Leaving home: independence, togetherness and income in Europe
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Transcript of Leaving home: independence, togetherness and income in Europe
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Leaving home: independence, togetherness and
income in Europe
Maria Iacovou
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Series of transitions:Finishing schoolGetting a jobLeaving homePartneringHaving children
Sequencing, and transitions themselves, not universal.Argument for expanding definition of youth upwards
The transition to adulthood
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Motivation
Trend towards later home-leaving in OECD countriesConceptualised as being caused by adverse events
Unemployment, insecure employment, low incomes, etc
And as having adverse consequencesLack of independence for offspring (and parents)Financial consequences for parents
[Neither of these is necessarily true]
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All analysis (some from previous publications, some new) from large-scale cross-national data sets European Community Household Panel (ECHP)
1996 – 2002: EU-15European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC)
2004 onwards: EU-27
Data
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“North/Western” cluster: UK, France, Germany, Austria, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg, Ireland
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“Nordic” cluster: Sweden, Finland, Denmark, Norway
“North/Western” cluster: UK, France, Germany, Austria, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg, Ireland
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“Nordic” cluster: Sweden, Finland, Denmark, Norway
“North/Western” cluster: UK, France, Germany, Austria, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg, Ireland
“Southern” cluster: Greece, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Cyprus, (Malta)
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“Nordic” cluster: Sweden, Finland, Denmark, Norway
“North/Western” cluster: UK, France, Germany, Austria, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg, Ireland
“Southern” cluster: Greece, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Cyprus, (Malta)
“Eastern” cluster:Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czech R, Slovakia, Slovenia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria
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“Nordic” cluster: Sweden, Finland, Denmark, Norway, Netherlands
“North/Western” cluster: UK, France, Germany, Austria, Belgium, Luxembourg
“Southern” cluster: Greece, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Cyprus, (Malta), Ireland
“Eastern” cluster 1:Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Czech R, Hungary
“Eastern” cluster 2:Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Romania, Bulgaria
Incomes lower than (eg) Turkey, Mexico, Chile, Malaysia
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Variations in the age at leaving home
DK FI SENL FR UK DE EE AT BE
LT LU IE LV RO BG HU CY CZPL ES IT EL SI SK PT
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
Men
Women
Source: Adapted from Iacovou and Skew (2010)
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0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
15 20 25 30 35 40
Living with parents
Left home, living with partner
Left parental home, no partner
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
15 20 25 30 35 40
Left parental home, no partner
Living with parents
Left home, living with partner
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
15 20 25 30 35 40
Left home, living with partner
Living with parents
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
15 20 25 30 35 40
Living with parents
Left home, living with partner
Living with parents and
partner
Leaving home by age: four countries (men)
Denmark
Bulgaria
Germany
Italy
Source: new analysis of EU-SILC (2007)
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Denmark: men (top) and women (b0ttom)
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
15 20 25 30 35 40
Living with parents
Left home, living with partner
Left parental home, no partner
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
15 20 25 30 35 40
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Germany: men (top) and women (b0ttom)
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
15 20 25 30 35 40
Left parental home, no partner
Living with parents
Left home, living with partner
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
15 20 25 30 35 40
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Italy: men (top) and women (b0ttom)
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
15 20 25 30 35 40
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
15 20 25 30 35 40
Left home, living with partner
Living with parents
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Bulgaria: men (top) and women (b0ttom)
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
15 20 25 30 35 40
Living with parents
Left home, living with partner
Living with parents and
partner
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
15 20 25 30 35 40
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Economic factors – income sufficiency, job securityInstitutional factors – eg, welfare stateHousing markets – supply, price, mortgage marketsSocial normsFamily ties
Why does home-leaving vary so much?
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Independence = ability to make your own decisions, support yourself financially, spend time alone…Togetherness = sense of kinship / belongingAssume everyone values both to some extentNot mutually exclusive, but trade-offs for young adultsReher (1998): “Northern” European model characterised by weak family ties; “Southern” model of “strong” family ties
“Independence” and “togetherness”
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CAN’T assume that societies where young adults live with their parents are those with “strong” family ties or a preference for “togetherness”Look at the relationship between income and home-leaving
“Independence” and “togetherness”
Higher incomes
POSITIVELY related to
earlier home-leaving
Higher incomes
NEGATIVELY related to
home-leaving
Infer preference for independence
Infer preference for togetherness
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Distinguish between parents and children’s incomesLogit regressions separately for each group of countriesSample of young adults aged 18-35 still living at home, analyse the determinants of moving out the following yearAlso control for:
Young person’s age (and age squared)Economic activity (employed/unemployed/home and family/education)Characteristics of family of origin (two-parent/stepfamily/lone parent)Rooms per person (crowding)Parents’ education & age at marriageMaternal employment
Analytical framework
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Results
Nordic Northern Southern
Men Women Men Women Men Women
Own income 0.011*** 0.012*** 0.004** 0.006*** 0.005*** 0.006*** Parental income 0.004* 0.005* 0.005*** 0.004*** -0.005*** -0.001
Own income positively related to leaving home.Infer preference among young adults for independence – strongest in Nordic countries
Parental income ALSO positively related to leaving home in Nordic & Northern countries.
But parental income is negatively related to leaving home in Southern countries.
Source: adapted from Iacovou (2011)
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Distinguishing between destinations
Nordic Northern Southern Men Women Men Women Men Women Leave as a single
Own income 0.018*** 0.019*** -0.001 0.004 0.004* 0.006* Parental income 0.005 0.005 0.005* 0.012*** 0.001 0.004
Leave for partnership Own income 0.014** 0.012** 0.008*** 0.008** 0.005*** 0.005*** Parental income 0.002 0.005 0.005** -0.001 -0.006*** -0.003*
Leave for education Own income -0.001 0.004 0.002 0.005 -0.007 0.009** Parental income 0.010* 0.010** 0.007* 0.012*** -0.002 0.008**
Negative effect of parental income now apparent for both sexes in Southern countries
Source: adapted from Iacovou (2011)
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Does the effect of income vary with age?
Answer: yes!The effect of own income does not vary significantly with ageThe effect of parental income does varyTheory: parents use their incomes to delay home-leaving when offspring are “too young”, and use their incomes to encourage home-leaving when offspring are “old enough” (or “too old”). How old is “old enough”?
About age 20 in Nordic countriesAbout age 22 in Northern countriesAbout age 27 for women in Southern countriesAbout age 35 for men in Southern countries
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And Eastern Europe? Own income….
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
Nordic North South East (1) East (2)
Men Women**
**
**** *
**
****
Effect positive everywhere, but much larger in Nordic countries
Adapted from Skew and Iacovou (2011)
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25
-0.04
-0.02
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
Nordic North South East (1) East (2)
Men Women
*
*
**
**
And Eastern Europe? Parental income…
Effect negative in Eastern [1] group (Baltic states plus Hungary and Czech Republic)
Effect positive in Eastern [2] group (Romania, Bulgaria, Slovakia, Slovenia, Poland)
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Returns home
0 1 2 3 4 5
Greece
Italy
Spain
Portugal
Ireland
Austria
Germany
France
Luxembourg
Belgium
UK
Netherlands
Denmark
Finland
Percentage experiencing a return home
Percentage of parents
Percentage of young people
Source: Iacovou and Parisi (2009), using data from the European Community Household Panel
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Wide variations in age at leaving homeMany factors involved in variations – within and between countriesNorms play a rolePreferences for togetherness versus independence play a roleEconomic constraints evident, particularly across some countries of Eastern Europe
Conclusions
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Who supports whom?Poverty, financial strain and intergenerational co-residence
Maria Iacovou and Maria Davia
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Young people’s incomes as a % of their household’s incomes
(sample: young people aged 19-34 living with their parents)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
LV UK IE EE ES BG CZ AT HU NL LT PT SI NO DK GR RO IS SK IT SE CY FI PL BE DE LU FR
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Reasons for variation
Household sizeOne parent/two parents/other adults/children
EmploymentYouth employment ratesParents’ employment ratesEmployment of other adults in household
WagesWages of young adult in relation to parents’ wages
Benefits
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DE
IE
IS
LVUK
FR
15
17
19
21
23
25
27
29
20 30 40 50 60 70
mea
n %
h/h
inco
me
from
YP
% with 2 parents in paid work
DE
IE
IS
LU
LVUK
FR
15
17
19
21
23
25
27
29
30 35 40 45 50 55
mea
n %
h/h
inco
me
from
YP
% with 1 parent in paid work
DE
IE
IS
LVUK
FR
15
17
19
21
23
25
27
29
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
mea
n %
h/h
inco
me
from
YP
% with no parent in paid work
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CY
DE
IE
LU
LVUK
FR
15
17
19
21
23
25
27
29
10 20 30 40 50
mea
n %
h/h
inco
me
from
YP
% living with one parent only
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Do the level of earnings, as well as having a job, matter?
DE
IE
IS
LVUK
FR
15
17
19
21
23
25
27
29
35 45 55 65 75 85
mea
n %
h/h
inco
me
from
YP
% of young people who have a job
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DE
IE LVUK
FR15
17
19
21
23
25
27
29
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
mea
n %
h/h
inco
me
from
YP
mean youth LAH earnings as % of fathers' earnings
do we observe this pattern just because of age differences between the young people still living at home?
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Both the age distribution AND age-earnings profiles contribute to differences in earnings
DE
IELV
UK
FR
15
17
19
21
23
25
27
29
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
mea
n %
h/h
inco
me
from
YP
mean youth LAH earnings as % of fathers' earnings
DE
IELV
UK
FR
15
17
19
21
23
25
27
29
22 23 24 25 26 27
mea
n %
h/h
inco
me
from
YP
mean age of young person LAH
DE
EE
IELV
PL
SI
UK
FR
15
17
19
21
23
25
27
29
40 60 80 100 120
mea
n %
h/h
inco
me
from
YP
Earnings of 23-28 as % of earnings of 50-55
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0
5
10
15
20
25
30
LV UK IE EE ES BG CZ AT HU NL LT PT SI NO DK GR RO IS SK IT SE CY FI PL BE DE LU FR
0
30
LV UK IE EE ES BG CZ AT HU NL LT PT SI NO DK GR RO IS SK IT SE CY FI PL BE DE LU FR
Scandinavian countries: many 2-earner parents; low-ish youth employment rate, low youth earnings
Including predicted levels………….
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0
5
10
15
20
25
30
LV UK IE EE ES BG CZ AT HU NL LT PT SI NO DK GR RO IS SK IT SE CY FI PL BE DE LU FR
0
30
LV UK IE EE ES BG CZ AT HU NL LT PT SI NO DK GR RO IS SK IT SE CY FI PL BE DE LU FR
North/Western countries: fairly low % with jobs (except AT and NL!), low youth earnings (again, except AT and NL)
Including predicted levels………….
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0
5
10
15
20
25
30
LV UK IE EE ES BG CZ AT HU NL LT PT SI NO DK GR RO IS SK IT SE CY FI PL BE DE LU FR
0
30
LV UK IE EE ES BG CZ AT HU NL LT PT SI NO DK GR RO IS SK IT SE CY FI PL BE DE LU FR
Low % of 2-worker parents, high % with jobs, fairly high % with only 1 parent.
Including predicted levels………….
High employment and relative earnings; high % lone parents
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These figures cover entire income range
Are there differences between rich and poor households?Expect young people in wealthier households to “contribute” a lower % of the household’s income
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
NO IS DK SE FI
< 75% median income
75-100% median income
> 100% median income
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0
5
10
15
20
25
30
LV EE BG CZ HU LT SK RO SI PL
< 75% median income
75-100% median income
> 100% median income
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
ES PT CY GR IT
< 75% median income
75-100% median income
> 100% median income
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
IE NL UK AT DE LU BE FR
< 75% median income
75-100% median income
> 100% median income
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Omitted material... Multivariate analysis of characteristics associated with high
% of incomes
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YPs’ role in determining poverty status
Calculate household income and poverty statusCounterfactual: “remove” young person and all the income associated with their presence in the householdCalculate counterfactual poverty status of householdAllocate hypothetical benefits to young person and calculate their counterfactual poverty statusEight possible sets of outcomes
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% of households below 75% median
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
SE IS FR LU FI BG CZ NO NL BE RO SK PL HU CY DK EE LT IT PT SI DE UK LV AT IE GR ES
Not poor - would be poor if YP left Poor - wouldn't be poor if YP left
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The issue of sharingAdult children don’t always share their funds with the rest of their householdsBut we can assess the extent to which children contribute to household coffers, as follows:HS120: describe your ability to make ends meet
6-point scale, from “great difficulty” to “very easily”. Generate a variable indicating year-on-year changeTake a sample of households with young adults co-resident with parents in year tGenerate variable indicating if young people leave homeMultinomial regressions of change in making ends meetDefine 3 outcomes: worse – same – better
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What do we expect?YP with job leaves YP without job leaves
Get worse+
household loses YP’s income which they previously shared
ORN/S if YP was not sharing
their income
+ if those remaining in the
household have to continue subsidising the YP
Stay the same
- -
Improve+
if the household were already subsidising the YP
+ if those remaining in the
household no longer have to subsidise the YP
ORN/S if those remaining in h/h still
have to subsidise the YP
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Marginal effects: all countries pooled(sample of households with YP aged 25-25)
YP with job leaves YP without job leaves
Get worse 5.8% *** -2.4% ***
Stay the same
- -
Improve 0.1% n/s 4.9% ***
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By country groups:YP with job
leavesYP without job leaves
Nordic Get worse 8.5 * 3.6Improve 2.9 7.6 *
North/West Get worse 3.5 -7.0 ***Improve - 0.7 4.8 *
Southern Get worse 7.2 *** 0.5Improve -0.2 6.1 ***
Eastern Get worse 4.0 *** -4.0 ***Improve 1.0 3.8 ***
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Next steps
Already:Looked at age of young person: no systematic differences between 25-29s and 30-35sNo difference between men and women, once you control for income
Control for contemporaneous changes in Income of other family membersHousehold compositionYP getting or losing a job but remaining in household
Assess the % of YPs’ income which is “shared”
Look (cross-sectionally) at the relationship between YPs’ incomes and parents’ subjective assessments.
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Conclusions
Economic support between young people and their families is not all one wayYoung people’s incomes do contribute, in some meaningful way, to their families’ sense of financial securityThe degree of this contribution is strongly related to young people’s incomes and labour market status