon /codaiinmei jiten B *n"f^^SifA. Edited by TakeuchiRiz

ttlHetal. 5 vols. Tokyo,1958-1966.M/wm coen ungakutaikei B ^tftiC^^:^. ed. Iwanami shoteng S Jg. 100 vols. Tokyo,1957-1964.

M/umryiki B * S R 12,in NKBT 70.Editedby End Yoshimoto3gS and KasugaKazuo# HP|. Tokyo,1967.

Noy,Dov,ed. Folktalesof Israel Chicago,1963.NozakiKiyoshi.Kitsune. Tokyo,1961.Odyssey.Translatedby GeorgeHerbertPalmer. NewYork,1962.OhashiShmtar fi cIP, ed. Bukkykakush ksjitsudenzen f ft

# r ft * in ZT5 44.Tokyo.896.Oman,John Campbell.77&eMystics,Asceticsnd Saints of India. London,

1905.Otogizshi MP i, in ATKBr38. Editedby IchikoTeiji m * .

Tokyo,1958.Ouwehand,C. Namazu-e andTheir Themes.Leiden,1964.Plummer, harles. Livesof Irish Saints. 2 vols. Oxford, 922.Propp,Vladimir.Morphologyf the Folktale. Austin,1963.Raglan,Lord(FitzroyRichardSomerset)."TheHero of Tradition,"n The

Studyof Folklore. EnglewoodCliffs, 965.



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Rank,Otto. TheMythof the Birth of the Hero. NewYork,1964.

Saiga Teijir&A Afi.Muro Uhishi|P|, Tokyo,927.Sansoni,G. B. Japan A ShortCulturalHistory. NewYork,1943.SekiKeigo,ed. Folktalesof Japan. Chicago,1963.

UJ c 2uf ed. Shimabara hant minwa sh IS R IS -Tokyo,1935.

. " The Spoolof Thread A Subtypeof the Japanese Serpent-Bridegroomale,"in Studiesin JapaneseFolklore. Indiana,1963.

. " Typesof JapaneseFolktales,"nAsian Folkloretudies25(1966)1-220.

Seligmann,Kurt. TheHistoryof Magic. NewYork,1948.Senjshm fl>,n ZGR 65. EditedbyHanawaHokiichijiS ife - . Tokyo,

1927.Shikadaijikokondenkishy hinsho0^:^ir4*flBf^fTA in

DBZ 122. Editedby Mochizukihink W. ft and TakakusuJunjirMmm*. Tokyo,930.

Shinteizohokokushi aikeifffTi#MS5&^^. EditedbyKuroitaKatsumiMtRB 3t. 62vols. Tokyo,1927-1962.

S/iitt aijiten m B ^ SfA. Editedby ShimonakaYasaburf + 5i H P.3 vols. Tokyo,1937.

Shinwadensetsuiten Sg f tft. Edited by AsakuraHaruhikofg#f S- Tokyo,1963.

SfcoAwihongi R*E in AT 2. Editedby KuroitaKatsumiMg ^ J|.Tokyo,1935.

Stokes,Whitley. TheTripartite Life of Patrick. 2 vols. London,1887.Swahn,J.-O. The Taleof Cumdand Psyche. Lund,1955.TaiheikiX E, in NKBT 34. EditedbyGotoTanji fH ft f andKamada

KisaburS ffl H g. Tokyo.1964.Tei/ionYanagita Kuniosh je * ffl HH H - 31vols. Tokyo, 962-1964.Thompson,tith. The Folktale. NewYork,1946.Van Gennep,Arnold. TheRitesof Passage. Chicago,1961.Wood-Martin, . G. Tracesof the Elder Faiths of reland. 2 vols.London.

1902.YanagitaKunioUffliS. "Densetsu m l, in TYKS5. Tokyo,1962.

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ZentaiheikimX IH,n ZTBsup.10. Editedby hashi Shintar ffiff *. Tokyo,908.Zokugunsho uij Htt&MMf.Editedby HanawaHokiichijgft - .71 vols.Tokyo,90&-1937.

Zoku teikokuunhoR H;0. 50vols.Tokyo,89&-1903.

I. INTRODUCTION

When Buddhismwas introduced into Japan during the sixthcentury, he Japanesepeople,accustomed to the shamanisticritesof the indigenousShintoreligion,were first ttracted more to the

ceremonialaspects of the new religion than to the philosophy.Buddhistscriptureswere regarded as magical formulas and Bud-dhist rites were held to wardoff rought nd pestilence. Generallyspeaking,there has not been any significant mount of hostilitybetween Buddhismand Shintoism, s opposedto the great antag-onismwhichhas existedbetweenChristianity nd pagan religions.In fact, Buddhismconsciouslyabsorbed elements of primitivemagico-religiouselief into its doctrine, tilizing hem as mediaforexpounding bstract philosophicaloncepts.

This situation s reflected n the life storiesof the holymen-commonlyalledhijiri i in early Japanese religioustradition1of this period. Whilethe saints of the earlyChristian hurchwereveneratedfor their courageand righteous defense of their faithagainst hostilepagan religions, he Japanese saints of early Bud-dhist tradition were noted for their activitieswhichreconciled hisimportedreligionwith indigenousbeliefs; they piously spreadthegospelof Buddhism mongthe common eopleandyet, they readilyacceptedthe divinefavor of Shinto godsand propitiated eitiesofnature whogovernedthe elements.

The early Buddhistsaints most closelyassociatedwith the1) Accordingo HoriIchiro, he wordhijiri presumablyas first sed to indicate

the leaderof shamansor medicinemen nprehistoricimes, iterallymeaning man ofgreat knowledgeoncerninghe movement f heavenly odies. Later, the term wasnot only ppliedto Buddhist aints,but also to the emperor, esidents f the land ofimmortality,nd menespeciallyalentedn gamesor arts. See HoriIchiro, On theConceptf Hijiri Holy-Man),"n Numen 5 (April,1958)128-131.



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LEGENDSOF HOLYMENOFEARLY JAPAN 263

shamanisticspectsof Shintowere calledubasokufl| H. Theubasoku,n turn,were omposedf twogroups f ndividualsthosewho raveledrom illageovillage,cting s healers ndmagicianswhiletheyperformedariousrituals, upervisedommunityroj-ects and preached he doctrine f reward and retribution, ndthosewho concentratedponasceticpracticesn sacredmountainsto sharpen heirpowers f magic. As opposedto the orthodoxBuddhist riestswhoemphasizedhe mportancef validordinationandhierarchicaluthority,2basokuwereinterestednspreadingmorepersonal orm f Buddhism nd sometimeshey were per-secutedbecause ofthese convictions.3wo famousubasokuwere

En noShkaku


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264 SUSANNE ANDREAANDERSON

GygiTaitoku (670-749)was born in tori-gun^ Jfe R, zumiProvince. His lay name was KshiJ , his father beingthe sonof a Paekcheking. Gygibecame a priest at Yakushiji Hgfi fbut he was arrestedin 717for his preachingactivitiesamongthemasses. Later, however,he gainedthe respectof EmperorShmu(r. 724-749)andwasappointedDaisj ft IE " GrandHighPriest"in 745,over several moreorthodoxpriests. In this position,Gygiwas involved nmanyactivities oncerninghe erection f the greatimageof RushanaBuddha inNara. Throughhispilgrimage o theIse Shrineto gain supportof the ShintoSunGoddessAmaterasu nbuildingthis image,Gygialso is accredited with instituting hetrend toward a greater reconciliation f orthodox Buddhism withpopularreligiouselements.5

Other holy men established their own sects of Buddhism,husinheriting he aura of divinecharismaso often ssociated with re-ligiousfounders n Japan. Two such famous saints of the Heianperiod(794-1185)were SaichH g and Kkai 3?jg. Both mencontributed urther oward a synthesis f Buddhism ndShintoism,also includingotheraspectsofpopular religionmported romChinasuch as the Yin-Yangcult andTaoism.6Both menemphasizedhechantingof mystical formulas and the maintenance of vigorousdiscipline.In keepingwith the conceptofmountain sceticism,hesectarian headquarters of both holy men were establisheduponsacred mountains.

Saich(767-822),of Chineseancestry,wasborn n Shiga-gun-g f$, OrniProvince,with the lay surname of Mitsu H f. Heestablished the Tendai ^ -p? ect of Buddhismbased onthe Chineseschoolof T'ien-t'ai%, and erected his templeheadquartersEn-ryakuji i^ on Mt. Hiei jt fX. He was sharplycriticalof city

BesidesMt.KatsuragiwhereEnnoShkakuerformed

isausterities,

thermportantmountains ere Mt.Kimbu ($, Mt.Ornine fc| and Mt.Kumano,to name but a

few. For a discussionf Shugendnd the significancef mountainsn Japanesere-ligion, ee HoriIchiro,FolkReligionn Japan (Chicago,968),p. 141-179.Shugendlater becamealignedwith the TendaiandShingonects of esotericBuddhism.

5) Nihon kodaiinmei jiten (1961),3 658-66. Forlegendsregarding ygi ndthe erection f the imageof the great Buddha,ee notes14and 15.

6) Fora discussion ftheconciliatoryelationshipetween uddhismndShintoismduring he HeianPeriod, ee Kitagawa,pp.66-73.



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LEGENDSF HOLYMENOFEARLYJAPAN 265

templeswhich, eingpatronizedy the aristocracy, ftenbecameinvolved n corruptive ractices. Instead,Saichpreferred hequiet, ecludedmountainifewherehe couldpracticetrictmentalandphysical iscipline.He also venerated hinto eities,ndthusgaverise to a theory f coexistenceetweenBuddhism nd Shin-toism ater known s San' chijitsuhintol| 3 jf jfitH. Saichis betterknown y hisposthumousame,DengyDaishi{#%kXSfi.7

Kkai(774-825)wasborn n Bybuno Ura H )tf, ado-gun ^ K |$, SanukiProvince,nder he lay surname f Saekife

{.Hefounded he

Shingon3*Sectof Buddhism asedonthe

doctrine f the ChineseChen-yen% B school. He founded hetempleKongbuji S|IJ on Mt.Kya j f?as a headquartersof his sect. UnlikeSaich,however, kai maintained goodre-lationship ith he nobilitynd the orthodox riests f thecapital.Kkai'sconciliatoryttitude oward Shintodeities also providedthe basisfor a synthesizeduddhism nd Shintoismater knownas Rybu hinto t$ff M- LikeSaich,Kkais morepopularlyknown y hisposthumousitle,Kb Daishig &Xfif.8

Thelives of thesefourfamousholymen of early Japan,En

noGyjaGygiTaitoku,DengyDaishi,and KbDaishi,haveprovidedhebasisfor manynterestingegendsoundnboth iter-ary andfolk radition.Theselegends,n large part, reflect heinvolvementith mountain sceticismnd personal,hamanisticBuddhismhich haracterizedheubasoku.Thefrequentegendaryencounters ithShintodeitieswhich re attributed o these aintsmost ikely re a product f their ctivities elated othe ynthesis

7) Shimonakaasabur,d.,Daijinmeijiten (1957),/4 17-19.Prior oestablish-ing their new sectsof Buddhism,oth SaichandKkaihadgoneto China n 804tostudyChineseBuddhistdoctrine. For legendsof their travels,seenotes91and 115.

8) Daijinmeijiten (1957),1-2 357-359. Underthe doctrine of RybuShinto,whichbecamewellestablisheduring heHeianPeriod,pecialBuddhistemplesalledjinguji 1$S --werebuilton the precincts f Shinto hrines othat Buddhist riestscouldperform itesfor the Shinto deities. Shintodeitieswere alsoenshrinedt Bud-dhist temples.The beliefwas heldthat Shinto godswere actuallymanifestationsfbuddhaswhoappearedn Japanandtherefore, heywereworthy f worship nd re-spectby Buddhists.TheShintodeityHachimanf the UsaShrine s believedo havebeenthe first o considered,orhe also issued a favorableoracleregarding he con-struction f the RushanaBuddhaand was thenenshrined t Tdaiji.



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of orthodoxBuddhism andpopularreligiouselements. The manystories about these holy men of early Japan, however,are by nomeansuniquein the field of folk literature. Many of the motifs,and even the life pattern, found in stories about Japanese holymen are found also in stories about Christian saints; and manylegendsabout holy men in generalhave parallelsin stories aboutsecularheroes.

It is hopedthat the following iscussion f legends concerningthe four holy men of early Japan mentionedabove,En no Gyja,GygiTaitoku,DengyDaishi,and KbDaishi,will servenot onlyto pointout the particular characteristics of stories about theseindividuals,but also to indicate the similaritiesand differencesbetween these legends and those concerningsaints in Christiantradition. Where appropriate,an attempt will also be made todraw comparisonsbetween stories of holy men and stories ofsecular heroesin both traditions.

To viewlegendsabout Japanese holy men in the proper per-spective,someclarification f the term " legend" must first bemade. Legendsare often confusedwith other forms f folk itera-ture such as mythsor fairy tales, but for the purposesof this dis-

cussion,some basicdifferences ill be noted. Legend, like myth,is a narrative which is believedto be true by the society n whichit is told. This is an contrast to the fairy ale,which s recognizedas fantasy. Legends,moreover, elate eventswhich occur withinthe time span of historical man, whereas myths and fairy talesinvolve a periodof timelessnesswhen gods roamed the earth, orof once upona time. In addition, legends may be classified aseither sacred or secular in character,and thus may be comparedeither to mythswhich are sacred literature, r to fairy ales whichare generallyprofanenarratives.9 Therefore,based on these dis-

9) Theseconceptsbout the distinctionf myth, egendndfairy ale or marchen)are basicallyhe sameput forth by WilliamBascomin "The Formsof FolkloreProseNarratives," ournalof American olklore 7 1965)3-20. TheJapanese ermfor egends densetsu# t&. AlthoughJapanesefolklorists ave not described en-setsu n exactlythe same terms s the definitionf egend iven above,t is felt hatdensetsu an be equatedwith legend. For a discussionof densetsu,see YanagitaKunio,Densetsu,n TYKS(1962),5 1-110. It should lsobe noted hatmanymotifsandcombinationf motifs ound n one form f folk iterature an be found n otherforms oo.



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LEGENDSOFHOLY MEN OFEARLYJAPAN 267

tinctions,egends f holymen can be defined s storieswhich1)are believed obe true, 2)are about historicalmen, nd (3)aresacred n nature.

Legendsgenerallyre told to glorify ertainpeople, lacesorevents n order o strengthenheir elative ositionf importancehistoricallyr geographically. egendsalsofunction s a meansof social controln the sense that theypresent hepattern f anidealimage,or theycondemnnacceptableehavior.For thisrea-son, egendsend to forget r eliminate he less favorablespectsof the hero andexaggeratehisvirtues. The reversestrue f the

anti-hero.10Onefrequentmethod pparently sed in the formation f

legendss the imaginativeddition f possiblevents o authenticevents. Suchis the legenddescribing engyDaishi's influenceconcerninghetransfer f the Imperialresidenceo Nagaoka |3jJ. mperorKanmur. 781-806)was hesitant boutmoving e-causethe tall mountainMt.Hieilay toward the northeast f thenewsiteandthusrepresentedimon%P5or demon's ate. Be-causeit wasthought hat demons ouldnter nd eave thehumanworld t thispoint,Mt.Hieiconsequentlyosed dangerousmento the future f the new capital. However,whenDengyDaishiheardof the Emperor'sear,he persuaded imto make the moveby explaining hat the various buddhas whichwereresiding nMt.Hiei,the headquartersf the Tendaisect,wouldguardkimonandprevent ny misfortune.11

10) For a discussionf the functions f folklore,eeWilliamBascom, Four Func-tionsof Folklore," ournalof American Folklore67 1954)333-349. He listsas thefourfunctions(1)amusement,2)validation fculture, 3)education,nd 4)maintain-ingconformityo acceptedpatterns f behavior.

11) ImahoriBun'ichiro,engyDaishi(1962),pp.32-33. Anotheregend regard-inga possiblebut perhapsunlikely vent concernsKb Daishi.It is said that whileKbDaishiwasin China,he performedn esoteric rite to determine hichbuddhawouldbe the mainobjectof his meditation.For this to be achieved,he cast a lotusflower n eachof two sacreddiagrams r mndalas of the ShingonSect. Bysomewonderousoincidence,oth flowers andedon the central figure whichwas theVairocanaBuddhaand this was consideredo be indeed an auspicious ign.SeeYa-madaYoshio et al.,ed.,Konjakumonogatari,n Nihonkoten ungakutaikei NKBT)(1961),24:75.



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Other egendsre obviously romanticizationfevents. Suchis the dramatic tory f how one manabandoned llto becomefollowerf GygiTaitoku. Accordingo the egend,hismanhap-penedto observe omebirdsmakinga nest in a tree. He notedthat the femalebirdgavebirth o her young nd he watched sthe male bird flew ff n searchof foodfor his wifeandchildren.Theman,however, ecamefilledwithdismays he sawthefemalebirdcommitdulterywith nother ird n her husband's bsence.The femalebirdthenflew waywith her new mate, eavingherchildren ehind. When he husbandreturned nd foundhis wifegone,he remainedn the nest and embracingischildren,e wentto sleep. Severaldayspassedand the man,wondering hathadhappenedo the bird, rdered omeone o climbhe tree and in-vestigate.The malebirdwasfound ead, till mbracingisyoung.The man becameo upsetat the cruel ust of thefemale ird hathe himselfeft hishome,hiswifeand hischildren, bandonedisofficialank, nd became followerr Gygi aitokunorder hathe might ractice oodand find he way to salvation. The manlater became hepriest Shingonfa Wi>ived a virtuous ife, ndthendeparted rom he wickedworld hat he abhorred.12

An unusualnamealsopresents

ninteresting

asis forthedevelopmentf legend.This is the casewiththeholymannamedEn noShkaku. The word hkakumeans"small horn and ac-cordingoonelegend,hesaintreceived hisnamebecausehe wasbornwithonesmall horn n his forehead. n orderto hide thishorn, t is saidthat he alwayswore a capon hishead as he trav-eled about the land. It is interesting o note that this legendalso is used to explainthe custom doptedby hisfollowers,heyamabushil] {,in which hey lwaysworehoods sa distinguish-ingcharacteristic.13

12) EndYoshimotond KasugaKazuo, eds.,Nihon ryiki, n NKBT(1967),70.A German ranslation f legendsn the Nihonryiki an be foundnHermann ohner,Legendenus derFrhzeit es apanischenBuddhismus.NipponKoku Gemb enakuRyI Ki, in Mitteilungener DeutschenGesellschaftr Natur- und VlkerkundeOstasiens7 (1934).

13) EmiSunn, ed., Bukkykakush okuksjitsudenen, n Zoku teikoku unko{ZTB) (1903),9 775-779. Thismaybe comparedo the legendexplaining henameof St. Christopher.Christopher eans Christbearer. The saint receivedthis name



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LEGENDS F HOLYMENOFEARLYJAPAN 269

It seemsthat many egendshave arisen out of the desire oindicate hat a certain ventor activitywas blessedwithdivinefavor. The stories urrounding ygi Taitoku's nvolvementiththe erection f the great Rushana statueat Tdaijij^l ^f orig-inated n this way. There are two separatelegendsconcerningthis event. Onestory elates hat when the holyman ourneyedto the Ise Shrine opresent Buddhistelicto the Sun Goddessandseekher divinefavorfor he constructionnd worshipf theRushana, fter seven days and nights,he received favorableoraclen which hegoddess aveher ssent otheproject, roclaim-ingin a dream hat sheandthe Rushana Buddha wereoneandthe same.14The secondtory nvolves he

"eye-openingceremony,in which he eyes of the statue were touched o symbolizehe

imagecomingolife. Apparently, ygi was askedto performthis rite, but he felt unworthyf it. Therefore,heholymanin-viteda priest rom ndia to comeandpresidever heevent.Themannern which hesaint sent his invitation, owever, s quiteunique.He wentdown othe harbor f Naniwa,ccompaniedyonehundred riests, nd preparing Buddhistwateroffering, eset it afloat n the sea. The offering loatedout of sight o thewest. Sometimeater, his sameoffering assighted,eturningn

front f a boat which arried Brahmanhigh priest. The Brah-manalighted rom he boat andgreetedGygi s if theywereoldfriends. Thus, heceremony asheldandthe Brahman ecamepriest t Daianji ^.15

because he borethe Christ hild on his shoulders and carriedhim acrossa river.Eventhoughhis burden eemedto get heavier and heavieruntil the saintfeared hathe mightdrophim,he managedo carryhimsafelyto the other ide. See GrangerRyanand HelmutRipperger, rans., The GoldenLegendof Jacobus de Voragine(London, 941),: 377-382.Theyamabushi literally "priests who lie down n themountains") elongedo the Shugendmovementsee note4) and were also calledshugenjafe^^k. Besideswearinghoods, hey were also distinguishedy the shelltrumpetswhich heycarried. SeeFolkReligionn Japan, pp. 74-78.

14) Mochizuki hinkond TakakusuJunjir, ds., Shikadaiji kokon denki shuyshinsho,n DainihonbukkyenshoDBZ) (1930),22 248. An Englishversion f thelegends providedn G. B. Sansom,Japan AShortCulturalHistoryNew York,1943),pp. 132-133.

15) Konjakumonogatari, p.70-71. Accordingo the egend,he Brahman laimedthat he had been on a pilgrimageo Mt. Wu T'ai ShanS fi UJ o meetthe bodhisat-tva Majusri,but he had met an old man alongthe road who told him that thebodhisattva ad beenreborn n Japanas the saint Gygi.Thus, the Brahmanhadmade the ourney o seeGygi.See alsonote69.



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Manylegendsendowholy men with varioussupernaturalpowers.Forexample,t variousimes n noGyjas describedsflying hroughheair, eitherby meansof a cloud of fivecolors,a dragon, r simply nderhis ownpower. In other nstances, eis saidto havewalkedacrossthe surface f the water.18 toriesof suchmagicalfeats of holymenoften estify o the belief nthepower f asceticpractices. Manyscetic ults hroughoutheworldhave heldthe tenet that various supernatural owerscould beachievedhroughigorousmental nd physicaliscipline.stensibly,the chief im of suchdisciplinewas to separateand purify hemind r spirit rom hesensual desiresof the physical ody. Be-cause itwasbelieved hatthe lustsof the flesh were responsiblefor all the evilthat befellmanor the sins that he committed,twasthought ecessaryo mortify hebodyn order or he humansoulto be able to commune iththe divine r absolutebeing. Itfurther as believedhat the more ntenselyuch usterities erepracticed,hegreater was the powerthe soul or mind chievedoverphysicalmatter. Suchsupernatural owerwas achievednsteps accordingothe levelofspiritualmancipationttained.Theability o walkonwater or fly through heair wasoneof thesestages.17

Theultimate tageof supernatural owerwasimmortalityfthe soul. Thisconcepterhaps rovidedhebasis for egendsboutholymenwhoneverdie,butremainealedupin a mountain,eadyto comeforth hould heneed arise. Kb Daishi isone of theseindividuals.Accordingoone legend,this saint built a cave ofmeditationn Mt.Kyaandin the year835,he entered hecave

16) Konjakumonogatari,p.62-63. En noGyjas said tohaveemployedhechant-ing of a sutra calledKujakujuky Jl 3E68fi (Mahmayurividyrjfi)o aidhim n attaining upernaturalowers. Walkingcrosswaterhas been feat ttributedto manyholymen. Christwalkeduponwater, fter havinggoneinto a mountain opray. See Mark 6 45-51. However,ccordingo Indiannotions of asceticpracticewalking n waterwas a lesserstageof achievement hanflying hrough he air. SeeNormanBrown,The Indian and Christian Miraclesof Walking on the Water(Chicago,928),pp.17-18.

17) For a discussion f the philosophyf asceticism,ee JohnCampbellman,TheMystics,Asceticsnd Saintsof India (London, 905).Two famous scetics ofChris-tianitywereSt. Pauland St. Anthony. They, however, performed heir austeritiesin the desertrather han in the mountains.



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LEGENDS F HOLYMENOFEARLYJAPAN 271

andnevercameout. For sometime, the cave wasperiodicallyopenedo shave the saint's hair and changehisgarment, utthiseventuallytopped.Muchater, former isciplef theholymanmadea pilgrimageo Mt.Kyaandopenedthis meditationave.A mistroseup and it was pitchdark nside. Finally, hemist rdustsubsidednd he saw Kb Daishi with his haira foot ongand his garment ecayed. The string of the saint's rosaryhadrotted lsoandthe beadslay strewn bout he floor. Thedisciplebathed heholyman,dressedhim n a freshgarment nd shavedhis hair. Then,he gathered p the rosarybeads, restrung hemandplacedthem n the saint's hand. As he left,he began ocry,fearing hat no one wouldcome after him to take careof theDaishi.However,manyotherpeopledid makepilgrimageso thiscave ofmeditation,nd it is said that wheneverhe doorwasopened lightly, soundrangthroughouthe mountain.18

II. MIGRATORY LEGENDS

Legends,however,re usuallyclassifiedccordingo whethertheyhavemigrated rom rea to area, or whether heyhave re-mained elativelyixedn a given ocation.

Someegends bout holymen of Japan so closelyresembleotherwell-knownales both n Japanand abroad hat t is difficultnot to presupposeome historical r geographicalonnectione-tween hem. In otherwords, henumber nd combinationf mo-tifs present n these narratives omprise stableandrecognizablepattern oocomplicatedohavepermittedndependentrigination

18) Konjaku monogatari, p.106-107. This motifof the hero who doesnot die,but remains leepingor in this case,meditating)n a mountain r cave is verypop-ular in legends.For example,this phenomenons attributed o King Arthur andFrederickI. SeeAlexanderH. Krappe,The Scienceof FolkloreNewYork, 1964),pp.108-109.In Christianegend, he SevenSleepersof Ephesusalsobelongto thistradition The GoldenLegend,II: 382-286).With regardto death motifs, t is in-teresting o note that althoughmanyholy men of both Buddhist nd Christian ra-dition re said to have had priorknowledgef their death, the motif f torture ndmartydom hich ppearsso often n Christianegendsdoes not seem to exist inBud-dhist egends o anygreat extent. In fact, most often t is the enemies ofBuddhistsaints whoexperiencehegreatest uffering n the legends.



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272 SUSANNE ANDREAANDERSON

at different lacesor times. Elementsof one tale must have beenborrowedfrom another,or more likely,all tales must have devel-oped as variants of a much older archetype. Legends of thisnature are termed migratory egendsbecausethe different ariantsare believedto have migrated from one central point of origin,although n most cases it is impossibleoactuallytrace a particularlegendor tale type back to its point of dissemination,he majorproblembeingthat the older variants which existed only in oraltradition were never recordedfor posterity. Migratory legendsthus may covera broad area in spaceand time, and it will be in-teresting to note how variants of legendsaboutholymenofJapancurrent n other Asian traditions relate to those of Christians orWestern culture.19

Onepopularmigratory egend concernedwith Gygi Taitokuinvolvesa combinationf Tale Type425A,TheMonsterBridegroom,and Tale Type 300,The Dragon Slayer.20The basic story is asfollows Thereoncewas a girl by the name of Okisomeno Omi-tahime jg ^ fgM k- This girl was verypurein heart andworkeddiligently veryday gathering greens and serving Gygi Taitoku.Oneday whileshe was in the mountainsabout her work,the girlsaw a huge snake on the verge of swallowinga frog. Omitahimepleadedwith the snake to set the frog free, but the snake paidnoattention nd swallowedthe creature anyway. The girl, however,did not give up and offered o becomethe snake'swife f he wouldonly releasethe frog. This time, the snake listened and raisingits tall head, stared at the face of the girl. Then it disgorged hefrog and let it go. True to her word, Omitahime madea pledgewith the snake that he might comeand fetch her for his wife in

19) For a discussion fthe characteristics f migratory egends, ee Krappe,pp.101-137.Reidar Th.Christiansen,ne of the foremostWestern cholars f migratory

legends,as

compiledn index of

these egends ogetherwith list of their Norwegianvariants. Thescopeof his index,however,s rather imited nnature, nd he includeslocalas well asmigratory ypes. See ReidarTh.Christiansen,The Migratory eg-ends," n FF Communications 75(Helsinki,958).

20) These taletypes re thoseusedby AarneandThompsonn their classificationof the typesof the folktale. See AnttiAarne and Stith Thompson, TheTypesofthe Folktale,"n FF Communications84(Helsinki, 964).SekiKeigo,however,iststhis tale as a sub-type f his classificationype 133,The SerpentBridegroom.SeeSekiKeigo,"Typesof JapaneseFolktales,"n AsianFolklore Studies25(1966).



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LEGENDSFHOLYMENOFEARLYJAPAN 273

sevendays. When he avowedday came,however,hegirlwasfrightenednd she shut herselfup in her room,blockingp allholes where he snakemight ossibly nter. In accordancewiththe pledge,he snake came andfindinghegirl ockedp,he triedto knock own hewalls withhis tail, buthad no success.Manag-ingto escapeherfate his ime, mitahime ent o seethe Taitokuthe nextdayandasked himfor dvice. The saintrepliedhat hecould notbe releasedfromher vow. She couldonlytake refugein the commandmentsf Buddhism.Thus,the girlwasconvertedto the faith. Nowit so happenedhaton the wayhome rom hetemple, mitahimemetan oldman with some large crabs. She

askedhimto set the crabsfree,but the stranger efused ecausehe had madea bargain o sell them. The girl offered er dressin exchange,ut the man still refused. Then the girl offered erskirt lsoand hemanfinallygreed orelease hecrabs.Omitahimetookthe crabs to GygiTaitoku,whoperformedheproper itesandreleasedhem. On the evening f the eighth ay, the snakeagaincame to the girFshousendclimbing ptotheroof,t pulledoff hethatch nd entered nside. Omitahimeas frightenedndyet, he remained nharmedn the dark,hearing nly soundofslapping gainstthe floor. When daycame,she sawthat a large

crabhadcut up the snake nto small pieces,and then she knewthat this deed wasinrepaymentor hepreviousavor hehadper-formed orthe crabs. Wanting ofind ut thetruth f thematter,the girl made nquiriesbout the old man that she hadmet,butshehad no success.Thus,peoplebecame convincedhat the oldman wasactually transformationf the saint Gygi.21

Thislegendbearsastonishingimilarity o a story bout thebodhisattva annon. In this case,however,he girl is dedicatedin her faith o Kannon,whoreplaceshefigure f GygiTaitoku.

21) Ryiki, p.200-203.Actually, here re two variantsof this same legend nthe Ryiki. The otherversion, p.210-215,ontains he followingariations:A girl,nameunknown,irst btains ight crabs from youthful owherdwho ntended o eatthem; when the girl seesthe snake about to swallowthe frog, he first ffers t (1)sacredstripsof cloth, nd (2)enshrinements a deity; only when these offers reunacceptableoes shepledgeto marry he snake and in releasing he crabs,thegirlseeks the counselof a Zenpriestby the name of Gi rather than GygiTaitoku.These are the maindifferences.

M.S. XXVIII18



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Other motifs also are somewhatchanged in this variant of thelegend. The story beginswith the girl meetinga manwhois car-rying a crab on a string. After having discoveredthat the manintends to eat the poorcreature, the girl offers o exchangesomedead fishfor it. An agreement s madeand shetakes the crabtothe river and sets it loose. In the second episode,it is the girPsfather who spies a snake aboutto swallowa frogwhile heis work-ing in the fields, nd it is the father whopromiseshis daughter othe snake nexchangefor he frog. Thatevening, hefather amentshis impulsivepromise,but the girl is determined o fulfill he bar-gain and requests only that she be given three days of grace.Duringthis time, she builds a cabinet of thick boards and on theavowedevening,shuts herself up inside, trusting to the divineprotection f Kannon. Her prospectivebridegroomirst ppearsinthe guise of a man,but when he discovers the girl has hidden nthe cabinet,he becomesfilledwith rage and changesintohisorig-inal snakeform. He wraps himself round the cabinet and beatson the door with his tail. This continueson intothe middleof thenight, whenthe knocking oundsuddenly tops. At daybreak, hesnake is found bitten to pieces by a numberof crabs who aregatheredaround a large crab, their leader. Unharmed,the girl

steps out of the cabinetand attributes he miracle to the bodhisat-tva Kannon.22A third exampleof the legendcan be found n a folktale rom

IwakiProvince. Thisstory relates how a warrior saw a snakeswallowinga frog and promised t anything f only t wouldreleasethe poorcreature. Contrary o the man's expectations,however,a stranger cameto the warrior's house that night and claimingthat he was the snake,demanded theman'sdaughterfor his bride.The warrior asked for sevendays of grace and during this time,the girl went every morning to the shrine and prayed. On themorning hat the snake was to claim her, she happenedto meet

22) Konjaku monogatari,p.453-455.A kindof reverse exampleof this egendis found n the storyof Djjiit le . This is the tale of a girl who falls passion-ately n lovewith a priest. In orderto avoidher advances,the priesthidesunderhugebell,and this so incensesthe girl that she changesinto a snakeandwrapsherself round he bell,finally emolishingt with the heat of her breath. See, forexample,NogamiToyoichir,d., " Djji,"in Ykyokuensh4 (1935)415-432.



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LEGENDS FHOLYMENOFEARLYJAPAN 275

an old womancarrying ome crabs in a basket. Whenthe daugh-ter heard that the woman was going to town to sell them, sheboughtall the crabs and set them loosein a ditch. That day, anest of eight boxeswas builtand the girl climbedinside. Thenher suitor cameand changing nto a snake,carried the box awayto the mountains. With his teeth, he pulledthe boardsawayfromthe box until only one layer remained. But then suddenly, n-numerablecrabs gatheredfrom somewhereand killed the snake.These were the crabs whose livesthe girl had saved.23

Theseexamplesshould be sufficiento showthat the story of

GygiTaitokuand the snake exists as a

migratory egend.The

tale types forming his legend,The MonsterBridegroom nd TheDragonSlayer,are also popularstories in Western culture.

The motifsof the legendwhichmore properly belong to TheMonsterBridegroomre as follows:(1)a girl promisesherselfasa bride to a monster, r her father promisesher, and (2)there isan attempt to evadethe promise. The tale in Western tradition,however, ontainsthe additionalmotifs (1)enchantedhusband,2)loss of husband by breakingan interdiction, nd (3) questfor osthusband. Thus, in the Israeli folktale of The Ten Serpents, a

merchant s threatenedwith death by a snakeandin exchangeforhis life,he promiseshis daughter n marriage. Although hemanlater lamentsthis decision, he girl agrees to fulfill he bargain.After sometime has passed,the serpent comesto claim his prizeandtakes the girl nto a bedroom. Onceinside,however,he changesinto a handsomeyoungmanby sheddinghis snakeskin. Hewarnsthe girl not to ask any questionsnor to tell her parentswhat shehas seen,and he explainsthat he can only see her n the evening.Unfortunately, he girl breaks her promiseand disclosesher hus-band's secret to her parents. Therefore, hesnake-bridegroomas

to leaveher and sadly they part. The girl, however, ourneysto23) IwasakiToshio,d., Iwaki mukashibanashihu, in Zenkokumukashibanashi

kiroku ZMK)(1942),: 16. For an interesting iscussion fthe SerpentBridegroomTale, see SekiKeigo,"The Spoolof Thread A Subtype f the Japanese erpent-Bridegroomale,"in Studies n Japanese Folklore(Indiana,1963),pp.267-288. Onpage284,Sekinotesthat in someparts of Japan there is a tradition hat maidensoncewereoffered s sacrificesn requestfor a goodrice crop, nd that the frog sregarded s a helpful ervant f the rice fielddeity.



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276 SUSANNEANDREA ANDERSON

an underground alaceand recovers her husband by burninghissnake skin while he is asleep. The next morning, he coupleem-brace and the groomexplainsthat he had been enchanted.24hereare manydifferent ersions of this story n Western radition. Theoldestwritten variant of the tale is said to be the story of Cupidand Psyche,an episodeinserted n a longernarrative The GoldenAss by Apuleiusand dating back to the secondcentury afterChrist.25

The legendof GygiTaitoku and the snake changesfrom theintroductorymotifsof The MonsterBridegroomnd focusesonthecentral theme of the tale known as The

Dragon Slayer.The

elements nvolvedhere are : (1) grateful animals, (2) sacrifice ofhumanbeingto dragonor periodicsacrifices to monster, 3) fightwith dragonand (4)rescue of a princess. Thestoryof The DragonSlayer, by itself, s quite popularin Japan. Thereis, for example,a tale calledShippeiTaro whichclearlyshows a relationshipwiththe legendof GygiTaitoku described above. In this story, anitinerant priest happensto pass by a housein a lonely mountainvillageand finds a crowdgathered around a young maiden andweeping. When he inquiresabout the reason for their tears, heis told that each year at harvest time, a human sacrifice isoffered o the mountaindeity and that in sevendaysit willbethegirl's turn to suffer this fate. After hearing these details, thepriest calmsthe peopleand offers to take the girl's place. Thenext day, he journeysto the mountain hrine nd hides n a hollowtree. At midnight, group of strange creatures appear at thetempleand from a song whichthey sing, the priestdiscovershatthey can be conqueredby someone calledShippeiTaro. He setsout to search for this personbut does so in vainuntilhe finds utthat ShippeiTaro is a large dog. Accompaniedby this dog, thepriest returns to the girl's housejust in time to meetthe villagerscarrying he maidenin a wooden chestup the mountain. Thegirlis taken out and the priest and the dog take her place. Theyare

24) DovNoy,ed.,Folktalesof Israel (Chicago,963),p.161-165. Anotherersionof the tale can be found n Josef Scharl, trans., Grimm'sFairy Tales (NewYork,1944),pp.571-577.

25) For an extensiveanalysisof this tale type, see J.-O. Swahn,The TaleofCupidand Psyche Lund,1955).



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LEGENDSOF HOLYMEN OFEARLY JAPAN 277

left t the mountain hrine nd at midnight,hemonstersppearand dance aroundhechest. When heytake the idoff, owever,the priest nd ShippeiTarojumpout and cut them down. Thenextmorning,hevillagersclimbthe mountain o see what hashappenednd theyfind ead monkeys trewn bout. From thattimeon,no morehuman acrifices ere needed.26

Amonghemany tories f dragonlayersnWestern radition,the legend f St. Georgend the dragon presents n interestingcounterpart.Accordingothe story, dragon ncedwelledt thebottom f a deeplakenearthe townof Silenain the provincef

Libya.Thismonsterwould

prowlabout the city and poisonll

whocamewithin eachof its breath. To appeasethe beast,thetownspeopleereeventuallyeducedo the necessityfofferinghuman acrificehosen achdayby lottery. t so happenedhatSt. Georgereached he townwhen lmost ll the young eoplehadbeen eatenup andthe lot had fallen n the onlydaughter f theking. While hemaidenwasdescribinger fate to the saint, hedragon oseout of his lair and attacked hem. Without ear,St.Georgebrandishedis sword nd struck the beast to the groundwith mighty low. He thenordered hegirlto throw er girdleoverthe dragon'sneck, nd the monster ecameas gentleas apet. The saint edthe dragonback to the cityand after havingbaptizedll the people,he drewhis sword nd slewthe beast.27

AlthoughheJapaneseholyman,GygiTaitoku,akesa morepassiverolethan St. Georgen the slaying f a monster,n termsof basicmotifs, he egendsre essentiallyhe ame. A migratorylegend bout anotherJapanesesaint, however,nvolves moreactivebattlewith monster.This is the story of KbDaishiandthe demonwhocamedownfrom he mountainverymonthoeat a villagern the townof Urabara[JK,Kikai-ga-shimaf #

26) SekiKeigo,ed.,Folktalesof Japan (Chicago,1963),pp. 33-36. AccordingoSeki'sclassification,his is Type 91, Destroying he MonkeyDemon. Thisstory,however,s verysimilar o the mythwhichrelateshowSusanoono mikoto $E L%(Df savedthe maidenKushinadahimejf % ffl t M from the eight-forkederpentwho cameeach year to devourone of the daughtersof Ashinazuchi S ft andTenazuchi jf SeeKuranoKenji,ed.,Kojiki,in NKBT(1958),1 84-89.

27) TheGoldenLegend,1 232-238.For an extensivediscussionf this aletype,seeEdwin S.Hartland, egendof PerseusLondon,894-96),II: 1-65.



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Hi,Kagoshimarefecture.Accordingo the egend,s thepopula-tionof the town beganto dwindle, lotterywasheldeachmonthto selectthe human acrifice. t so happened hat one monthbeautiful ounggirl nd hergrandmotherere hosen.Whileheywereweepingbout their fate,Kb Daishi cameby andinquiredthe reasonfor their ears. Whenhe learnedof the situation,hesainttold themnot to worry ecause he wouldakecareofthings.Then,when he demon ame down ogethisprey, heDaishichal-lengedhimto a contest if the demon ouldpull ironbar outofthe rock n which hesainthadstuck t,he could at peoplewhen-everhe pleased.Butalthough he demontried and tried, evenwithhis teeth, o pullout the bar, he could not. Losingthe con-test, the monster equestedo becomethe retainer f the saint.A whileater,Kb Daishi builta house nthisvillagend nvitedthe townspeoplevertocelebrate heoccasion.However,hen hefestivities egan,the sainttookthe demonaside andinvited hemonster o sit and drink ake with himon a branch f a tallpinetree. Then after ngagingn revelry or a while,the Daishiex-cusedhimselfogoto the bathroom,nd left the demon n thetip of the pine tree. As soon as he got downto the ground,however,hesaint bent the top of the tree down otheearth nd

let it fly. The demonwas propelledhrough he air andfinallywassmashedgainsta rock, ll hisbonesbroken.Thus,the mon-ster diedand wasnolonger menace o thecommunity.28

Another ariant f this egend nvolves he bodhisattva iz.Accordingo this story, statue of Jizoncewasnewlynshrinedin a certain illage. Thetownspeopleeriodicallymadeofferingsto the imageat first, ut after wo or three years, heybecamenegligentn their duty. Thenquite unexplainably,he villagersbegan odisappearnebyone. Thosewhoremainedehindhoughtthat nodoubt ome monster arried hemoff, uttheyhadno deawhatkindof a creature t was or where t camefrom, nd theywerefrightenedhat theymight e next. Thus as time passed,

28) IwakuraIchiro, ed., Kikairga-shimamukashibanashih, n ZMK(1944),:119-120.Sekiclassifieshis tale as Type83,The Contest with the Demon.Anotherdemonwhoperiodicallyamedown from he mountains nd kidnappedmaidenswasthe famous gre of eyama, hutendjiti. See IchikoTeiji, ed., Otogi oshi,in NKBT(1958),38: 361-384.



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LEGENDSOF HOLYMEN OPEARLYJAPAN 279

they ll were seizedoneby oneuntilonlyone man wasleft. Onthe night hat this onevillagerwas to be taken, travelerhap-penedto passthrough hetown nd was in searchof a night'slodging.The traveler nquiredt every oor, utcould ind o oneuntilhe came to the doorof the onepersonwhoremained live.When hevillager oldhimof his impendingate, hetraveler oldhimto go inside nd sleepas hewould ake care of the monster.Then the travelerwaitedat the entrance. It waspastoneo'clockwhenhe heardfootsteps utside. The traveler tood ready andopeninghedoor,he unsheathedis sword nd slashedout. Butthe monster led nd although he man madea search,he couldnot find t in the darkness. The next morning, e lookedaboutanddiscovered races ofblood which ed to the town's tatueofJiz. The travelerraisedthe Jiz imageand found a bigholeinsidewhere ll the captured illagerswere rowdedogether.Ap-parently, izhad seized thetownspeopleecausethey nolongermadeofferingohimandso after that, a great feast was heldandthe villagers gainresumedheirofferingso the statue.29

Althoughhetwolegendsdescribedbovecloselyesemble hedragon layer pisoden the story fGygi aitoku ndthe nake,there s an important ifference. his is the inclusion f the fol-lowingmotifs (1)watchfor the devastatingmonster,nd (2)con-test with monster r trail of monster o its lair. For thisreason,the migratoryegend boutKbDaishi andthedemonmore rop-erly belongs o TaleType301,TheThree Stolen Princesses.TheThreeStolenPrincessess a very mportant alein both Orientaland Western ultures, or the order nd combinationf motifs nthis storyhave beencloselyssociatedwith he lifepattern f the

29) SekiKeigo,ed.,Shimabarahanto minwa shu (1935),pp.105-106.A classicexampleof this story s found n the legendof DjHshi3 *ffi. t tells thatwhenDjHshi was anacolyte t Gangji7CS ^-,everynight heyoung riestwhokept watch n the bell tower was killed. DjHshidecided to put an end to thedemonwhowascommittinghiscrime, nd so he waitedfor he monsternthe tower.Whenthe demon ame,Dj grabbedhe monster's air nd a wrestlingmatch egan.Finally, he demon ledwithhis hair ripped ff nd the next day, the youngpriestfollowedhetrail of blood to a gravesite near a fork n the road. See Ryiki,pp.73-75. It is interesting o notethat in Japanesefolkbelief, othJiz nddemons reinvolvedwith the concept f the underworld fter death. Jiz eads thegoodsouls toparadise,nd demons ead thebad soulsto hell.



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cultural ero.30This is especiallyrue of a sub-type f the taleknown s The Bear Son. The classicillustrationf this story nWestern raditions the poemof Beowulf.The famousepisodewhich ompareswiththe egends f KbDaishiand Jiz escribedabove is Beowulf'sonfrontation ith the monsterGrendel.Ac-cordingo the poem,Beowulfraveled to Herot,the hall of theDanishking,Hrothgar, o save it from the periodicttacksofGrendel.Thus,he waited one night n the hall and when themonster ttempted ograbhimwith ts claws,BeowulfwrestledwithGrendelcrossthe hall. Finally,he tore off the creature'sarmandit fled n painto its lair. Later,whenGrendeFsmothercame to Herot and stole backher son's arm,Beowulf ollowederto her residence t the bottom f a deeplakeandafter mightystruggle, illedbothmother nd son.31

The factthat the stories f GygiTaitoku ndthe snakeandKbDaishi andthe demon bear a closesimilarity otonly ootherJapanese ales,but also to well-knownarratives f Westerntradition uchas St. Georgend thedragonndBeowulf,ndicatesindeed hat these stories re migratory egends.It is highly n-likely hat the samecombinationf motifs ound n the different

variants f these tales couldhavedevelopedndependentlyfeachother.

III. LOCALLEGENDS

The number f migratory egendsabout saints is relativelysmall when omparedo the profusion f short, ocalizedstoriesabout them. A locallegends generally rief n form nd, ncon-trast to a migratoryegend,t is closelyinkedto a specificocal-

ity.Mostoften, n

aetiologicalr

etymologicallements

present,explainingheexistence f some unusualfeature f the landscape

30) For a discussion fthe lifepattern of the culturalhero, ee part IV ofthisstudy.

31) BurtonRaffel, rans.,Beowulf(New York,1963),pp.25-79. For an analysisof the Grendel pisode s a variantof The Bear Son,see R. W. Chambers,eowulf(Cambridge,932),pp.62-65,369-380.



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LEGENDSF HOLYMENOF EARLYJAPAN 281

or the origin f a certain eographicallacename.32Locallegendsspecificallynvolvinghe miraculousctivities f saints consist ftwobasictypes legendsabout natural phenomena,nd legendsabout masterbuildingnd craftsmanship. tories about trees,springs r wells,nd rock ormationsre especially rominentn thefirst ategory, hile tories bout the buildingf temples, ridgesandother tructures, hecarving f statues,and the erection ftombsmakeup the bulk of the secondategory. In addition,woothermotifs re popularn locallegends.Theseare the attribu-tion of miraculous urativepropertiesothe placenquestion,ndreward orcharitablenessr punishmentor uncharitableness.nthe case of the latter motif, he holyman frequently ppears ndisguiseotest the goodwillof the local inhabitants.Similarlocallegends an be found n manydifferent egions f the worldand variants f a particularocalegendaninvolveither sacredor secularculturalhero. It is, therefore, ot surprising o findthat many f the same typesof locallegendexistnot onlywithregard oJapaneseholymenandJapaneseecularheroes,ut alsowithregard oJapaneseholymen and Christianaints.

In studyingocallegendsabout the particularJapaneseholy

menwithwhomwe are hereconcernedne is struck ythe fact

that although number f stories an be found oncerningn noGyja,GygiTaitoku, nd DengyDaishi,respectively,t is thesaintKoboDaishiwho s by far the most popularhero of suchlegends.

Amongocallegendsbouttrees, heres onegroupwhich ellsthat certain reeswereoriginallybjects mplantedn the ground.Onelargetree at TakaijS #, in Uchimakimuraf* fc t, Uda-gun? PSffi>>ara Prefecture,s called the Chopstick edar. Accord-ingto a legendof the area,Kb Daishi oncestoppedhere o eathis lunch s he wason his wayto climbMt.HjS . It is saidthat after he sainthadfinishedating,he thrust his chopsticksintothe ground nd thesetwopiecesof woodtookrootandgrew

32) A discussionf the characteristics f local legendcanbe found n Krappe,pp.70-100.For an English ranslation f several Japanese ocallegends,ee RichardM.Dorson,d.,FolkLegends of Japan (Rutland,Vermont, 962).



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together ntoa hugecedartree.33Such egendsboutchopstickreesappearto be variants f a

popular reemotif nowns the floweringtaff. A regionaltoryof Hana satoft S, Ona-chz%WS,no-gun If ?$, Gifu Pre-fecture, tates that an old cedar in the precincts f Sugishirosansha^ IHfi grewfrom staff which n noGyjatuck ntothe ground.34ften hese rooted taffs re believedohavemag-ical curativeproperties. One suchexampleis the cedar staffwhichGygiTaitoku mplantedn the ground t Yakushidm f^ in NishiToyonagamurag f 71c, Nagaoka-gunft59 $,KchiPrefecture.

Accordingo

legend,t is believedthat

peoplewho

suffer rom ye diseasescan becuredby worshippinghis tree.35This miracle f the floweringtaff s alsopopularlyoundnChris-tian legends.TheHolyThorn f the Abbeyof Glastonbury,n-gland,for example,s saidto havetaken root from he hawthornstaffwhich t. Joseph f Arimathea hrust ntothe ground s herestedonWearyallHill. Aspecialattribute f this rooted staffis that t is supposedobloomegularlyveryyear t Christmas.36

33) Nihonhskykai, d.,Nihon densetsumeii(1950),p. 44. Thereis a similarlegend bouta ChopstickWillowwhich tandsby a smallpondnear Toyoharamura

S 15t, Yamabe-gunU ff,NaraPrefecture. Apparently,histree also grewfromchopstickswhichKb Daishiimplanted n the groundafter he had finishedating.Ibid.. d.45.

34) Nihondensetsumeii,p. 47. Themotif f the floweringtaff lso canbe foundin legendsabout secularheroes. Suchis the six branchedwillowtree in YakamimuraA, Taki-gun #B5&, HygoPrefecture. Accordingo legend,this treegrewfrom staff truck n the groundby Minamotoo Yorimitsu nd his five etain-ers whileon their homewardourney fter havingsubdued he demons f eyama zK 'U. SeeKakitaIoji,KuchiTamba Uhi sh(1925),p. 54.

35) Nihondensetsumeii,p. 56. Thelegendfurther tates that a famouspriestonce stuckhimselfn the eye with a branch from this tree. He became blindndconsideredhis an auspiciousmenthat his departed spirit wouldcome to dwell inthis tree. Although t is the tree which s believed ohave the miraculousealingpowers,t is curious hat this cedarstands on the groundsof a templededicated oYakushiNyoraior Bhaisajyaguru-tathgatathe Buddha ofHealing).

36) HenryBett, EnglishMyths nd TraditionsLondon, 952),pp.55-56. Oneofthe oldestWestern ales abouta floweringtaff can be found n the Bible. Thisisthe occasionwhen the Lordcausedthe rod of Aaron o bloom ndbring orth lmonds.SeeNumbers 7 1-8. Accordingo Bett, pp.57-58, he imageof a dry staff uddingandblossominglso was usedin ancient imes as a standard xpressionf impossibil-ity.



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LEGENDSOF HOLY MEN OFEARLYJAPAN 283

Another eriesof locallegendsssociatethe unusual fruitful-ness or barrenness f particular reeswith hetreatment hat er-tain residents f thearea haveaccordedsaint. Such sthe egendof the twice-bloomingersimmonree n Tambaichi-cht $rf J,Yamabe-gun ljja f$Nara Prefecture. t seems thatKbDaishioncehappenedopassthrough hisregion nd feeling ungry, easkeda farmer orsomepersimmons. he farmer heerfullyom-pliedandfor this act of charitableness,hesaintrewardedimbycausing hepersimmonreeto bloom wice year hereafter.37nthe other hand,accordingo another egend,whenKbDaishioncechanced y Sono# fg, Oda-gunJ f$, Okayamarefecture,he desired peach,but the old womanwhoownedhe tree wouldnot givehimone. Becauseof this uncharitableness,he aintpro-claimed hatthereafter, lthough hetree might lossom,t wouldneverbearanyfruit.38

Thesestoriesmaybe comparedo legends f Christianaintswho alsohaveunusualcontrol ver the productivityf trees. Forexample,t. Berachcauseda willow reein Glendalough,reland,to beara heavy cropof appleseveryyear until doom.39Also,nthe Biblethere is an interesting tory about a barren fig treecursedby Christ. We are toldthat whenJesuswasreturning oJerusalemromBethany nemorning, e felt hungry nd spying

37) Nihondensetsumeii,p. 77. It appearsthat KbDaishicloselyresemblest.Peter in the sensethat bothholymen were believedto reward the charitable ndhospitablewhilepunishingheoppositeduring their travels. For other nstances fthis motif nvolving oboDaishi,seenotes38,43and53. For a discussionf storiesassociatingt. Peter with this motif, ee Stith Thompson,he Folktale(New York,1946),pp. 134-135,50-151.

38) Nihon densetsumeii, p. 79. Sometimes,aints punishuncharitablenessychanginghe food nto stone. For example,t is said that whenKb Daishi oncewastraveling hroughAokimura%% ft, Chiisagata-gunJf, NaganoPrefecture, ebeganto feel hungry nd askedan old womanof the vicinityfor some taro. The

woman, owever, efused o give him any, saying they werehard and could not beeaten. Thereuponheholyman turned hetaro nto tone nd from hat time nward,theyhavebeeninedible.Ibid., p. 86. See also note40 concerninghe miracle ofturning oodntostone.

39) CharlesPlummer, ives of Irish Saints (Oxford,922),I : 29. St. Coemgenalsois saidto have donemiraculoushings to trees, causing them to bloomout ofseasonfor the sick and ailing folk who desiredthem. He is said to havesuppliedsuchpeoplewithblackberriesn winter, ppleson willowtrees, and sprigsof sorrelon rocks n winter ime. Plummer,I: 124.



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a fig tree in the distance,he went there with the hopeof gettingsome fruit to eat. Unfortunately, e found only leaves on thetree, for the fruit was not yet in season. Unable tosatisfy hishunger,Christ proclaimedthat thereafter no man would be ableto eat figs from the tree, and the next morning he fig tree wasfoundwitheredto the roots.40

The creation of springsor wellsis another ommonmotif oundin locallegendsabout natural phenomena.In most cases,the holyman achieves thismiracleofwater production y striking his staffagainsta rockordigging t into the ground. OnelegendofShimobunkamiyamamura

F ft

|Uft, Mysai-gun5S $,Tokushima re-

fecture explainsthe originof a well called WillowWater. Accord-ing to the story, KobDaishioncepassed bythe area and feelingthirsty, he struck his staff nto a rock,causingfresh pringwaterto gush out. Because thesaint's staff was made of willow,thespring was given the name Willow Water.41Another nterestinglegendfrom himbaraff Hi Sue muragS ft, Kasuya-gunfftM$,FukuokaPrefecture, xplainsthe origin of Reflection View Well.It seems that at the age of seventy-two,DengyDaishi dug hisstaff nto the groundand created this well. Then after the wellhad filledwith water, he carved an imageof himself y looking this reflection n the water.42

40) St. Mark 11 12-14, 0-22. Christ also turned food of the uncharitablentostone seenote38). Accordingo an Englishegend, here s a largestone nearCais-tor in Lincolnshirealled the FonabyStoneSack. It is said that the Lord once wasriding hrough hisregion n an ass,and happenedto see a man sowing sackofcorn. Christ skedthe man for a handful f corn to feed his ass, but the manre-fusedto part with any,claiminghat the sackof cornwasactually stone. Forthisact of uncharitableness,herefore,he Lord turned the sack into a real stonewhichbecamea hindrance o the farmer whileploughingis fields. Bett, p. 44.

41) Nikondensetsumeii,p. 207. Wells and springsoften are believed to havemiraculous urativeproperties lso. Onelegendrelateshowa miner n Takaokamuraiff +barakiPrefecture, rayed aily t a temple obe cured f a certain ye ffliction.Finally fter someninety ays of prayer, e had a visionin whichhe was toldthatby digging nder certain edartree near the temple,he would find well dug byKbDaishi. Themanfollowedthese instructions nd by washinghis eyesin thiswellwater,he wascured. YanagitaKunio,Sansn no seikatsukenky1937),p.509.

42) Nihondensetsumeii,p. 223. Legendsof wells also areassociatedwith Japa-nese secular heroes.The maindifference,owever,s that the secular heromore om-monly mploysn arrow or a swordto create the miracle. Forexample,ccordingoa legendof Yura & &,NishiTagawa-gunMffl '' ffl, amagataPrefecture, enkei#&created spring y thrusting hepointof his sword nto the ground. Ibid.,p.214.



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LEGENDS F HOLYMENOF EARLYJAPAN 285

Locallegendsbout waterproductionlso frequentlynvolvethe motif f charitablenessewarded, ncharitablenessunished.Oneregionaltory of Goj-chE 4 j, Uchi-gun ^ t&,NaraPrefecture,elatesthe origin f a spring y Sakurai-dera # t?.It seemsthat ong ago,Kb Daishioncehappenedby this areaand askedfor some water. The old womanwhoacknowledgedthe saint's request bligingly alkedquite a distance oget himsomeandin appreciationorher kindness, he Daishi struck hepoint f his staff n the ground nd a spring ushedforth.43

Comparabletories f springsand wellsabound in Western

legend. Perhapsone of the oldest storiesaboutwater

springingfrom rock s associatedwiththe prophetMoseson the occasionof the exodusof the Jewish eoplerom gypt. Duringheir tayin the wilderness,hepeopleweredying rom hirst ndMoses,stheir eaderpetitionedheLord ohelp hem. Inanswer,heproph-et was toldto smite rock n Horeb withhis rod and when hedidso,watergushedforth.44

Other ocallegendsdealingwiththe natural andscapenvolvestories f rock formationsausedby holymen. There re,for x-ample, everal egendsbout rock mpressions upposedlyreated

by somepart of the saint's anatomy.In Naguramura ^S# tKitaShitara-gunt Wt ff>,ichiPrefecture,heres a rockwhichbearsa footprint nd variousother depressionselievedto havebeen eft behind y KbDaishi whenhe restedthere.45Also,at

43) Nihondensetsumeii,p. 207. A legendfromTakaonomura ti Ns f t, Izumi-gun litK B,KagoshimaPrefecture, rovidesn examplef punishmentoruncharitable-nesswith water. It seems that a woman was washingradishesin a streamwhenKbDaishihappenedo passby andasked for some water. The woman, however,refusedto givehimany,and so the saint pointedhis staff t the stream and causedthe water to dry up. It is said that from hat dayon,therehas been nowaterdur-ing the radish eason. Ibid.,p. 242. Ina similarChristianegendboutuncharitable-ness,St. Brendan f Ireland ent his discipleso the River Fergusin Deise Muman oask somefishermenorfish. The fishermen, owever, refused to part with any oftheir catchand, therefore, hesaint cursedthe stream o that thereafter t wouldbebarrenof fish. See Plummer,I: 77-78.

44) Exodus17 1-7. For severaladditionalexamplesof holy wellsm Christianlegend,ee RobertCharlesHope,TheLegendaryLoreof theHolyWellsof England(London,893).

45) Nihon densetsumeii,p. 121. There are countless egendsabout footprintsnJapan,many f which re attributed o giantsandother ecular heroes. One of themostfascinating haracters n this respect is the semi-historicaligure jHshi.



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a templen Nakasumura+ #1 t, Suwa-gunfc fr $, in NaganoPrefecture, bDaishi is saidto have left handprintboutfiveand one-halfnchesn length nd three ncheswide on a certainrockwherehe oncehad occasion opresshis hand.46

In a similar ein,En noGyjas saidto have left n impres-sion of his staff n a rockon Mt. Mino%gj, in Toyono-gun| tti|$, OsakaPrefecture.Accordingo legend,he stood his staff nthis rock fter dreamingf an audiencewithNgrjuna.47

These stories esemble hemanyegendsboutChristianaintswhohave leftfootprintsnd othermarks pon ocks.St.Patrick,for example,s believed ohave lefttraces of his footprints n arock t Sheestown,ssory, reland.48

Other egendsrelate the specialcurativeproperties f rockstouched y holy men. Such is the rock at Iwaydera g M^?,Oneepisodeof the legend bout this priestdescribes rockthrowing ontestwith astrongmanat the ImperialPalace. DjHshi,then a mere ad of ten, finallywonthe matchby tossing n eight footsquarerocka distance f three eet. In doingo,the weightof the rock caused his feet to sink three inchesinto the ground eavingan impression. ee Ryiki, p.70-75. Thislegends interesting rom hestandpointthat there re several other stories about cultural heroes with similarnames e.g.DaidaraBokke# )who leavefootprintsin variousregionsof Japan, often as the result of carrying heavy object. SeeNihon deu8et8umeii,pp.367-369,nd YanagitaKunio,"Hitotsu mekozsonota," nTYKS,5: 306-327.

46) Nihon densetsumeii,p. 143. In a comparableChristianegend, t. Nonna ssaid to haveleft a handprint n a stone near a wellin Pembrokeshire,ngland. Ac-cording o the story, hesaintgavebirth o her son,St. David,on this spotand eftthis hand mpressions shepresseddowno the rock during the throes of labor.See ChristinaHole,Saintsin Folklore(NewYork, 1965),pp.84-85.

47) Nihondensetsumeii,p. 128. Another nteresting tone legendabout En noGyjarelates that a rock near Nachi muraM?H*HigashiMuro-gun ^ | i,WakayamaPrefecture, as originallyhesaint'scapwhich,when left behind, urnedto stone. Ibid.,p. 137. For a more detaileddescriptionf the legendconcerningnno Gyoja'saudiencewith Ngrjuna,ee pages308-9of this article.48) W.G.Wood-Martin,racesof the Elder Faiths of Ireland (London, 902),,163. See alsonote46. In addition, here are severalChristian tories aboutrockformations hich resemble hairs and maybe comparedo Japaneseegends f koshi-kake shi M Wt or SittingRocksseenote49). Amongeveralrock hairsdescribedby Wood-Martin,here s one called St. Dabehoe'sChair or St. Brigid'sChair whichis located onthe shore of Lough Derg, Countyonegal,reland, acingn islandwhichis saidto be the entrance f purgatory. bid.,pp.253-254.



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LEGENDSF HOLYMENOFEARLYJAPAN 287

Uchiumimura ft $gtt> Chita-gunp# f$, AichiPrefecture,whichKbo Daishi isbelievedto have sat upon. According o tradition,this rock will effectvariouscures if it is venerated.49Theconceptof a stone bearingmedicinalvalue can also befound n Christianlegend. There is, for example,the Healing Stone of St. Conall,which is found not far from St. ConalFs Well near Bruckless,Ireland. This dark brownstone is shapedin the form of a dumb-bell about five nches in length,and the customhas been for theafflicted ersonto borrow the stone until a cure is effected ndthen return t to its properplace.50

Anothercommon tonemotifdeals with throwing arge rocksor movingthem out of the way. There is a bouldernear Yama-mototenman inja [I]if ^ K# in NagaomuraJbg fi, Kawabe-gun j|| & f$, HygoPrefecture,which ccording olegend,originallyblocked the road and obstructed he path of travelers. The saintGygiTaitoku,however,once happenedby this area and hurledthe huge rock aside to makepassageeasier.51

49) Nihondensetsumeii,p. 115. There is another nterestingocallegendaboutfiverocks t the MysenjiBJ3f $ in Morohashimura f ft, Fugeshi-gun S ift,IshikawaPrefecture. t is said that once whenKbDaishiwas performingusteri-ties at this temple, hesestonesfell from morning tar into a spring. Theyarebelievedo effectivelyure warts andeczema,nd it has beenthe customfor peopleto borrow heserocks nd return hemto the temple fter use. Ibid.,p. 106. Manyof theserockswith special propertiesre called Sitting Rocksbecauseof the beliefthat holymen oncesat uponthem. Another ockat Suginomura f-f fcf, ka-gun& H ffl>,higaPrefecture, ponwhichKbDaishi ssupposedohavesat, is believedto prevent isastersfrom ire nd becauseso manypeoplehave takenchipsfrom tto use as flints, he rock has becomeuite small n size. Ibid.,p. 116.

50) Wood-Martin,: 69. Another tonecalled St.Declan'sBlackRelicis usedtocuresoreeyesand headaches.Accordingo legend,this stone is supposedo havefloated rom taly to Irelandon top of a larger rock whichnow stands in ArdmoreBay,Ireland. Ibid.,p. 71.

51) Nihondensetsumeii,p. 401. Saintsof Christianegend lsohad thepower olift great rocks. St. Patrick,for example,with the help of a monkby the nameofCainnech,ifted a great four-corneredtone whichcovereda well dedicatedo aheathengodat Findmagn Ireland. SeeWhitley tokes,TheTripartite ife of Pat-rick London,887),1 123. Manyfeats of hurling ocks lso are attributed o Japa-nesesecularculturalheroes. Onerocknear Shitorichumurafu C4H*Kume-gun%:, OkayamaPrefecture, hichmeasuresapproximatelyour yards, two feet andeight nches n circumference,s said to havebeenhurled to this ocationby Benkei.SeeNihondensetsumeii,p. 96.



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The secondmain categoryof locallegendsassociatedwithholymen involvesgreat feats of buildingand craftsmanship. There isno doubt that manyof these stories have somefoundation n fact,for saints, whether Buddhist or Christian,often were confrontedwith the necessityof performing r supervisingconstruction ndwelfarework, not only to improvethe living conditionsof thecommonpeople,but also to facilitate propagationof their faith.

Gygi Taitoku is credited with many constructionprojects.He is said to have erectedforty-nine uddhist shrines twelve inIzumifn , sevenin Yamato ^ $},nine in Yamashirotil$c, five

in Settsu gSi$ and six in KchiMp*3rovince. In addition,he issupposedto have constructed ix bridges,one road, two harbors,nine almshouses,fifteen reservoirs, six drainage systems, fourcanals and three aqueducts.52

KbDaishi isalso believedto have erected many temples.On the islandof Shikoku,there are eighty-eight acred sites whichare legendarily ssociated with this holy man, and thousands ofpilgrimsmake the traditionalroundof theseholyplaceseachyear.The pilgrimagebeginswith the Ryzenji g Ulr^f n Bant-chgj BJ,Bant-gun,TokushimaPrefecture, nd progresses throughthe prefectures f KchiandEhime,endingat Okubo-dera~kM^rin Tawa mura ^ ftl t, kawa-gunX Jl|U, Kagawa Prefecture.The entire distance of the pilgrimagestretchesover 700miles andtakes about forty to fifty ays to complete. Variouslocallegendsare associated witheach of these sacredsites. For example,thetwelfth top, Shzanji [^ in TokushimaPrefecture, s said tohave beenestablishedby Kb Daishiafter he exorcized apoison-ous snake in the area. Near by the temple s a famoushermitagebelieved to be the hut of one Emonzabur% P5H [5,a wealthyman from Ehara f JlfC,kena-gun ? ft U, EhimePrefecture. Thisman is supposedto have been the first pilgrimto travel the routeof the eighty-eight acredplaces. Accordingolegend,Emonzaburwas an avariciousmillionairewhotreated his servants cruelly. Itso happenedthat a shabbymendicantpriest oncecameto the gate

52) For a detailed ist of the location f theseprojects, ee Nihon kodai jinmeijiten (1961),: 659-660.



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LEGENDSFHOLYMENOF EARLYJAPAN 289

of the man'shomeand beggedfor food,but Emonzaburadaservant hasehimaway. Themonk, owever,ameback thenextday and severaldays thereafter, ach time beggingfor food.Eventually,monzabur ecame oenraged t the monk'spersis-tencethat he cameto the doorhimselfnd knockedheiron owlout of the monk'shand. Breakingnto eight pieces,the bowlshoneforthwith light nd then flewup to a yondermountain,whichtoday is calledHachiori-yama$$ il or BeggingBowlLanding.Fromthat night n, oneof Emonzaburo'sight hildrendiedeachevening ntil all had passedaway. It was thenthatthe man first ealizedhisevil deedand becameaware that the

monkmight avebeen KbDaishi. Hopingto meet the saintoncemore nd atoneforhissin,Emonzaburetoutona pilgrimage.Butalthough e traveled he route as much s twenty imes,hestill did not meetthe Daishi. Finally,he started n the oppositedirectionnd exhaustandrom is travels,he tooksickand fell othe ground,ust waiting o die. Suddenly,heDaishippearedndEmonzabur,heddingears, pologizedor his sin and died.53

Anothernterestingegendnvolves hecarving f statues byKbDaishiat the seventy-firstacredsite on this pilgrimage,Iyatani-derafi ^ on Mt.Iyatani,Mitoyo-gun S $, KagawaPrefecture.Besidesrenovating he temple, he saint is saidtohave carved999Buddhistmageson the rocksof this mountain.Accordingo the story, heDaishiintendedocarve1,000mages,but as he wasabout to start workon the final ne,a demonp-pearedanddeclaringhat t soonwouldbe dawn,forced he holymanto stop.54

53) Miyamotosuneichi,t al., eds.,Fudoki Nihon(1960),: 118-119.In his finalwords, monzaburxpressed desire to be reborn as a provincialgovernor. KbDaishi tookpity onhim and picking p a smallstone, he saint wroteEmonzaburnit and stuck t in the graspof the dead man's left hand. Afterwards,n the 20thdayof the 10th month f the year831,an infant boy was bornto the wife of the

lordof IyoProvince, noSaemonnosukeasutoshifoj f tE flfi SOB ^J. For somereason, hebaby's eft hand was firmly lenchednd could not be opened.With theaid of a priest, he hand was finally penedand the small stone with Emonzaburwritten pon t was found nside.

54) Miyamoto,p. 116-117. AsMiyamotoointsout, this legend s apparently e-latedto stories bout demonswho mustput an end to their activities at daybreak,commonlyignaledby the crowing f the cock. There are manyfolktales, or ex-ample,wherean old man tricksdemons ut of their treasure by imitating cockcrowandthereby caring he creatures way. SeeShimabara hant minwash,pp.114-116.Seealso note127.

M.S.XXVIII19



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GygiTaitoku also is believed to havecreatedmanyBuddhistimages. A statue of the bodhisattva Jiz called InazumiKokuboJiz f Sf m # j& at Tkji ^ 3fe in Tkji mura, NishiYamanashi-gung I| 30i, Yamanashi Prefecture, s said to havebeencarvedby the saint while he wasworking n oneofhismanywater projects.55The Hara obi noJiz 0 $?


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LEGENDS FHOLYMENOFEARLYJAPAN 291

gionalstory, hisplaceenclosedythickets as fashionedyGygiTaitoku o confinemosquitoes.58

Theselegends f buildingnd craftsmanshiplso haveparal-lelsin Christianore. An interesting tory of miraclebuildingovernights attributed o the Irish saint Maedocand his divinehelpers.Accordingothe legend,MaedocpromisedohelpMoluaof Lorrhabuild a church nder he condition hat veryonehouldgo to his chamber nd refrain rom bservingheworknprogress.Oneman,however,ouldnot control iscuriositynd stole peekthrough slit or keyholen the door. Outsidehe saw a group f

angelsin the formof

youngmonkswith

goldenhair carrying

timber rom he forest o construct he church. But just then,voicecommandedheangelsto stoptheirwork nd stated that fthe manhad not ooked,hechurchwouldhave been builtall inthat night.59

Countlessther xamplesf local legends nvolvingolymenmight e given,but the above seriesof stories hould e sufficientto indicate hegeneralnatureof the twomaintypesof legends.

IV. STRUCTURALMODELOF THELIFE STORY

Geographicallyr historicallypeaking, ne cannot examinesacred egends,r indeed thergenresof folk narrative,withoutbecomingware of striking imilaritiesn plotstructure. This n-teresting acthas promptedmanyfolklorecholars o analyzehedifferent orms f folk iterature n efforts o determine commonformula ornarrative onstructionnd the psychologicalr culturalbasisfor ts development.As a result,variousstructuralmodelsfor myths, olktalesnd epiclegendshave been producedo de-scribe he life pattern f thecultural ero.60Anextensionf this

58) Nihondensetsumeii,p. 327. AnotherMosquitoMoundt Sakamura$ f,Ikaruga-gunMLft, KyotoPrefecture, s said to be a stonesarcophagusuilt byKbDaishi toconfinemosquitoes.Ibid.

59) Plummer,I : 230-231.For otherexamplesof Christian egends boutmasterengineeringnd construction,eeC.GrantLoomis,WhiteMagic Cambridge,948),.89.

60) For example,Jan de Vries delineates the followingtructural modeltor tnepattern f heroic ife (1)the begetting f the hero a) the mother s a virgin r hasextra-marital elations, ) the father s a god, c) the father is an animal, r d) the



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structural modelconceptto legendsconcerningholymen indicatesnot onlythe existenceof a common equenceof miraculousctivi-ties in the lives of varioussaints,61ut alsoa grosscorrespondenceof events in the life pattern of the saint with activitiesattributedto the secular hero. Althoughlittle investigationof this naturehas been directedtoward the study of Oriental folk narratives, rmorespecifically,Japanese legends,62he plot elementsof storiesconcerningJapaneseholy men are quite similar to the series ofmotifsfound n stories describingtheir Western counterparts.Anexamination f legendsabout the lives of En no Gyja, GygiTai-toku, KbDaishiand DengyDaishivalidates thefollowingtruc-

tural model (1)unusual circumstancesurrounding he saint'sbirth,(2)early demonstration f the sai

Legends of Holy Men of Early Japan

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