Lecture20 Resources Mar27 29 Upload

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ERTH 2404

Earth Resources

Davidson et al.

Chapter 16

Au Exploration, Freegold Mountain, YK Asbestos Mining, Cassiar, BC (ca.1975)

Oil Platform, Santa Barbara Channel, USA


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Non-metallic

Metallic Fossil Fuels

Alternative Energy

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EARTH RESOURCES


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LCD

Mercury; glass (sandstone,

limestone); plastic (petroleum)

Circuit Board

Copper, gold, lead, nickel, zinc,

beryllium, tantalum; glass; plastic

Battery

Nickel, zinc, cobalt, cadmium,

copper, lithium, carbon minerals

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RESOURCES IN YOUR DAILY LIFEIf it cant be grown, it has to be mined


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Annual, per capita consumption, USA

(94% of all mineral resources)

NON-METALLIC RESOURCES


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Rock quarries: building stoneLimestone, crushed rock aggregate:

cement

Sand and gravel: road materials

Gypsum: plaster and wallboard

Clay minerals (kaolinite,

montmorillonite): medicine, paint, glassy

paper, ceramics, tennis shoes, chocolate!

NON-METALLIC RESOURCES


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Photo: Burtynsky

Marble

Quarry,

Portugal


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METALLIC RESOURCES

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85% copper, 15% tin


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METALLIC RESOURCES

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Annual, per capita

consumption, USA


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CANADAS MINERALS AND METALS

Canada ranks among the worlds top five producers of14 mineral commodities

World's leader in production of potash and U

Canadian-based companies conduct about 40% of all

mineral exploration undertaken in the world

2012 Non-Ferrous Metals Exploration Spending

Image:SNLMetalsEconomicsG

roup

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All metals present at

some concentration in

Earth - to be economic,must concentrate

metals

-------------------->Ore

ECONOMIC MINERAL DEPOSITS


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Metal prices important higher pricelowers concentration required to be ore

ECONOMIC MINERAL DEPOSITS


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KIMBERLITES--> DIAMONDS

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Highly volatile-rich magma

Transport diamonds to thesurface

Deep mantle origin

Rapid ascent, explosive

eruption

Find using geophysical

surveys or Kimberlite

Indicator Minerals in soil

and glacial till


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KIMBERLITE PIPES IN CANADA

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Photo: A. Snider, Carleton U.

Diavik Mine, NWT

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Diavik Mine, NWT


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Photo: C. Samson

Photo: A. Snider, Carleton U.

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Diavik Mine, NWT


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MAGMATIC AND METAMORPHIC PROCESSES

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Precipitation of

Minerals;

Crystallization

Dense crystals sink to

bottom of magmabody, form layers


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CHROMITE

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Precipitation of Minerals; Crystallization

e.g., chromium as chromite (FeCr2O4)

Magma: 400 ppm Cr; Chromite: 45% Cr

Bushveld Complex, South Africa


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HYDROTHERMAL PROCESSES

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heat & waterPrecipitation

Leaching


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PORPHYRYDEPOSITS

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Central Felsic Pluton

Not always

porphyritic!

Porphyry name

comes from the

late porphyritic

dykes that oftencross these

deposits.


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PORPHYRY COPPER

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Bingham Canyon porphyry copper deposit, Utah

2011 Production:Copper - 195 kt; Gold - 384 koz;Silver - 2.976 koz; Molybdenum - 13.6 kt


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Porphyry Copper in Chile

Artisanal Mine Adit ca.1910


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Volcanogenic

Massive Sulphidedeposits:Cu, Zn, Pb

Form on sea floor,added to continents

via collisions

Seafloor Hydrothermal Vents


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VMS DEPOSITS

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[ ]


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SUDBURY IMPACT[?] STRUCTURE

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Image: Eckstrand and Hulbert, GSC

Probable asteroid

impact crater 2nd largest in world

Also one of the

largest Ni deposits

Catastrophic

heating and

brecciation

Subsequent

metamorphicfolding and

alteration

1.85 Ga


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Precipitation from seawater OR concentrationby grain sorting during transport

SEDEX type: include some of

largest Zn-Pb deposits.Typically occur in drowned

continental rifts that have been

infilled with marine sediments;

heat from below (dykes, sills)

SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES


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SULLIVAN PB-ZN MINE, KIMBERLY, BC

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Sedex deposit with sulphide ore

92 yrs in production (1909-2001) 17 Mt of Pb and Zn


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GODERICH SALT MINE, GODERICH, ON

28Image: CBC

Worlds largest underground salt mine

7 km2, extending under Lake Huron


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Spherical nodules of Fe-Mn oxides;abundant copper, cobalt, nickel

Scavenge metals

from seawater

and from

sediment porewaters

MANGANESE NODULES


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Form worlds most important iron ore

deposits: bands of chert, Fe-oxides;

all deposited

between 2 and 3Ga

Fe precipitated

from seawater as

reacted with O2in shallow water

BANDED IRON FORMATIONS


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Concentration of dense minerals by water:gold, tin, chromium, tungsten

panning

Yukon placer gold operation

PLACER DEPOSITS


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WEATHERING PROCESSES

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Extensive chemicalweathering of a rock in

high rainfall, tropical

environment

Weathering removes all

mobile elements, leaves

behind soil rich in

immobile element

Deposits of Al, Fe


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Bedrock

Soil - all soluble ions

and silicon leached out

Weathered bedrock

Unweathered bedrock

Mafic bedrock -->

laterite (Fe)

Felsic bedrock -->

bauxite (Al)

WEATHERING PROCESSES


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Many deposits commonly form at plate boundaries

ORES AND PLATE TECTONICS

MINING EXPLORATION


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MINING EXPLORATION

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Most early-stage exploration carried out by small

companies juniors

Public companies, listed on stock market Raise money to fund exploration by selling

shares

End game: sell property or company

Most advanced exploration and mining carried out

by large companies majors

MINING EXPLORATION


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MINING EXPLORATION

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Exploration Methods:

Geophysics Ground, Airborne, Satellite,

Downhole

Magnetic, EM, Gravity

Looking for:

EM conductors (Ni, Au,

PGE, Cu)

Gravity highs (U)

Magnetic highs/lows

(metals) Circular stuctures

(diamonds, porphyries)

Anomalous faults, shears,

other structures.Image: Fugro

MINING EXPLORATION


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MINING EXPLORATION

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MINING EXPLORATION


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MINING EXPLORATION

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Ground work

Soil/sediment sampling

Diamonds (Kimberlite

Indicator Minerals)

Metals Mapping

Where outcrops can be

found

Trenching and channelsampling

Where overburden is thin

MINING EXPLORATION


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MINING EXPLORATION

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Drilling! Diamond drilling (core)

RC, RAB (chips, dust)


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Fossil fuels

Geothermal

Nuclear Tidal

Wind

Solar

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ENERGY RESOURCESCook Inlet, Alaska

Photo: M. Scott Moon


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FOSSIL FUELS

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Trapped organic matter, created by living organisms

Most organic matter decays rapidly,

recycled to atmosphere as CO2

Ifburied, remains are preserved from

decomposition and form fossil fuel

FORMATION OF FOSSIL FUELS


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FORMATION OF FOSSIL FUELS

Terrigeneous

organic matter COAL

Marine

organic matter OIL & GAS

Ref:Craigetal.

2001

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Sun + CO2

+ H2O --> organic matter (OM)

OM + O2, bacteria --> CO2

Protected from oxidation, bacteria

THE CARBON CYCLE


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TYPES OF FOSSIL FUELS

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Wood: familiar form of natural fuel

Inefficient: low ratio of carbohydrate to other

materials, e.g., cellulose, water

But if wood buried, heated: water driven off,

carbohydrate structure modified such that more

heat liberated when burned


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Three important types:coal, oil, natural gas

Coalfrom buried trees, branches,

leaves, stems and roots, buried in

swamps

Oil, natural gas from buried

phytoplankton in shallow marine

environmentAlso shale oil, tar sands, peat

TYPES OF FOSSIL FUELS

COAL


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Peat (waterlogged,

dense vegetation)

buried, heated; C

content increases

Lignite: 30% C

Bituminous: 87% CAnthracite: 94% C

COAL

COAL OCCURRENCES


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COAL OCCURRENCES

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Most coalfields deposited ~ 300 Ma ago in regionsclose to equator; wet lowlands in large basins


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COAL OCCURRENCES

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C = coal

Relation to plate tectonics


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COAL OCCURRENCES

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COAL RESERVES

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US Geological Survey estimate:

~8 trillion metric tons in USA

Have only mined 2% of available reserves!

Touted as energy solution?

Problems: commonly high S, N content yields

acid fog; smoky fumes; disposal of coal ash;

environmental problems of coal mining


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PETROLEUM

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Oil, natural gas

From organic matter trapped in shallow marine

sediments; rarely in lake sediments

Temperature dependent: never find petroleum

in magmatically active area; too hot!

FORMATION OF OIL AND GAS


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FORMATION OF OIL AND GAS

Ref:Craigetal.

2001

Oil

window

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PETROLEUM FORMATION


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150oC: waterexpelled from

sediments; organicmaterial altered toliquid petroleum

Plankton die, fall; ifwater anoxic,preserved; bacteriaproduce CH4

Shallow marine

PETROLEUM FORMATION


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PETROLEUM OCCURRENCES

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Peak in petroleum formation 200-65 m.y.a


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Sedimentary rocks < 200 m.y.

old contain 83% of world oil

Older deposits buried too

deeply, became too hot?

Why so much oil in Middle East?

Co-existence of all requirements: abundant

shallow seas, marine life, perfect reservoir

rocks, lots of traps to hold oil

PETROLEUM OCCURRENCES

ACCUMULATION OF OIL AND GAS


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Economic petroleum accumulations occurwhen small dispersed amounts of

petroleum migrate:

Fromsource rocks

Into porous and permeable reservoir rocks

Where they become confined by a trap and

prevented from further movement

Oil can naturally seep to the surface

ACCUMULATION OF OIL AND GAS

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COMMON OIL & GAS TRAPS

Source:PetroleumC

ommun

icationFoundation

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Source: Petroleum Communication Foundation

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COMMON OIL & GAS TRAPS


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Seismic reflection

HOW TO FIND OIL AND GAS DEPOSITS?

TAR SANDS


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Mixture:

Clay and sand

Water

Black, highly viscous tar (bitumen)

Lightweight volatile components lost High sulphur content (3-6%)

Alberta has worlds largest reserves

15% of Canadas oil production

TAR SANDS

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Surface mining (e.g. Fort McMurray)

Hot water & caustic soda (NaOH) added to sand; theresulting slurry is piped to extraction plant where it is

agitated and the oil skimmed from the top

Strip mining form of oil extraction destroys borealforest, the bogs, the rivers as well as the naturallandscape

Energy-intensive process.

TAR SANDS MINING METHODS

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Photo: C. Samson63


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Photo: C. Samson64


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Photo: C. Samson65


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Photo: C. Samson66



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Underground mining (e.g. Cold Lake)

Deposit too deep for open-pit mining

Steam/solvent injection


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Image: Husky Energy


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BITUMEN SEPARATION

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Hot water & caustic soda (NaOH) added to sand; the

resulting slurry is piped to extraction plant where it isagitated and the oil skimmed from the top

Strip mining form of oil extraction destroys boreal forest,

the bogs, the rivers as well as the natural landscape

Energy-intensive process.

Oil Shale


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- moderate estimate of800 billion

barrels of recoverable oil from oil shale

in the Green River Formation (Utah, SouthDakota, Texas) is three times greater than

the proven oil reserves of Saudi Arabia.

Oil Shale

Oil Shale


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Issue: Hydraulic fracturing (fracking), pump water,sand and chemicals into bore holes in shale to

fracture rock and ease separation of oil (and natural

gas)

Problem is that much of the natural gas is notrecovered and is flared off

Waste of resource, environmental issue

Fracking slurry may also contaminate groundwater

systems, uses LOTS of water

http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/03/29/us-usa-fracking-investors-idUSBRE82S03120120329

Oil Shale


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URANIUM

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Chalk River Laboratories, ON


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Uranium is a relatively rare element

Crustal concentration: 2 ppm

238U most abundant isotope of uranium in

nature (99.3%) Most abundant uranium ore: pitchblende

(contains uranium oxides)

Enrichment process to concentrate it and convertit to 235U

Nuclear reactor fuel is 235U, easier to control

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URANIUM

URANIUM MINING IN CANADA


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URANIUM MINING IN CANADA Canada is the worlds largest producer of uranium

Two major mines in Athabasca Basin

(Northern Saskatchewan)

Canadas production is increasing

15% of Canadas electricity produced by nuclear power

plants

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NUNAVUT URANIUM EXPLORATION


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ICELAND PERFECT FOR GEOTHERMAL


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climate.columbia.edu/?id=research_mitigation

B. Cousens

ICELAND PERFECT FOR GEOTHERMAL

WINDMILL FARMS


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WINDMILL FARMS

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San Gorgonio Pass, east of Los AngelesNew turbines

efficient at all

speeds

B.

Cousens

TIDAL ENERGY


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TIDAL ENERGY

Annapolis Royal, NSSeafloor Turbines


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SOLAR POWER

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Utilize energy fromSun to create

electricity of heat

water, buildings

Theoretically, the

most efficient

source of energy, but

difficult to harness

and convert to

electricity

Nellis AFB, USA

SOLAR POWER


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1. Sun heats liquid salt in

receiver2. Salt fills tank3. Hot salt travels through heat

exchanger, makes steam

4. Steam drives

turbine5. Turbine

produces

electricity

SOLAR POWER

Lecture20 Resources Mar27 29 Upload

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