Lecture 2Lecture 2PhonologyPhonology

Sounds:Sounds:

Basic PrinciplesBasic Principles

DefinitionDefinition

Phonology is the component of Phonology is the component of linguistic knowledge concerned with linguistic knowledge concerned with rules, representations, and principles rules, representations, and principles that govern the pattering of sounds.that govern the pattering of sounds.

It is the It is the grammargrammar of sound. of sound.

The PhonemeThe Phoneme

Phonological form is intrinsically meaningless.Phonological form is intrinsically meaningless. Sounds like /Sounds like // or // or // have no linguistic / have no linguistic

interpretation; they are only building blocks.interpretation; they are only building blocks. But, they are distinctive building blocks: /But, they are distinctive building blocks: // /

catcat vs. / vs. // / matmat.. They are They are phonemesphonemes.. A phoneme, an abstract segment, is the A phoneme, an abstract segment, is the

smallest unit which can make difference in smallest unit which can make difference in meaning.meaning.

A phoneme inventory only contains members A phoneme inventory only contains members that are capable of distinguishing words.that are capable of distinguishing words.

Phonemes in a LanguagePhonemes in a Language

BilabialBilabial Labio-Labio- DentalDental AlveolarAlveolar Palato-Palato- PalatalPalatal VelarVelar GlottalGlottal

dentaldental alveolaralveolar

StopsStops

FricativesFricatives

NasalsNasals

ApproximantsApproximants

Phonemic VariationPhonemic Variation

//// fanfan //// fatfat

//// panpan //// palpal

//// meanmean //// meremere

[[]] [[]][[]] [[]][[]] [[]]

Predictable VariationPredictable Variation

A vowel is nasalized when it is A vowel is nasalized when it is immediately followed by a nasal immediately followed by a nasal consonant.consonant.

vv vv // __________ [+nasal][+nasal]

AllophonesAllophones

A phonetic variant of a phoneme is A phonetic variant of a phoneme is an an allophoneallophone of that phoneme. of that phoneme.For example, the English phoneme /For example, the English phoneme // / may be realized phonetically as:may be realized phonetically as:aspiratedaspirated [[]] tintindentaldental [[]] eightheighthnasally releasednasally released cottoncotton……

Distinctive & Non-distinctiveDistinctive & Non-distinctiveVariationVariation

In any language, the number of In any language, the number of sounds is very large.sounds is very large.

Yet, they are organized by the Yet, they are organized by the phonological system:phonological system:

a. limited inventory of a. limited inventory of distinctivedistinctive soundssounds

b. rule-governed variationb. rule-governed variation

Phonemic AnalysisPhonemic Analysis

A phonemic analysis of a language involves:A phonemic analysis of a language involves: A set of A set of phonemesphonemes – the inventory of – the inventory of

basic, distinctive sounds in the language;basic, distinctive sounds in the language; A set of A set of phonological rulesphonological rules, which , which

specify the arrangement of the non-specify the arrangement of the non-distinctive differences in the language, by distinctive differences in the language, by specifying where all the specifying where all the allophonesallophones occur. occur.

Phoneme or AllophonePhoneme or Allophone

Two sounds are distinct (are in contrast) when:Two sounds are distinct (are in contrast) when: There is, at least, one environment where There is, at least, one environment where

the difference between them is the only the difference between them is the only distinction between two utterances differing distinction between two utterances differing in meaning.in meaning.

Their distribution is not predictable by any Their distribution is not predictable by any general rule.general rule.

Native speakers are sensitive to the Native speakers are sensitive to the difference between them.difference between them.

Phoneme or AllophonePhoneme or Allophone

Two sounds are non-distinct (phonetic Two sounds are non-distinct (phonetic variants) when:variants) when:

They exhibit They exhibit phonetic similarityphonetic similarity..

(They share more phonetic features with (They share more phonetic features with each other than either does with any other each other than either does with any other sound.)sound.)

They are not in They are not in contrastive distributioncontrastive distribution..

(Neither can occur in the same position to (Neither can occur in the same position to produce different meanings.)produce different meanings.)

Phoneme or AllophonePhoneme or Allophone

[[]] [[]] [[]]filefile allall feelfeel

[[]] [[]] [[]]plasticplastic classclass disciplinediscipline

[[]] [[]] [[]]wealthwealth healthhealth stealthstealth

[[]] [[]] [[]]listenlisten blendblend allowallow

Phoneme or AllophonePhoneme or Allophone

[[] occurs at the end of words;] occurs at the end of words;

/// / [ [] /] / ________ ]]wordword

[[] occurs after a voiceless consonant;] occurs after a voiceless consonant;

/// / [ [] /] / voiceless stopvoiceless stop ________ [[] occurs before the sound [] occurs before the sound [];];

/// / [ [] /] / ________ [[]] [[] occurs ] occurs elsewhereelsewhere..

Phoneme or AllophonePhoneme or AllophoneCross-linguistically Cross-linguistically

An allophone in one language can be a An allophone in one language can be a phoneme in another.phoneme in another.[[] is an allophone of the phoneme /] is an allophone of the phoneme // in / in some dialects of Arabic, but it is a separate some dialects of Arabic, but it is a separate phoneme in other languages like English.phoneme in other languages like English.

A phoneme in one language can be an A phoneme in one language can be an allophone in another.allophone in another.[[] is phoneme in Spanish, but it is an ] is phoneme in Spanish, but it is an allophone of the phoneme /allophone of the phoneme // in North / in North American English.American English.

PhonemesPhonemesminimal pairsminimal pairs

A basic test for a sound’s A basic test for a sound’s distinctiveness is the distinctiveness is the minimal pair minimal pair testtest..

A minimal pair consists of two forms A minimal pair consists of two forms with distinct meanings that differ by with distinct meanings that differ by only one segment (sound) found in only one segment (sound) found in the same position in each form.the same position in each form.

PhonemesPhonemesnear-minimal pairsnear-minimal pairs

Sometimes it is not easy (or impossible) to find Sometimes it is not easy (or impossible) to find a minimal pair.a minimal pair.Consider the phonemes /Consider the phonemes // and // and // in English./ in English.

Are the two sounds allophones in English?Are the two sounds allophones in English? To agree with this, we MUST locate the RULES To agree with this, we MUST locate the RULES

the govern their distribution.the govern their distribution. Near-minimal pairs will show the arbitrariness of Near-minimal pairs will show the arbitrariness of

the distribution.the distribution. A near-minimal pair falls short of being minimal A near-minimal pair falls short of being minimal

by virtue of an additional by virtue of an additional irrelevantirrelevant difference. difference.

PhonemesPhonemesnear-minimal pairsnear-minimal pairs

tethertether vs.vs. pleasurepleasureneitherneither vs.vs. seizureseizurelatherlather vs.vs. azureazuresmoothensmoothen vs.vs. illusionillusion There isn’t any consistent factor to There isn’t any consistent factor to

determine the distribution of /determine the distribution of // and // and // in / in EnglishEnglish

If the rules cannot be found, then an If the rules cannot be found, then an analysis that claims allophonic status of /analysis that claims allophonic status of // / and /and // in English is rendered unjustifiable./ in English is rendered unjustifiable.

AllophonesAllophonescomplementary distributioncomplementary distribution

If the distribution of two sounds does not If the distribution of two sounds does not overlap, then it will be impossible for any overlap, then it will be impossible for any difference between them ever to be difference between them ever to be contrastive (i.e. the sole element contrastive (i.e. the sole element distinguishing words form each other).distinguishing words form each other).

Two sounds are said to be in Two sounds are said to be in complementary distributioncomplementary distribution if they if they never occur in never occur in indistinguishable indistinguishable phonetic phonetic environments.environments.

Therefore, two sounds that are in Therefore, two sounds that are in complementary distribution are likely to be complementary distribution are likely to be allophones of the same phoneme.allophones of the same phoneme.

Natural ClassesNatural ClassesGeneralizationGeneralization

Variation is widespread within languages.Variation is widespread within languages. However, phonological analysis provides a However, phonological analysis provides a

systematic account for this great amount systematic account for this great amount of variation.of variation.

Recognizing Recognizing natural classesnatural classes facilitates facilitates that.that.

A natural class is any complete set of A natural class is any complete set of sounds in a given language that share the sounds in a given language that share the same value for a feature or set of features.same value for a feature or set of features.

They are useful tools to help avoid They are useful tools to help avoid listinglisting and ultimately achieve and ultimately achieve generalizationsgeneralizations..

Natural ClassesNatural ClassesGeneralizationGeneralization

Voiceless allophones of English /Voiceless allophones of English //:/:[[] ] pray pray [[] ] trip trip [[] ] creepcreep

The data show that the allophones of English /The data show that the allophones of English // pattern / pattern like those of English /like those of English //./.

Listing:Listing:1. In English, the phoneme /1. In English, the phoneme // has a voiceless allophone / has a voiceless allophone after voiceless stops and a voiced allophone elsewhere.after voiceless stops and a voiced allophone elsewhere.2. In English, the phoneme /2. In English, the phoneme // has a voiceless allophone / has a voiceless allophone after voiceless stops and a voiced allophone elsewhere.after voiceless stops and a voiced allophone elsewhere.

Generalization:Generalization: In English, In English, liquidsliquids have voiceless allophones after have voiceless allophones after voiceless stops and voiced allophones elsewhere.voiceless stops and voiced allophones elsewhere.

Natural ClassesNatural ClassesGeneralizationGeneralization

Voiceless allophones of English glides:Voiceless allophones of English glides:[[] ] putridputrid [[] ] cutecute[[] ] twintwin [[] ] quickquick

Listing:Listing:3. In English, the phoneme /3. In English, the phoneme // has a voiceless allophone / has a voiceless allophone after voiceless stops and a voiced allophone elsewhere.after voiceless stops and a voiced allophone elsewhere.4. In English, the phoneme /4. In English, the phoneme // has a voiceless allophone / has a voiceless allophone after voiceless stops and a voiced allophone elsewhere.after voiceless stops and a voiced allophone elsewhere.5. In English, 5. In English, liquids and glidesliquids and glides have voiceless allophones have voiceless allophones after voiceless stops and voiced allophones elsewhereafter voiceless stops and voiced allophones elsewhere

Generalization:Generalization: In English, In English, approximantsapproximants have voiceless allophones after have voiceless allophones after voiceless stops and voiced allophones elsewhere.voiceless stops and voiced allophones elsewhere.

Rules and Phonemic Rules and Phonemic DistributionDistribution

Are rules limited to manipulating Are rules limited to manipulating non-distinctive information?non-distinctive information?

Can they manipulate distinctive Can they manipulate distinctive material?material?

If that is true, why does a If that is true, why does a phonological system need them?phonological system need them?

Rules and Phonemic Rules and Phonemic DistributionDistribution

Phonotactic Constraints:Phonotactic Constraints:

/// is not allowed initially./ is not allowed initially.

/// is not allowed finally./ is not allowed finally.

…… Contextually-Limited ContrastsContextually-Limited Contrasts

sequences of two stops:sequences of two stops:

[-pt], [-kt], [-bd], [-gd][-pt], [-kt], [-bd], [-gd] allowedallowed

[-tk], [-kp], [-dg], [-db][-tk], [-kp], [-dg], [-db] bannedbanned

Reality of PhonemesReality of Phonemes

Speakers of a language where two Speakers of a language where two phonetically similar sounds do not phonetically similar sounds do not contrast find it very difficult to contrast find it very difficult to distinguish them in other languages distinguish them in other languages where they contrast.where they contrast.

Speakers of a language where two Speakers of a language where two phonetically similar sounds do not phonetically similar sounds do not contrast tend to consider them as the contrast tend to consider them as the same sound.same sound.

Summing upSumming up

Phonology is a set of Phonemes and Phonology is a set of Phonemes and a number of Rules governing their a number of Rules governing their pattering.pattering.

If the rules regulate non-contrastive If the rules regulate non-contrastive properties, the result is allophonic properties, the result is allophonic variation.variation.

Yet, regulating contrastive properties Yet, regulating contrastive properties creates phonological contrasts, with creates phonological contrasts, with limited distribution.limited distribution.

Phonology above the Phonology above the SegmentSegment

Suprasegmental DomainsSuprasegmental Domains