Lecture 4: Speech Acts II. Review of Speech Acts I What is a Performative? What is a Metalinguistic...

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Lecture 4: Speech Lecture 4: Speech Acts II Acts II

Transcript of Lecture 4: Speech Acts II. Review of Speech Acts I What is a Performative? What is a Metalinguistic...

Page 1: Lecture 4: Speech Acts II. Review of Speech Acts I What is a Performative? What is a Metalinguistic Performative? What is a Ritual Performative? What.

Lecture 4: Speech Acts Lecture 4: Speech Acts IIII

Page 2: Lecture 4: Speech Acts II. Review of Speech Acts I What is a Performative? What is a Metalinguistic Performative? What is a Ritual Performative? What.

Review of Speech Acts Review of Speech Acts II What is a Performative?What is a Performative?

What is a Metalinguistic What is a Metalinguistic Performative?Performative?

What is a Ritual Performative?What is a Ritual Performative?

What is a Collaborative What is a Collaborative Performative?Performative?

What is a Group Performative?What is a Group Performative?

What are Felicity Conditions?What are Felicity Conditions?

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Prime Minster Rudd's apology to Prime Minster Rudd's apology to aboriginal people of Australiaaboriginal people of Australia

K. Rudd's apology speech

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aKWfiFp24rA

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There seems to be a straightforward relationship in this example between the words uttered ('The bar will be closed in five minutes'), what is thereby said, and the act of informing the patrons that the bar will close in five minutes. Less direct is the connection between the utterance and the act of urging the patrons to order one last drink. Clearly there is no linguistic connection here, for the words make no mention of drinks or of ordering. This indirect connection is inferential. The patrons must infer that the bartender intends to be urging them to leave and, indeed, it seems that the reason his utterance counts as an act of that sort is that he is speaking with this intention.

EXAMPLE WE USED LAST WEEK ...

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There is an indirect connection when an utterance of 'It's getting cold in here' is made not merely as a statement about the temperature but as (1) a request to close the window or as (2) a proposal to go some place warmer. Whether it is intended (and is taken) as a request or as a proposal depends on contextual information that the speaker relies on the audience to rely on.

This is true even when the connection between word and deed is more direct than in the above example, for the form of the sentence uttered may fail to determine just which sort of illocutionary act is being performed.

SIMILARLY ...

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Consider, by analogy, the fact that in shaking hands we can, depending on the circumstances, do any one of several different things: (1) introduce ourselves, (2) greet each other, (3) seal a deal, or (4) bid farewell.

Similarly, a given sentence can be used in a variety of ways, so that, for example, 'I will call a lawyer' could be used as (1) a prediction, (2) a promise, or (3) a warning. How one intends it determines the sort of act it is.

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Outline of today’s Outline of today’s LectureLecture

Problems with Austin’s PerformativesProblems with Austin’s Performatives

A new way to think about Speech ActsA new way to think about Speech Acts

Indirect Speech ActsIndirect Speech Acts

Searle’s Classification of Speech ActsSearle’s Classification of Speech Acts

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Collapse of Austin’s Performative Collapse of Austin’s Performative HypothesisHypothesis

Austin had shown clearly that language Austin had shown clearly that language was about more than the meaning of its was about more than the meaning of its words and phrases.words and phrases.

But he made some fairly obvious But he made some fairly obvious mistakes:mistakes:

1.1.No formal way to distinguish No formal way to distinguish performative verbs from other verbsperformative verbs from other verbs

2.2.Performative verb does not Performative verb does not guarantee the specified action will be guarantee the specified action will be performedperformed

3.3.There are ways of “doing things” There are ways of “doing things” with words without performatives.with words without performatives.

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1. Distinguishing performative verbs from other 1. Distinguishing performative verbs from other verbsverbs

Austin had tried to show that performative Austin had tried to show that performative verbs were different from other verbs.verbs were different from other verbs.

But it became apparent they shared the same But it became apparent they shared the same characteristics: (examples from Thomas, pp. characteristics: (examples from Thomas, pp. 44& 45)44& 45)

(a) They can be singular or plural (a) They can be singular or plural (Individual or Group Performatives)(Individual or Group Performatives)

(b) They can be written or spoken:(b) They can be written or spoken:

““I hereby resign as Chief of Staff to the I hereby resign as Chief of Staff to the President of the United States. Respectfully President of the United States. Respectfully yours, Donald T. Regan”yours, Donald T. Regan”

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(c) They do not have to be used in the 1(c) They do not have to be used in the 1stst person:person:

The court finds the accused not guilty.The court finds the accused not guilty.

(d) They can be active or passive:(d) They can be active or passive:Your employment is hereby terminated with Your employment is hereby terminated with

immediate effect.immediate effect.

(e)(e) They do not have to be in the simple They do not have to be in the simple present tense:present tense:

You are being discharged on the grounds of You are being discharged on the grounds of severe temperamental unsuitability for severe temperamental unsuitability for service in the Royal Navy.service in the Royal Navy.

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2. Do performatives always perform 2. Do performatives always perform actions?actions?(a) Ritual and Collaborative Performatives fail (a) Ritual and Collaborative Performatives fail

if the felicity conditions do not exist.if the felicity conditions do not exist.

Write an example of a failure for each of Write an example of a failure for each of these kinds of performatives [Worksheet these kinds of performatives [Worksheet #1]#1]

(b) Even Metalinguistic Performatives can fail:(b) Even Metalinguistic Performatives can fail:

I promise I’ll come over there and hit you if you I promise I’ll come over there and hit you if you don’t shut up.don’t shut up.

How does this performative fail? [Worksheet How does this performative fail? [Worksheet #2]#2]

Try to think of another example.Try to think of another example.

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3. Performative verbs not necessary to DO 3. Performative verbs not necessary to DO things with language.things with language.

What are these actions? (From Thomas. p. What are these actions? (From Thomas. p. 46)46)

1. “letting the cat out of the bag”1. “letting the cat out of the bag”

2. “going to hell”2. “going to hell”

3. “putting your foot in it”3. “putting your foot in it”

Was a performative verb necessary to Was a performative verb necessary to do each action?do each action?

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The most important reason for the collapse of Austin’s performative hypothesis was the realisation that Austin had (at least tacitly) equated ‘doing things with words’ with the existence of a corresponding performative verb.

There are many acts would be impossible or strange to be performed using language. (like the above 3 examples)

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Language is often used to insult, but it would be impossible to say: I (hereby) insult you! We ready use language to invite, but in English it is not usual to use the word I invite you to perform the act of inviting. And the same is true for many extremely common acts:

DiscourageDiscourage

InsultInsult

OfferOffer

Hint Hint

Boast Boast

DivulgeDivulge

InviteInvite

Do these actions need a performative Do these actions need a performative verb? verb?

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Explicit and Implicit performatives

An explicit performative (of the I hereby ... kind) can now be seen to be a mechanism which allows the speaker to remove any possibility of misunderstanding the force behind an utterance.

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Are there any Are there any differences…?differences…?

1.1. I invite you to come to my party on Friday.I invite you to come to my party on Friday.

2.2. This is to invite you to my party on Friday.This is to invite you to my party on Friday.

3.3. You are invited to my party on Friday.You are invited to my party on Friday.

4.4. Please come to my party on Friday.Please come to my party on Friday.

Which one is an explicit performative?Which one is an explicit performative?

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We can see that sentences (1), (2), (3) and (4) all perform the same action - that of inviting you to the party on Friday. But whereas utterance (1) uses an explicit performative to perform the act of reminding, (2) - (4) do so using different sort of non-performative utterances.

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Let’s explore the difference in the way in which a performative utterance and its non-performative counterpart are used. In some situation specific form of language is used, while others imply a stylistic difference (e.g. formality, reinforcement).

1. I apologise2. I’m sorry

1. I assure you, I did apply for an MA programme2. I did apply for an MA programme.

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Utterances as ActionsUtterances as ActionsAustin abandons his idea of Austin abandons his idea of Performatives as a distinct class of Performatives as a distinct class of verbs.verbs.

He comes to recognize that all He comes to recognize that all utterances can be analysed for their utterances can be analysed for their meaningmeaning and their and their forceforce..

By abandoning the Performative By abandoning the Performative distinction, Austin (and others) distinction, Austin (and others) broadenbroaden the scope of Speech Acts. the scope of Speech Acts.

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A new classification:A new classification:(from Thomas, p. 49)(from Thomas, p. 49)

Locution: the actual words utteredLocution: the actual words uttered

Illocution: the force or intention Illocution: the force or intention behind behind the wordsthe words

Perlocution: the effect of the Perlocution: the effect of the illocution on illocution on the hearerthe hearer

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Look at our old example…Look at our old example…

It’s cold in here.It’s cold in here.

Locution_____________Locution_____________

Illocutionary force____________Illocutionary force____________

Perlocutionary effect___________Perlocutionary effect___________

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Analyse the underlined utterance in context: Analyse the underlined utterance in context: [Worksheet #3][Worksheet #3]

B:B: so er so [anyway so you have (.) how many so er so [anyway so you have (.) how many girlfriends do you have (.) heregirlfriends do you have (.) here

b: ((clear throat)) [okayb: ((clear throat)) [okay b:b: er (.) girlfriends you means just friends onlyer (.) girlfriends you means just friends only B:B: you know that you're intimate withyou know that you're intimate with b:b: ((laugh)) er((laugh)) er B:B: four fivefour five b:b: no one onlyno one only B:B: only oneonly one b:b: yea I’m Hong Kong people yea I’m Hong Kong people B: oh [Hong Kong Hong Kong people only have B: oh [Hong Kong Hong Kong people only have

oneone b: [only one yeab: [only one yea

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Could be analysed as Could be analysed as below:below:

Locutionary ActLocutionary Act Statement of Statement of speaker’s speaker’s citizenshipcitizenship

Illocutionary ActIllocutionary Act Speaker Speaker explains the explains the reason for reason for having having only one only one girlfriendgirlfriend

Perlocutionary ActPerlocutionary Act Hearer accepts Hearer accepts the the explanationexplanation

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How about this Conversation: How about this Conversation: [Worksheet [Worksheet #4]#4]

B: maybe the er people from Hong Kong B: maybe the er people from Hong Kong and China they don’t eat as much as and China they don’t eat as much as Ameri[cansAmeri[cans

b: b: [yea [yea B: right B: right

b: yea the consumption of American I b: yea the consumption of American I think is much more than the Asia think is much more than the Asia peoplepeople

B:B:we eat differentlywe eat differently b:yeab:yea B:we we eat differentlyB:we we eat differently

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PossiblePossible Analysis Analysis is:is:Locutionary Act: Locutionary Act: The consumption The consumption

of Americans is not the same as that of Americans is not the same as that of Hong Kong people.of Hong Kong people.

Illocutionary Act: Illocutionary Act: The speaker asks The speaker asks for understanding and not to be for understanding and not to be judged negatively.judged negatively.

Perlocutionary Act: Perlocutionary Act: The hearer is not The hearer is not convinced.convinced.

Is that how you interpreted this Is that how you interpreted this conversation?conversation?

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Usually competent speakers of a language Usually competent speakers of a language interpret illocutionary force accurately. interpret illocutionary force accurately. But not always: (from Thomas, p. 50)But not always: (from Thomas, p. 50)

A man and a woman enter an art gallery:A man and a woman enter an art gallery:

Official:Official: Would the gentleman like to leave his Would the gentleman like to leave his bag here?bag here?

Woman:Woman: Oh, no thank you. It’s not heavy. Oh, no thank you. It’s not heavy.

Official:Official: Only…we have had…we had a theft here Only…we have had…we had a theft here yesterday, you see.yesterday, you see.

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Indirect Speech ActsIndirect Speech ActsWe have seen that people often don’t mean We have seen that people often don’t mean exactly what they say.exactly what they say.

The form of their utterances can be very The form of their utterances can be very misleading, which creates problems for learners misleading, which creates problems for learners of a language.of a language.

English sentences have 3 basic forms: English sentences have 3 basic forms: Declarative, Imperative, Interrogative Declarative, Imperative, Interrogative

Utterances have 3 basic functions: Assertion, Utterances have 3 basic functions: Assertion, Order/Request, QuestionOrder/Request, Question

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If the sentence form corresponds to the If the sentence form corresponds to the utterance function, it is a Direct Speech utterance function, it is a Direct Speech Act.Act.

If the sentence form is different from the If the sentence form is different from the utterance function, it is an Indirect Speech utterance function, it is an Indirect Speech Act.Act.

Example:Example:

Is that your car?Is that your car?

Interrogative - QuestionInterrogative - Question Direct Speech Direct Speech ActAct

Interrogative - RequestInterrogative - Request Indirect Speech Act Indirect Speech Act

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Another example:Another example:

I'll die if I don't get one of your chocolates.I'll die if I don't get one of your chocolates.

Declarative - RequestDeclarative - Request

Indirect Speech ActIndirect Speech Act

Discuss & Analyse the Discuss & Analyse the sentences/utterances on your sentences/utterances on your worksheet [Question 5].worksheet [Question 5].

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Would they be:Would they be:

A.A. (Father in the bathroom to son in the living (Father in the bathroom to son in the living room)room)

““Can you answer the phone?Can you answer the phone?” ”

Interrogative ------- Order/RequestInterrogative ------- Order/Request

B. (Parent to child) B. (Parent to child)

““Is that your coat on the floor?Is that your coat on the floor?” ”

Interrogative -------- Order/RequestInterrogative -------- Order/Request

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C. (Teacher to noisy class) C. (Teacher to noisy class)

““Could we make a start now?Could we make a start now?” ”

Interrogative -------- Order/RequestInterrogative -------- Order/Request

D. (Mother in the bedroom to son in the living D. (Mother in the bedroom to son in the living room)room)

““There’s somebody at the front door.There’s somebody at the front door.” ”

Declarative ------ Order/RequestDeclarative ------ Order/Request

Why do you think indirect speech acts are often Why do you think indirect speech acts are often related to orders/requests?related to orders/requests?

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Classification of Speech Classification of Speech ActsActs

People have attempted to classify the People have attempted to classify the functional value of utterances with a functional value of utterances with a variety of speech act typologies which variety of speech act typologies which are invariably criticised for failing to are invariably criticised for failing to account for all the possible functions account for all the possible functions of language in the real world. of language in the real world.

The most well-known example of such The most well-known example of such a typology is John Searle’s which has a typology is John Searle’s which has five basic kinds of action that can be five basic kinds of action that can be performed by one of the following performed by one of the following utterance types:utterance types:

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Searle’s Classification of Speech Searle’s Classification of Speech ActsActsi)i) representativesrepresentatives, which commit the speaker to , which commit the speaker to

the truth of the expressed proposition the truth of the expressed proposition

(paradigm cases: asserting, concluding)(paradigm cases: asserting, concluding)

ii)ii) directivesdirectives, which are attempts by the speaker to , which are attempts by the speaker to get the addressee to do somethingget the addressee to do something

(paradigm cases: requesting, questioning)(paradigm cases: requesting, questioning)

iii)iii) commissivescommissives, which commit the speaker to , which commit the speaker to some future course of action some future course of action

(paradigm cases: promising, threatening, offering)(paradigm cases: promising, threatening, offering)

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iv)iv) expressivesexpressives, which express a psychological , which express a psychological state (paradigm cases: thanking, apologising, state (paradigm cases: thanking, apologising, welcoming, congratulating)welcoming, congratulating)

v)v) declarationsdeclarations, which effect immediate changes in , which effect immediate changes in the institutional state of affairs and which tend to the institutional state of affairs and which tend to rely on elaborate extra-linguistic institutions rely on elaborate extra-linguistic institutions

(paradigm cases: excommunicating, declaring war, (paradigm cases: excommunicating, declaring war, christening, firing from employment)christening, firing from employment)

(Searle, 1976; cited in (Searle, 1976; cited in Levinson, 1983: 240)Levinson, 1983: 240)

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Classify these speech acts Classify these speech acts according to Searle’s according to Searle’s classificationclassification(a) You're hired!(a) You're hired!

(b) John Searle classified speech (b) John Searle classified speech acts.acts.

(c) Well done!(c) Well done!

(d) Can you get the door?(d) Can you get the door?

(e) Wait until your father gets (e) Wait until your father gets home!home!

[Question 6][Question 6]

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Possible answers:Possible answers:

(a) You're hired! (Declaration)(a) You're hired! (Declaration)

(b) John Searle classified speech acts. (b) John Searle classified speech acts. (Representative)(Representative)

(c) Well done! (Expressive)(c) Well done! (Expressive)

(d) Can you get the door? (Directive)(d) Can you get the door? (Directive)

(e) Wait until your father gets home! (Commissive)(e) Wait until your father gets home! (Commissive)

Note that the classification depends on Note that the classification depends on functionfunction rather than rather than formform..

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Concluding remarksConcluding remarksAll classifications of speech acts are All classifications of speech acts are incomplete and imprecise.incomplete and imprecise.

Spoken language evolves Spoken language evolves pragmatically, not according to a set pragmatically, not according to a set of rules.of rules.

Linguists attempt to classify in order Linguists attempt to classify in order to understand language, but do not to understand language, but do not (usually) expect their classification (usually) expect their classification systems to be a perfect fit with reality.systems to be a perfect fit with reality.