Measuring & Managing Accounting Exposure

“Foreign exchange exposure” refers to the degree to which a company is affected by exchange rates changes

Three basic types of forex exposure:

1.Translation exposure

2.Transaction exposure

3.Operating exposure

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Accounting exposure arises from the need (for purposes of reporting and consolidation) to convert financial statements of foreign operations to local currency i.e. from FC to HC.

If exchange rates have changed since the last accounting period, foreign exchange gains or losses will be reported

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Translation Exp. simply the difference bet. exposed assets and exposed liabilities. Exposure that arises from the need to translate FC denom. financial stats into HC for purpose of consolidation

Transaction Exp. the extent to which a given Δ the value of forex denominated transactions already entered into.

i.e. future gains / losses on transaction already agreed to.

Accounting Exposure

Under accounting exposure its mostly translation exposure, less transaction exp. the latter will be covered more under economic exposure.

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The translation of foreign operation financial statements are governed by rules estblished by the FASB (Financial Accounting Standards Board).

These rules were meant to ensure consistency and standardize reporting / translation, but (1) the diff. avail. methods and (2) the question of which and when an asset / liability is exposed – has led to continuing controversy.

Whatever it is, we must keep in mind that the differences in the methods are of an accounting nature and need not necessarily mean in cash flows.

Just as there are diff. methods used to measure the same thing in accounting e.g. inventory or depreciation, there are 4 principal methods of translation.

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Translation Methods

1. Current/Non-current method.2. Monetary/ Non-monetary method.3. Temporal method.4. Current rate method.

1. Current / Non-Current Method

Balance Sheet

All current assets & liabilities. translated at current exchange rate.

All non-current assets & liabilities. translated at historical exchange rate. i.e. the rate at time it

was bought / sold etc.

*So translation gains/losses will arise solely due to whether it’s current asset & current liability.

if CA > CL then gain if LC of foreign subsidiary. appreciates; loss if LC depreciates

if CA < CL then loss if LC of foreign subsidiary appreciates; gain if LC depreciates

Income Statement

1. Translated at average exchange rate of the accounting period.

2. Except for items assoc. with non current assets/liab. e.g. depreciation trans. at the same rates that were used for fixed assets in the balance sheet. (historical exchange rate) 6

2. Monetary / Non Monetary Method

Differentiates between

(current – exch. Rate)

( current exch. rate)Monetary assets/liab.Non monetary assets/liab.(historical rate)

Eg. a/c. rec;. cash A/c pay; bank OD etc.LT. debt

Physical assets - fixed asset.

- inventoryRet. Earns etc.

Income Statement Average exchange rate of period except for items related to non-monetary items of B. Sheet eg. depreciation. And cost of goods at rate applied to fixed assets. and Inventory in Balance Sheet.

 As such, under mon./ non-mon. method, COGs may be translated at historical rate (used for inventory), while sales at the average exchange rate of a/c period.

 

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TRANSLATION EXPOSURE

Changes in income statements & book value of assets and liabilities (caused by an exchange rate change)

Exchange gains & losses are paper only

Impacts balance sheet assets and liabilities & income statements that already exist.

OPERATING EXPOSURE

Changes in future operating cash flows (caused by an exchange rate change)

Exchange gains & losses are real

Impacts revenues and costs associated with future sales

TRANSACTION EXPOSUREAffects value of outstanding

forex denominated contracts

Contracts entered into, but to be settled at a later date

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3. Temporal Method

Balance Sheet Really a variant of monetary/non-monetary method.

Only diff. is that under this method, inventory can be valued in balance sheet at market values. 

Note : In monetary/non-monetary inventory always at historical values

Income statement again exactly same as monetary / non-monetary

method ( average / historical)

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4. Current Rate Method

All balance sheet and income statement items are translated at current exchange rate.

Thus if FC denominated assets > FC denominated liabilities

Then FC appreciation gain FC depreciation loss * The other way round, if FC-assets <FC-

liabilities: loss if FC appreciates; gain if FC depreciates

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As can be seen from Exhibit 10.2 in the text book there is wide variation in the reported gains/losses.

FASB 8 means that US companies had to use the temporal method the Board’s reason in choosing this method over others was consistency with GAAP (Generally Accepted Accounting Principles)

FASB 8 also disallows the establishment of reserves against which companies previously added gains or deducted losses thereby cushioning the impact of exch. rate Δ on reported numbers esp. profits.

This led to widespread dissatisfaction with FASB 8, and was replaced by FASB 52

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1.FASB 52

Balance Sheet firms must use current method for FC

Balance Sheet firms must use current method for DC-denomin assets/liabilities.Income stat. all items to be translated at either the exchange rate on date the items are recognized or a weighted av. Exch. Rate for the period.

Allowed estb. Of “cumulative translation adjustment” in bal. Sheet in which trans. gains / losses can be adjusted. i.e. brought back reserves a/c.

2. Allows establishment of “cumulative translation adjustment” in balance sheet in which transaction gains / losses can be adjusted.

3. FASB 52 also differentiates bet. functional currency and reporting currency.

Currency of primary econ. environ. of foreign subsidiary

Parents’ HC currency

For a foreign subsidiary producing and selling within a foreign country, the functional currency would be FC; for assembly operations for exports the functional currency could still be the USD - i.e. parent’s HC. Eg. Motorola, Intel, etc.

Occasionally, a foreign subsidiary’s functional currency could be a third currency. Eg. American subsidiary located in Singapore producing telephone equipment for China, etc. (SGD as functional currency).

FASB 52 also states that in the case of a hyperinflationary country, defined as country with more than 100% inflation, functional currency must be USD regardless.

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Transaction Exposure

Relates to the possibility of incurring future exchange gains or losses on transactions already entered into and denominated in a foreign currency.

A company’s transaction exposure is measured currency by currency, and equals the difference between contractually fixed future cash inflows and outflows in each currency.

Some of these unsettled transactions, such as long-term debts, etc. would already have shown up in the Bal. Sheet, but others esp. off bal. sheet items - like leasing agreements, agreements for future buying/selling in FC etc. - are not included.

*Thus, while a firm could show very little translation exposure, it could have substantial transaction exposure that may only show up later.

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Accounting Exposure in Perspective

*Recall that accounting is by nature retrospective; i.e. historical tells what happened in past.

Often, accounting values may have little semblance to market values.

As a result, accounting exposure could give a misleading picture of a firm’s true-economic exposure which is prospective.

So, emphasizing accounting exposure, esp. translation exposure, alone may be myopic. E.g. by translation exposure, you could get gains by liabilities in a depreciating currency, however, if you did that, you face transaction exposure since, the currency could begin to appreciate in the subsequent year!

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By “managing” we mean trying to anticipate and reduce the impact of transaction exposure.

Built around the concept of “hedging” broadly defined i.e. not just using forward / futures contracts, but other actions to reduce impact.

So, “managing” really means first (1) identifying which exposures need to be managed (2) then, having identified, how do we reduce the impact.

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Managing Exposure

Which exposure

How do we reduce the impact?

Recall that Accounting Exposure

Translation expo.Transaction expo.

How to Manage Transaction Exposure

Since transaction exposure is exposure arising from commitments made today that will have cash-flows in the future, protective measures will mean entering into FC transactions whose cash flow (CF) will exactly offset the CF of the transaction exposure.

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Illustration: Managing Transaction Exposure

GE has sold turbine blades to Lufthansa. Contract awarded 1st January. Lufthansa will pay GE: DM 25 mil. on 31st December.

Obviously, this is a typical transaction exposure. How can GE protect itself from this exposure? Several alternatives are available. 19

perDMe

perDMe

3828.0$

40.0$0

Forward Mkt. Hedge GE can short 1 year DM

forward

Currency Futures Contracts

Currency Options

Risk Shifting

Pricing Strategy

Exposure Netting

Currency Risk Sharing

Money Market Hedge

Currency Collars20

GE could have shifted all currency exposure risk on to Lufthansa, if Lufthansa had agreed to pay GE in USD.

Invoicing in USD does not eliminate risk, it merely shifts it to the customer.

So, risk-shifting is a zero sum game. Yet, in international business firms often try to invoice exports in a strong currency and imports in weak currencies. *Unless, your customer is ill informed, customer will

only agree to pay in USD if it is not going to cost much more in home currency.

Suppose Lufthansa agrees only to pay up to $ 9.57 mil

(DM 25 mil. x 0.3828 = $9.57)

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*Note : If GE is also well-informed $9.57 mil. should also be acceptable to them since it is arrived at using the expected 1-year exchange rate (forward rate)

  If GE had quoted DM25 mil, thinking it can

get $10 mil. (using e0 i.e. spot rate) 1 year from now, they’ve been ignorant.

Thus, when both parties are well informed players, risk-shifting cannot work.

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The idea here is to price the product in FC using the expected forward rate and not at current spot rate (e0).

For e.g. In this case, GE should have priced the turbine :

if they wanted to be paid $10 million

So, where FC expected to , charge more using the lower expected rate, while if FC expected to , you can afford to charge the same or less.

We could use appropriate expected rates (forward rates) or take a weighted average.

Using the pricing decision (i.e. using ê1 rather than e0) to reduce transaction exposure is merely recognizing the fact that a DM today is not equal to DM received at a future date. 23

.12.263828.0

000,000,10$milDM

Involves offsetting exposures in one currency with exposures in the same currency or another currency where exchange rates are expected to move in such a way that losses (gains) on the initial position will be offset by gains (losses) on the second position.

For example, in the GE case, since they’re long DM 25 mil to be received in a year, this could be offset by creating a liability that will be payable in exactly 1 year for the same amount. (25 mil. DM). In this case, a long position risk is offset by entering into a short position counter transaction of equal size.

E.g. GE could buy the tungsten (or any other needed supply) from German Supplier, worth DM 25 mil. repayable in one year. Since they are receiving 25 mil. DM from Lufthansa, use it to pay the other German supplier.

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The basic idea is that, the asset (a/c receivable) is offset by the liability created (a/c payable).

  An alternative is to use an offsetting position in another

currency. E.g. If there’s another currency that is positively correlated

with DM then a short position in that currency e.g. SFR. would give the same ‘hedging’/offsetting effect.

If there’s another currency that is negatively correlated, then GE could offset is current long position in DM by taking a long position in the negatively correlated currency.

*Note: depending on the strength of the correln. we may have to use more of the other currency. E.g. If SFR is perfectly positively corr. ( = 1.0) then a short position of exactly [25 mil. / e0] would be sufficient.

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Involves simultaneous borrowing & lending in 2 diff. currencies to lock-in the dollar value of a future foreign currency Cash Flow.

Suppose German int. = 15%, US int. = 10%, e0 = 1 DM = 0.40, e1 =0.3828

(expected 1 yr from today)

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Strategy CF0 CF1 

1. Borrow DM 25 mil. / 1.15 (PV of 25 mil. DM @ 15% i.

DM 21. 74 mil (25 mil. DM)

2. Convert the DM into $ at e0 = 0.40 (DM 21.74) mil. $ 8.7 mil.

-

3. Invest $ in US @ 10% int. 8.7m x 1.1 ($8.7 mil) $9.57 mil.4. In one yr. repay the DM borrowed in

step (1) with Lufthansa receivable ( $9.57m/ 0.3838)

25 mil. DM

Net CF of Money Mkt. Hedge 0 $9.57 mil*Useful for currencies that don’t have forward contracts (note that the outcome is same as in forward hedge).

Money Market Hedge Example 2: GE has 1-year EUR 10 m receivable from Lufthansa. GE borrows EUR 10 m at 7% interest rate = EUR 9.35 m (10/1.07). Convert this into USD 14.02 million in spot market (1EUR = $1.5) and invest it for 1 year at 5.5%. 1 year later, GE will receive $14.79 m (14.02 x 1.055). GE will use its EUR 10 m proceeds from Lufthansa to pay off EUR 10 million it owes in principal and interest

Note: exchange gain or loss on the borrowing and lending transactions exactly offset the dollar loss or gain on GE’s euro receivable. ($14.79 = EUR 10m @ EUR = $1.479) At old XR of 1.5, 10m euro = $15m; at new XR it equals $14.79m

Cross-Hedging: similar to hedging with futures; where the exact futures contract a firm seeks is unavailable, it may cross-hedge its exposure by using futures on another currency that is correlated with the currency of interest

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Let’s return to the case (Money Market Hedge Example) where GE sells turbine blades to Lufthansa: this time valued at EUR 10 m

Suppose current spot rate is USD 1.500/EUR and 1 year forward rate is USD 1.479/EUR

Forward sale of EUR 10 m for delivery 1 yr later will yield USD 14.79 m

Regardless of what happens to future spot rate, GE will get US 14.79 m

Any exchange gain or loss on forward contract will be offset by corresponding exchange loss or gain on the receivable

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Cost of hedging depends on future spot rate and therefore can’t be calculated in advance. Consider 3 scenarios:

1. If future spot rate turns out to be USD 1.500/EUR, the receivable could have been USD 15 m and the “cost” of hedging would be USD 210,000 (15,000,000 – 14,790,000) [with no hedging $15m; with hedging $14.79m]

2 . If future spot rate were USD 1.479 (same as forward rate); no diff in receivable (USD 14.79 m) and thus the “cost” of hedging would be zero [proceeds with hedging = proceeds with no hedging]

3. If future spot rate were USD 1.400, the value of the receivable would have been USD 14 m if not hedged, and the “cost” of hedging would be ‘negative’ USD 790,000 (14,790,000 – 14,000,000 = 790,000) [gains $790,000, thanks to hedging]

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In all the above 3 scenarios, total cash flow (CF) would be USD 14,790,000 (Exhibit 10.6 in the text book)

Scenario 1: If GE did not hedge, it could have received USD 15 m; by hedging GE “loses” $ 210,000 (15,000,000 – 210,000 = 14,790,000 CF)

Scenario 2: if GE did not hedge, it would still have received $ 14,790,000 CF (neither loss nor gain)

Scenario 3: if GE did not hedge, it would have received

only USD 14 m. By hedging it has “gained” $ 790,000

(14,000,000 + 790,000 = 14,790,000 CF)

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CRSA is a customized hedge contract embedded in the underlying trade transaction.

Usually as a “price-adjustment clause”. – whereby a base price is adjusted to reflect certain exchange rate changes.

E.g. the base price could be set at DM 25 mil. but both parties agree to share the currency risk beyond a “neutral zone”.

E.g. Neutral Zone $0.39 – 0.41 per DM with a base rate of $0.40 per DM.

So, within the “neutral zone”, Lufthansa will pay $10 mil (25 mil DM x 0.40) – Thus, Lufthansa’s cost could vary from DM24.39 mil (10/0.41) to DM 25.64 mil (10/.039)

*But, if DM falls below or rises above the neutral zone both parties share the risk.

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E.g. if DM falls to $0.35 which is $0.04 lower than lowest rate of Neutral Zone, the 4¢ is split to 2¢ for each party.

So, Lufthansa will pay $0.40 – 0.02 = $0.38 x 25 mil DM = $9.5 mil.

Note : at $ 0.35 per DM, GE should get $8.75 mil. but Lufthansa pays $0.75 mil. more.

Likewise if DM to $0.45 per DM which is again 4¢ higher than upper boundary of neutral zone, the 4¢ is again split with Lufthansa paying (25 DM mil x 0.42) = $10.5 mil. which means that, in DM terms, Lufthansa only pays 23.33 mil DM ($10.5 mil / $0.45).

So, when DM beyond neutral zone Lufthansa gains partly (since they could have gotten DM 25 mil. x 0.45 = $11.25 mil) GE loses partly.

When DM beyond neutral zone Lufthansa loses partly GE gains partly.

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Currency forwards Currency options Currency futures Currency collars (Range Forward)

Collars: a contract that provides protection against currency moves outside an agreed-upon range (e.g $1.45 to $1.55 per EUR). Company wants protection if the rate were to move below $1.45 or rise above $1.55 (ceiling price invoked if spot rate breaks ceiling; floor price invoked if spot rate breaks floor)

Company agrees to sell euro proceeds at future spot rate to the bank should the rate fall within the above range. If that rate exceeds $1.55, it will convert euro proceeds at $1.55, in which case the bank makes profit. If future spot rate falls below $1.45, it will convert euro proceeds at $1.45, in which case the bank suffers a loss

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Example Let’s revisit GE selling turbine blades to

Lufthansa GE enters into a currency collar contract

with a bank (a) to sell EUR 10 m @ future spot rate,

if that falls within the range of $1.45 to $1.55 per EUR;

(b) to sell EUR 10 m at $1.55 if future spot rate > $1.55; and

(c) to sell EUR 10 m at $1.45 if future spot rate < $1.45

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In Scenario (a), the bank neither gains nor loses as the risk is borne entirely by GE: if future spot rate for euro were $1.49, GE converts EUR 10 m into USD 14.9 m at the spot market

In Scenario (b), the bank makes a profit: if the future spot rate were $1.56, GE converts EUR 10 m at $1.55 into USD 15.5 m , while the bank gains $100,000 (15,600,000 – 15,500,000)

In Scenario (c), the bank suffers a loss: if the future spot rate were $1.44, GE converts EUR 10 m at $1.45 into USD 14.5 m, while the bank loses $100,000 (14,500,000 – 14,400,000) 35

The basic strategy of translation exposure management involves increasing hard currency assets and decreasing soft currency assets, while simultaneously decreasing hard currency liabilities, and increasing soft-currency liabilities.

For e.g. if you expect a LC devaluation; reduce cash levels, tighten credit terms to reduce a/c receivable, increase local borrowing, delay a/c payable and other such things.

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To carry out this basic strategy, 3 methods are often used:

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3 Common Methods

1. adjusting fund flows

2. entering into forward contracts.

3. exposure netting

*Since, forward contracts, and exposure netting have already been discussed, we’ll only cover only (1) adjusting fund flows.

Fund Adjustment

Involves altering either the amounts or the currencies (or both) of the planned cash flows of the parent and / or its subsidiaries to reduce the firm’s local currency accounting exposure.

For e.g. if an LC devaluation is anticipated, direct funds–adjustment methods include pricing exports in hard-currencies, and replacing hard-currency loans with local currency loans.

Other methods include (a) adjusting transfer prices on sale of goods between affiliates, (b) speeding up the payment of dividends, fees and royalties and (c) adjusting the leads and lags of inter-subsidiary accounts.

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*Note: if financial markets are efficient, firms cannot hedge expected in exchange rates.

Interest rates, forward rates and sales-contract prices should already reflect anticipated s.

**So, the objective of a firm’s fund adjustment strategy should be to protect itself only against unexpected currency changes.

*Also, many of the techniques outlined earlier esp. funds adjustment techniques (like transfer–prices, borrowing in devaluing currency etc. are widely known and can often hurt business relationships since your suppliers / customers may not like it.

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DEPRECIATION OF LC

Sell LC forward Buy LC put option Tighten LC credit (reduce

LC receivables) Speed up payment of int-

subs a/c payable Borrow locally Delay payment of a/c pay Hasten div/fee

remittance Delay collection of FC rec Invoice X in FC; M in LC

APPRECIATION OF LC

• Buy LC forward• Buy LC call option• Relax LC credit terms

(increase LC receivables)• Delay payment of int-

subs a/c payable • Borrow abroad• Hasten pmt of a/c pay• Delay div/fee

remittances• Speed up collec of FC rec• Invoice X in LC; M in FC

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Accounting exposure consists of (1) translation exposure and (2) transaction exposure (more of the former)

Economic exposure comprises of (1) transaction exposure and (2) operating exposure

Translation exposure impacts on balance sheet assets & liabilities, and existing income statement items

Transaction exposure impacts on FC denominated contracts already signed but to be settled at a future date

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Operating exposure impacts on revenues and costs associated with future sales and cash flows

Translation exposure is simply the difference between exposed assets and exposed liabilities

There are many ways to measure and manage accounting exposure [esp. translation exposure] using (a) current exchange rates, (b) historical rates, and (c) average rates for the reporting period

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Transaction and operating exposure calls for hedging mane0vers which include currency forwards, currency options, currency futures, cross-hedging, currency collars, money market hedge, currency risk-sharing, exposure netting, etc.

Exposure management goal is to arrange a multinational firm’s financial affairs in such a way as to minimize the effects of exchange rate movements on dollar returns

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(a) What would a multinational firm do if it expects the local currency to depreciate in the near term? Underline the correct answers (focus on the italics) in what follows:

*buy/sell foreign currency forward *go for local currency call/put option *reduce/increase local currency cash and marketable

securities. relax/tighten local currency credit terms hasten/delay collection of hard currency receivables borrow locally/abroad delay/speed up payment of accounts payable abroad delay/speed up dividend and fee remittances to parent

company and other subsidiaries (9 marks)

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(b) An American pension fund buys euro bonds worth EUR 10 million (upon maturity a year later) for USD 13.3 million at the current rate of USD 1.40 per EUR. In addition, it makes a forward sale of EUR 10 million at the forward rate of USD 1.379 per EUR

(i)What is the cost of hedging if the future spot rate turns out to be:

*EUR 1 = USD 1.40 *EUR 1 = USD 1.379 *EUR1 = USD 1.30

(6 marks)

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(ii) Show how an exchange gain (loss) on the forward contract is offset by a corresponding exchange loss (gain) in the value of receivable, with a total cash flow of USD 13.79 million in all the above three instances, resulting in a net gain of USD 490,000 (USD 13.79 m -13.3 m).

(3 marks)

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TAKE IT EASY & REST WELL!

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