Lecturer: Dr. Emmanuel Adjei Department of Information ...

College of Education

School of Continuing and Distance Education 2014/2015 – 2016/2017

Lecturer: Dr. Emmanuel Adjei Department of Information Studies Contact Information: [email protected]

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Overview of Research

Key topics to be covered in this lesson are:

Defining and Explaining Research

The Purpose of Research

Characteristics of Research

Types / Classification of Research

Sources of Knowledge

Characteristics of the Scientific Method

The Research Process.

Slide 2 godsonug.wordpress.com/blog



The word research is composed of two syllables: re and search

The dictionary defines re as a prefix meaning again, anew, or

over again; and search as a verb meaning to examine closely

and carefully; to test and try or to probe.

Together re and search form a noun (research), describing a

careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some

field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles.

(Grinnel, 1993:4)




• Research is ‘a systematic investigation to find answers to a problem.’ (Burns 1994:7)

• Research is a “step by step process that involves the collection, recording, analyzing and interpreting of information” (Wilson, 2010).




• Research is a quest for knowledge through diligent search or investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of new knowledge (WHO).

• Research is an art of scientific investigation. It is a systematised effort to gain new knowledge (Redman, 1982).



Defining and Explaining Research • Research is best conceived as the process of arriving

at dependable solutions to problems through the planned and systemic collection, analysis and interpretation of data. The best research is that which is reliable, verifiable and exhaustive so that it provides information in which we have confidence. Mouly, (1998).



Summing Up

Research is searching for an unknown fact or event, but involves more than merely searching for what is unknown. It is a painstaking search carried out systematically in an attempt to:

– Find an answer for new problems, or

– Understand existing ones, or

– Simply delve into the unknown as a result of mere curiosity, or

– As a result of the thirst for new knowledge



The Purpose of Research • Finding answers to questions or solutions to

problems

• Discovering and interpreting new facts

• Testing theories to revise accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts

• Formulating new theories

• Seeking an understanding and/or of an explanation for an unknown issue, event, phenomenon



The Purpose of Research

• To obtain additional information to enrich existing knowledge

• To suggest possible solution to problems

• To make predictions

• To emancipate or empower people to change their situation. (Hussey and Hussey 1997)

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Characteristics of Research

Systematic – this implies that the procedures for conducting the research follow a logical sequence. One cannot decide to conduct the research anyhow. Some procedures must follow others.

Rigorous – this means that we have to be meticulous in ensuring that the procedures followed to find answers to questions are relevant, appropriate, and justified.



• Valid and reliable – this means that whenever you conduct a research you should make sure that the findings are correct and can be verified by others.

• Controlled – The concept of control implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two variables, we make sure that other variables or factors do not affect the results.

•

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There are four dimensions by which research is classified (Ranjit Kumar, 2001)

1. The purpose of doing research

2. The intended uses of research

3. How it treats time i.e. the time dimension in research

4. The research (data collection) techniques used in it.

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Types / Classification of Research Classifying research from the perspective of purpose a. Descriptive research Describes a particular phenomenon, focusing upon the issue of what is happening, or how much of it has happened, rather than why it is happening.

b. Explanatory research

This type of research is involved in explaining why something happens, and assessing causal relationships between variables.



Types / Classification of Research Classifying research from the perspective of purpose c. Exploratory research Takes place where there is little or no prior knowledge

of a phenomenon. This type of research attempts to gain some familiarity

with the appropriate concepts and looks for patterns or ideas without any preconceived ideas or explanation.


Overview of Research.


Classifying research from the perspective of Use or Application

a. Pure research takes place to explore a particular concept, or issue, or phenomenon without regard for a specific problem, and may be carried out to simply gain knowledge or a better understanding phenomenon

b. Applied research is undertaken to solve a specific problem or provide a solution to a practical question.



Types of Applied Research I. Action Research Aims to contribute to the practical concerns of people in an immediate problematic situation. II. Impact Assessment Research The process of identifying the future consequences of a current or a proposed action III. Evaluation Research • Seeks to examine the consequences of the adoption

of a particular courses of action




Classifying Research from the perspective of time dimension a. Cross-Sectional Studies

• Observations taken at one point in time. • Explanation occurs by examining differences

across the units of analysis. Example: The hypothesis worker satisfaction increases worker productivity is measured for 100 individuals in an organization at one point in time. This is tested by the correlation between satisfaction and productivity for the 100 individuals.

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Types / Classification of Research Classifying Research from the perspective of time dimension b. Longitudinal Studies

• Observations are taken more than once. • Explanation occurs by examining differences across

time. Example: Worker satisfaction and worker productivity are measured for 100 individuals over a period of time. The hypothesis is tested by examining changes in worker satisfaction and changes in productivity across time for the 100 individuals.

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Classifying research by data collection technique

a. Quantitative Research

The main quantitative techniques are:

1. Experiments

2. Surveys

3. Analysing Existing Statistics

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Classifying Research by data collection techniques

b. Qualitative Research

The main qualitative techniques are:

1. Field Research

2. Case Study

3. Focus Group Discussion




Authority

When you accept something as being true because someone in a position of authority says it is true, or because it is in an authoritative publication, you are relying on authority as the for knowledge.

Tradition

People sometimes rely on tradition for knowledge. Tradition is a special case of authority – authority of the past. Tradition means you accept something as being true because “it is the way things have always been.




Personal Experience

If something happens to you, if you personally see it or experience it, you accept it as true. Personal experience, or

“ seeing is believing” has a strong impact and is a powerful source of knowledge.

Common Sense

You know about the social world from your everyday reasoning or common sense. You rely on what every one knows and what just “makes sense”.

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The Scientific Method

Scientists over the centuries found they faced the

same problem when it came to sorting out the truth

from non truths. To solve the problem, they devised a

methodical framework within which to work. This

framework is called the scientific method.

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What is Scientific Method?

• The scientific method is a tool that helps scientists and

the rest of us to solve problems and determine

answers to questions in a logical format.

• It provides step-by-step, general directions to help us

work through problems.



Steps to the Scientific Method

The Scientific Method involves a series of steps that are used to investigate a natural occurrence.

• Identify a problem.

• Research the problem.

• Formulate a hypothesis.

• Conduct an experiment.

• Reach a conclusion.



• you're faced with the problem of not being able to read because your pen torch doesn't work, and you're not happy about it.

• You think back to the last time your pen torch didn't work, and you remember that it was because of worn-out batteries.

•

• Identify a problem.

Research the problem.



• You guess that worn-out batteries is the reason your pen torch isn't working now, so you get some new batteries from the drawer next to your bed and replace the ones in your pen torch.

• Oh! Your pen torch works

Formulate a hypothesis

Conduct an experiment.

Reach a conclusion



Characteristics of the Scientific Method Five basic characteristics or tenets distinguish the scientific method from other methods of knowing.

These characteristics are:

Scientific research is public

Science is objective

Science is empirical

Science is self-correcting

Science is progressive


Scientific research is public • Scientific advancement depends on freely available information. No

researcher can plead private knowledge, methods, or data when arguing for the accuracy of his findings. Scientific research information must be freely communicated from one researcher to another.

Science is objective • Science tries to rule out personal biases, prejudices and judgment by

researchers. Science is empirical • Empiricism is derived from the Greek word experience. Empirical here

means that which is verifiable by observation. Scientist must be able to perceive and classify what they study and to reject metaphysical explanation of events.



Science is self-correcting

Science is open to change. In the light of new evidence, new discovery may make existing knowledge obsolete at any time

Science is progressive

• From the position that science is empirical and self-correcting, it also follows that it is progressive. Science has made significant advances through the gaining of new knowledge about the world in which we live. The advancement of technology today is the result of years of painstaking research.

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The Research Process 1. Selection of topic

• 2. Reviewing the literature

• 3. Development of theoretical and conceptual frameworks

• 4. Clarification of research question/hypothesis

• 5. Research design

• 6. Data collection

• 7. Data analysis

• 8. Drawing conclusions


Lecturer: Dr. Emmanuel Adjei Department of Information ...

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