Lecture 2.

Test as a tool of psychological assessment –

essential concepts.

Psychological traits.

Types of tests, brief history of testing,

ethical and legal aspects of testing.

Reference:Reference:

Murphy, K. R. & Davidshofer, C. O. (1998). Psychological testing. Principles and applications: International Edition (6/e). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc. (Chapters: 1 - 3).

Trait Approach Trait Approach ((to to ppersonalityersonality))

Trait – an early definitionTrait – an early definition

““generalized and personalized generalized and personalized determining tendencies - consistent determining tendencies - consistent and stable modes of an individual’s and stable modes of an individual’s adjustment to his environment”adjustment to his environment”

Allport & Odbert (1936, p. 26)Allport & Odbert (1936, p. 26)

TraitsTraits

Traits = broad dispositions to act in specific ways

disposition = tendency (e.g., people with high anxiety tend to avoid threatening experiences)

broad = abstraction (not specific instance; adjectives (helpful) rather than verbs (help)

TraitsTraits

abstractions based on common features (e.g., extraversion)

hypothetical – can not observed/measured directly need to „translate” trait into something measurable (behavior)

TraitsTraits Personal (‘internal’) rather than situational Personal (‘internal’) rather than situational

(‘external’)(‘external’)

Stable rather than transitory (across time)Stable rather than transitory (across time)

Consistent rather than inconsistent (across ‘similar’ Consistent rather than inconsistent (across ‘similar’ situations)situations)

General rather than specific (across ‘different’ General rather than specific (across ‘different’ situations)situations)

Universal dimensions: Individual differences (across Universal dimensions: Individual differences (across people)people)

Traits are:Traits are:

1. Dimensional (ordering of people) not categorical

2. Hypothetical (not observable)

3. Causal (internal) or Descriptive (summaries)

4. Organized in a system

5. Consistent over settings and time

Trait OrganisationTrait Organisation

Comprehensive trait taxonomies Comprehensive trait taxonomies assume traits exist at varying levels assume traits exist at varying levels of abstraction and are organized of abstraction and are organized hierarchicallyhierarchically

Major taxonomiesMajor taxonomies• Eysenck Eysenck • CattellCattell• Five factor modelFive factor model

Measurement of TraitsMeasurement of Traits

Hypothetical nature of trait - can not know with absolute certainty measure is tapping intended trait

Many measures of same trait

All with error – variance not due to trait (different types of measure have different sources of error)

Trait

Measure

Psychologial Tests as Traits Assessment Psychologial Tests as Traits Assessment InstrumentsInstruments

Tests:Tests:• ReliabilityReliability• ValidityValidity• ObjectivityObjectivity• StandarizationStandarization• NormsNorms

Responsibilities of test autor and Responsibilities of test autor and test usertest user

Use of tests – essential ethical principles

Informed Consent – patient/client/ subject must voluntarily consent to the assessment

• Responsibility to inform about the nature and purpose of the assessment (understandable language)

• Children/others of limited capacity – consent obtained from parent or legal guardian

Use of tests – essential ethical principles

Knowledge of resultsKnowledge of results – right to full disclosure – right to full disclosure of test results (understandable language)of test results (understandable language)

ConfidentialityConfidentiality – test results as confidential – test results as confidential informationinformation• Keeping test results in a secure mannerKeeping test results in a secure manner• Not refering to these data outside the context and Not refering to these data outside the context and

purpose for which they were obtainedpurpose for which they were obtained• Exceptions required by law or court action Exceptions required by law or court action

Test securityTest security – keeping test material in secure – keeping test material in secure environmentenvironment• Test items are not to be revealed in casual converstions Test items are not to be revealed in casual converstions

and public mediaand public media

Use of tests – essential ethical principles Test construction and publication – maintaining high

standards of test development• tests are expected to have expertise regarding validity, reliability, and

norms

Automated scoring/interpretation systems – psychologist utilizing them retains responsibility for proper interpretation of test results

Unqualified Persons – psychologist does not allow or condone the use of tests by unqualified persons• Psychologist takes prudent actions obserwing such situations

Test user qualifications (test purchaser qualifications) – three –tier system for test user qualifications (1950)• Level A – minimal training (educational achievement and job

proficiency)• Level B – some knowledge of technical characteristics of tests

required (group administered mental ability and interest inventories)

• Level C – advanced training (individually administered intelligence tests and personality tests)

Test administration No matter how carefully a test is constructed, the No matter how carefully a test is constructed, the

results are worthless unless it is administered and results are worthless unless it is administered and scored properly!scored properly!

Influence of examinier’s appearance and behavior Influence of examinier’s appearance and behavior on test resultson test results

Especially important in case of individual testsEspecially important in case of individual tests Situation variables: Situation variables:

• Time and place of testingTime and place of testing• Environmental conditions (illumination, temperature, Environmental conditions (illumination, temperature,

noise leve, ventilation, distractions)noise leve, ventilation, distractions)

Examiner’s duties before a test

SchedulingScheduling – taking into account – taking into account examinee’s activitiesexaminee’s activities• Right to prepare intellectually, Right to prepare intellectually,

emotionally and physicallyemotionally and physically Informed consentInformed consent Becoming familiar with the testBecoming familiar with the test

• careful studies on manual careful studies on manual • taking the test oneselftaking the test oneself

Examiner’s duties before testing

Ensuring satisfactory testing Ensuring satisfactory testing conditionsconditions

Minimizing cheatingMinimizing cheating

Examiner’s duties during testing Following test directionsFollowing test directions

Remaining alertRemaining alert (cheating, unnecessary noise) (cheating, unnecessary noise)

Establishing rapportEstablishing rapport • effect of examiners behavior on examinee’s motivationeffect of examiners behavior on examinee’s motivation• being friendly but objectivebeing friendly but objective

Preparing for special problemsPreparing for special problems• Examinee’s anxiety (very young, very old, mentally disturbed Examinee’s anxiety (very young, very old, mentally disturbed

or retarded, physically handicapped or culturaly disadvanages or retarded, physically handicapped or culturaly disadvanages persons)persons)

FlexibilityFlexibility• Practice on sample itemsPractice on sample items• Relatively short testing periodsRelatively short testing periods• Giving encouragement and positive reinforcementGiving encouragement and positive reinforcement

Being a psychologist and using tests in Being a psychologist and using tests in Poland – intro to ethical & legal issuesPoland – intro to ethical & legal issues

Psychologists Code of Professional Ethics• Towarzystwo Psychologiczne (1992). Kodeks etyczno –

zawodowy psychologa. Warszawa: PTP. [http://www.ptp.org.pl/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=29]

Psychologist profession and psychologists’ government act• Ustawa z dnia 8 czerwca 2001 r. o zawodzie psychologa i

samorządzie zawodowym psychologów (Dz. U. Nr 73, poz. 763) [http://www.ptp.org.pl/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=47]

Tests and copyright Contemporary customs & regulations Standards for tests in psychology and education

Criterion: the form of recording the examinee’s Criterion: the form of recording the examinee’s behaviour (Cattell):behaviour (Cattell):

Tests of performanceTests of performance Behavior observationsBehavior observations Self-report instruments Self-report instruments

(questionnaires/inventories)(questionnaires/inventories)

Types of testsTypes of tests

Tests of PerformanceTests of Performance•• Referred to as "Tests of Maximal Performance"

•• Subjects are given a well-defined task that they try to perform successfully.

•• Participant must know what he/she must do in response to the task.

•• The subject exerts maximal effort to succeed.

•• Performance tests are designed to uncover what an individual can do, given the specific test conditions.

Examples

- Intelligence Tests, language proficiency- Biology test, flight simulator

1). Tests in which the examinee performs some 1). Tests in which the examinee performs some specific tasks - test requires „maximal specific tasks - test requires „maximal performance” (inteligence tests, tests of performance” (inteligence tests, tests of special abilities, tests of specific skills or special abilities, tests of specific skills or proficiency, tests of psychomotor proficiency, tests of psychomotor performance). performance).

Typesmaximal performance tests– „power” Typesmaximal performance tests– „power” tests, „speed” tests and tests with „strict tests, „speed” tests and tests with „strict time limits”.time limits”.

Performance testsPerformance tests

Behaviour ObservationBehaviour Observation

• • Naturalistic observationNaturalistic observation

• • Involves observing the subject’s behaviour and responses Involves observing the subject’s behaviour and responses in a particular context.in a particular context.

• • Differs from performance tests in that the subject does Differs from performance tests in that the subject does not have a single, well defined task.not have a single, well defined task.

• • The observer can record duration & The observer can record duration & intensityintensity

Examples

- Examiner might observe children interacting or an individual having a conversation or some other social interaction. - Companies recruit observers to pose as salespeople to observe employee’s behaviors. Subject’s may be unaware they are being tested.

Self Report InstrumentsSelf Report Instruments- - Participant is asked to report his or her feelings, Participant is asked to report his or her feelings,

attitudes, beliefs, values.attitudes, beliefs, values.

When self-report makes senseWhen self-report makes sense:: Self-report relies upon the test taker’s awareness and Self-report relies upon the test taker’s awareness and

honesty.honesty. It is the It is the bestbest method to measure internal states - things method to measure internal states - things

only the person themselves can be aware of and judge.only the person themselves can be aware of and judge.

People are not always good judges of their abilityPeople are not always good judges of their ability Provides an estimateProvides an estimate

Self Report Instruments Self Report Instruments Many personality inventories such as the MMPI and the Many personality inventories such as the MMPI and the

16PF measures are based on self-report. 16PF measures are based on self-report.

Clinicians include self-report measures as part of their Clinicians include self-report measures as part of their initial examinations of presenting clients. initial examinations of presenting clients.

Self-Report measures are frequently subject to self-Self-Report measures are frequently subject to self-censorship. censorship.

People know their responses are being measured and People know their responses are being measured and wish to be seen in a favorable light. (wish to be seen in a favorable light. (self-serving biasself-serving bias) )

Items are frequently included to measure the extent to Items are frequently included to measure the extent to

which people provide sociallywhich people provide socially desirable responses. desirable responses.

History of Test DevelopmentHistory of Test Developmentcirca 1000 BC. : Chinese introduced written tests to help fill civil service positions Civil Laws, Military Affairs, Agriculture, Geography

1850 : The United States begins civil service examinations.

1885 : Germans tested people for brain damage

1890 : James Cattell develops a "mental test" to assess college students . Test includes measures of strength, resistance to pain, and reaction time.

1905 : Binet-Simon scale of mental development used to classify mentally retarded children in France.

1914 : World War I produces need in U.S. to quickly classify incoming recruits. Army Alpha test and Army Beta test developed. Looked at psychopathology.

1916 : Terman develops Stanford - Binet test and develops the idea of Intelligence Quotient

History of Test Development (cont.)History of Test Development (cont.)

1920 - 1940 : factor analysis, projective tests, and personality inventories first appear.

1941-1960 : vocational interest measures developed

1961-1980 : item response theory and neuropsychological testing developed

1980 - Present : Wide spread adaptation of computerized testing. "Smart" Tests which can give each individual different test items develop

Formal classification of testsFormal classification of tests

One-dimensional tests (one-scale One-dimensional tests (one-scale instruments) – interpretation in terms of trait’ instruments) – interpretation in terms of trait’ intensity (quantitative diagnosis) or intensity (quantitative diagnosis) or typological (qualitative diagnosis).typological (qualitative diagnosis).

Multi-dimensional tests (multi-scales Multi-dimensional tests (multi-scales instruments) – interpretation in terms of instruments) – interpretation in terms of profile (model of parallel or hierarchical profile (model of parallel or hierarchical traits), which may lead to the typological or traits), which may lead to the typological or differential (within subject) diagnosis. differential (within subject) diagnosis.

Fig 1. The test scores, assessing the trait Fig 1. The test scores, assessing the trait intensityintensity

0

0,25

0,5

-3 -2,5 -2 -1,5 -1 -0,5 0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3

Average score – moderate trait intensity

Low score – low trait intensity High score – high trait intensity

Fig. 2. One-scale test scores, serving for Fig. 2. One-scale test scores, serving for typological diagnosistypological diagnosis

0

0,25

0,5

-3 -2,5 -2 -1,5 -1 -0,5 0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3

Test score similar to the upper groupTest score similar to the lower group

Typological diagnosis of one-scales Typological diagnosis of one-scales scoresscores

Typological (one-scale diagnosis) refers to Typological (one-scale diagnosis) refers to the special one-type.the special one-type.

Typological diagnosis may refer also to two-Typological diagnosis may refer also to two-types classification:types classification:

abnormal (type I) – normal – abnormal (type abnormal (type I) – normal – abnormal (type II, opposite to type I)II, opposite to type I)

Block’s concept of personality types, based Block’s concept of personality types, based on the dimension of self-control: on the dimension of self-control: overcontrolled (inhibited) type vs overcontrolled (inhibited) type vs underconstrolled (impulsive) type (normal underconstrolled (impulsive) type (normal type of personality is between clinical types).type of personality is between clinical types).

Fig. 3. Multi-scale test scores, serving for Fig. 3. Multi-scale test scores, serving for profile diagnosis (parallel traits)profile diagnosis (parallel traits)

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Ste

n s

cale

Fig. 4. Multi-scale test scores (hierarchical Fig. 4. Multi-scale test scores (hierarchical model with parallel subtraits)model with parallel subtraits)

General Sensation Seeking

Thrill and Adventure Seeking

Experience seekingBoredom Susceptibility

Disinhibition

Differential diagnosis of the test Differential diagnosis of the test profileprofile

Comparisons of the scales within one Comparisons of the scales within one subject, like comparison between verbal IQ subject, like comparison between verbal IQ and nonverbal IQ (strictly quantitative and nonverbal IQ (strictly quantitative assessment).assessment).

Typological diagnosis of the test Typological diagnosis of the test profileprofile

On the basis of OCEAN traits:On the basis of OCEAN traits: Overcontrolled type: neuroticism & Overcontrolled type: neuroticism &

introversion (high N & low E);introversion (high N & low E); Undercontrolled type: low Undercontrolled type: low

agreeableness and conscientiousness agreeableness and conscientiousness (low A & C);(low A & C);

Resilient type: extraversion, Resilient type: extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness & agreeableness, conscientiousness & low neuroticism (high E, A, C & low N).low neuroticism (high E, A, C & low N).

The history of well-known testsThe history of well-known tests

1905: Binet & Simon – the first intelligence 1905: Binet & Simon – the first intelligence scalescale

1906: Heymans & Wiersma – the first 1906: Heymans & Wiersma – the first personality assessment (peer-rating);personality assessment (peer-rating);

1917: Woodworth – the first personality 1917: Woodworth – the first personality inventory (psychopathology);inventory (psychopathology);

1927-1934: Strong/Kuder – the first 1927-1934: Strong/Kuder – the first vocational inventories;vocational inventories;

The history of well-known testsThe history of well-known tests

1939: Wechsler – Wechsler-Bellevue 1939: Wechsler – Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale (1997 - WAIS-III); Intelligence Scale (1997 - WAIS-III);

1943: Hathaway & McKinley – Minnesota 1943: Hathaway & McKinley – Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (1989 - Multiphasic Personality Inventory (1989 - MMPI 2);MMPI 2);

1949: Cattell – 16 PF (Personality Factors);1949: Cattell – 16 PF (Personality Factors); 1950 - 1990 - Eysenckian inventories;1950 - 1990 - Eysenckian inventories; 1990 – 2000 – Big Five inventories (Costa & 1990 – 2000 – Big Five inventories (Costa &

McCrae).McCrae).

Present status of testsPresent status of tests

Thousands of tests in different fields (even in Thousands of tests in different fields (even in Poland);Poland);

Test market: In Poland - Laboratory of Tests Test market: In Poland - Laboratory of Tests from Polish Psychological Society.from Polish Psychological Society.

Information about tests

Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (1985 and 1999);

Mental Measurements Yearbook and Test Critiques;

Journals presenting tests (and psychometric problems)

Psychometrika Educational and Psychological

Measurement Applied Psychological Measurement Journal of Educational Measurement Journal of Educational Psychology Journal of Applied Psychology Personnel Psychology Journal of Consulting and Clinical

Psychology.

Advantages and disadvantages of the tests

Tests „represent the best, fairest, and the most accurate technology available for making many important decisions about individuals”, but at a time the „psychological testing is highly controversial” (Murphy & Davidshofer, 1989, p. 2).

Ethical (controversial) aspects of Ethical (controversial) aspects of testingtesting

The impact of testing on society (artificial or The impact of testing on society (artificial or real differences, efficiency or equity, helping real differences, efficiency or equity, helping or hurting people);or hurting people);

Invasion of privacy (information about Invasion of privacy (information about private life, problem of confidentiality and private life, problem of confidentiality and informed consent);informed consent);

The fair use of tests (the equal availability of The fair use of tests (the equal availability of the test material – testing disabled the test material – testing disabled examinees).examinees).