LEARNING: THEORIES & clinical APPLICATIONS

Learning is a very important concept and process, because much of our

behavior depends on it. Both genetics and learning are involved in the

acquisition and modification of behavior. Neither genetics nor environment

alone can account for the relatively simple learning that takes place in the

animal laboratory or the vast repertoire of behaviors that humans acquire over

a lifetime. Learning is clearly both an important process and a complex one. It

involves a set of complicated mechanisms that have evolved over the course of

genetic history to allow us to adapt to environmental conditions by acquiring

new behaviors and modifying old ones.

-Dr. said ; the definition of the of the learning is; gain of excrement and use it

(store it) for adaptation (change; it’s the key of definition ) in new life -

There are several major theories of learning, each suggesting somewhat

different key processes by which knowledge is acquired. Classical

conditioning approaches hypothesize the gradual formation of associations

through which the CS comes to elicit the CR. The operant model holds that

emitted behaviors are reinforced, causing an increase in the probability of the

behavior. More recent theoretical interpretations of both classical and operant

conditioning suggest the involvement of cognitive factors. This third theory is

referred to as the social-learning-cognitive theory or simply: observational

learning.

-Dr. said ; there are 3 theories of learning ;

1- Classical conditioning

2- Operant conditioning

3- social-learning-cognitive

1,2; both of them are conditioning learning ,and also called leaning by

ASSOCIATIONS

3; also called learning by OBSERVATION

Behaviorism:

Learning theories that concentrate on environmental factors as controlling our

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behavior represents behaviorism. According to these theories, differences

between people occur not because of differences in personality or intelligence,

but because of differences in learning. Behaviorism includes Classical (or

Respondent) conditioning, and Operant (or instrumental) conditioning.

The term of “Behavioral Therapy” or “Behavioral Modification” refer to

treatment strategies that are based on these theories. These treatment

strategies are used by trained Clinical Psychologists to deal with various

psychological, psychosomatic, and medical conditions.

Definition of Learning (in Brief.):

1. Learning is usually defined as a set of relatively permanent changes in

behavior that result from prior experience.

Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov

Ivan Pavlov, a Russian digestive physiologist, first discovered

classical conditioning. This type of learning involves pairing an uncon-

ditioned stimulus (UCS) with a neutral stimulus, such that the neutral

stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) that elicits a

conditioned response (CR). The major elements of classical

conditionings are CS, UCS, CR, UCR.

-Dr said; discover accidentally by Ivan Pavlov , as he was work on the

dog’s digestive system

(the experiment ; the Pavlov are use the ball to tell the dog about the time of eat . he is ball and following by meat the dog will salivate , than he use a ball alone the dog will salivate . the later one is called the condition this experiment are consist of number of element ;1-unconditional stimulus (UCS);the stimulus has the ability to produce the specific response (like the meant produce the salivation ) before conditioning develop.2-uncoditional response(CR) ; the response which come without any condition (like salivation with ball flowing by meat )3- conditioned stimulus (CS) ; the stimulus which doe not produce response originally ( في But can produces the response after the condition developed (like ball NO follow by ,(األصلmeat the dog salivate)4- conditioned response; it is the responses to CS after condition developed (like ball NO follow by meat the dog salivate)

1. Pavlov’s results were very important in understanding learning processes in

both animals and human behavior. Moreover, his experiments and findings had

great effects in providing scientific methods of studying behavior.

2. In our every day experience, many types of behavior could be the results of

classical conditioning. For instance, the development of fears and anxiety that

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might occurs when visiting a dentist. Another example is what is called

“Anticipatory Nausea” in chemotherapy.

(Dr. said . for example after the chemotherapy the patient has vomiting nausea

, if he come again later to use of chemotherapy he will fell by nausea,

vomiting sickness ,so this learn by classical condition )

(Dr said ; this classical conditioning are interpretation how our personality,

behavior ,hapte, anxity and ALL type of phobia were developed)

Other Important Concepts:1. Extinction (انطفاء االستجابة): is the reduction in responding that

occurs when the CS (ball) and UCS(meat) are no longer paired. (Dr. said

the Extinction the very important concept use on the ttt of the of the

anxicity and all type of phobia)

- Spontaneous recovery; is the reappearance of a response that has been

extinguished.

(Dr. said: after extinction occur the CR reaper at reduce response if the CS

represented again at reset of the period , this explain the occur of relapse in

some phobia )

2. Stimulus generalization ( تعميم االستجابة ); means that a

response is elicited by a stimulus similar to the CS. Stimulus

discrimination involves learning to distinguish between similar stimuli

and responding only to the appropriate one.

(Dr . said ; Stimulus generalization: after condition response

(salivation) has been stimulated by CS , the same CR will occur to stimulus

similar to the CS without further baring

the greater similarty more liable to response occur

e.g the child fear from the rabbit but if he see the cut he

also fear from it WITHOUT PARING with rabbit because

the similarity between the rabbit and cut )

Clinical Applications od classical conditioning :

Systematic Desensitization and Flooding techniques.

Therapy Techniques Based on Classical Conditioning

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Counterconditioning - reducing a conditioned response (anxiety, for example) by establishing an incompatible response (relaxation) to the same conditioned stimulus (a snake, for example). Wolpe developed a treatment program for anxiety that was based on the principles of counterconditioning. Anxiety symptoms could be reduced (or inhibited) when the stimuli to the anxiety were presented in a graded order and systematically paired with a relaxation response-- systematic desensitization

Systematic Desensitization –SD (سحب الحساسية المتدرج): consistently proven to be effective in the treatment of anxiety and phobias (Dr said the SD are on EFFECTTIVE TTT of the anxity and phobias but ont the only ttt of anxity and phobias) .

Events which cause anxiety are recalled in imagination. Then a relaxation technique is used to dissipate the anxiety. With sufficient repetition through practice, the imagined event loses its anxiety-provoking power. This method is shown to be effective when self-administered as well

There are three steps in the self-administered systematic desensitization procedure:

1. Relaxation; 2. Constructing an anxiety hierarchy; 3. Pairing relaxation with the situations described in your anxiety

hierarchy. اترك العنقليزي الخربوطة عنك وخذها بالعربي : استلقي و سترخي ثم استرجع )

هرم األنإكسيتي من األقل إلى األعلى أنإكسيتي ي(من قاعدة الهرم إلى قمة الهرم ) وحاول الربط بينها و بين الحالة الهادئة من استرخاء وغيرها التي أنت فيها مع

األنإكسيتي , أن شعرت بعدم القدر على البط حاول أتعيد العملة مرة أخرى من جديد, إذا نجحت في الربط حاول أن تعاود العملية مرة أخرى وأخرى لتتخلص من

( األنإكسيتي بالكامل

We add this e.g. form the last year note but theWe add this e.g. form the last year note but the Dr, represented on the lecture .Dr, represented on the lecture .

Example of Systematic Desensitization Example of Systematic Desensitization ►►Example-- Fear of FlyingExample-- Fear of Flying►►Items included in an anxiety hierarchy describe situations which produce varying Items included in an anxiety hierarchy describe situations which produce varying levels of anxiety, some more worrisome than otherslevels of anxiety, some more worrisome than others►►Describe the items on your anxiety hierarchy in sufficient detail to enable you to Describe the items on your anxiety hierarchy in sufficient detail to enable you to vividly imagine each one. It might be sufficient to say, “Standing in line at the ticketvividly imagine each one. It might be sufficient to say, “Standing in line at the ticket counter,” but saying, “Standing in a long line at the crowded ticket counter, with counter,” but saying, “Standing in a long line at the crowded ticket counter, with nothing to do but wait to get my luggage checked,” might be more graphic. nothing to do but wait to get my luggage checked,” might be more graphic. ►►Items are most effective if they can help you experience the event in your Items are most effective if they can help you experience the event in your imagination, not just describe it.imagination, not just describe it.

Creating your Anxiety HierarchyCreating your Anxiety Hierarchy►►Sample Fear of Flying Anxiety Hierarchy Sample Fear of Flying Anxiety Hierarchy ►►Note -- any item’s Note -- any item’s relative anxiety levelrelative anxiety level does not necessarily does not necessarily relate to its relate to its temporal sequencetemporal sequence..►►Packing luggagePacking luggage►►Making reservationsMaking reservations

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►►Driving to the airportDriving to the airport►►Realizing you have to make a flightRealizing you have to make a flight►►Checking inChecking in►►Waiting for boardingWaiting for boarding►►Calling for BoardingCalling for Boarding►►Boarding the planeBoarding the plane►►In-flight serviceIn-flight service►►Moving around the cabinMoving around the cabin►►Climbing to cruising altitudeClimbing to cruising altitude►►DescendingDescending►►Waiting for departureWaiting for departure►►Taking offTaking off►►LandingLanding►►UpsetUpset

Operant Conditioning: (discover by B. F. Skinner)

Definition: the form of learning in which the specific action (operant response ) it may occur more frequency or less frequency by modulation the sequences on the environment

أنا قيل لك خلوا العنقليزي عنك وخذها بالعربي : فرضاU أنت تحب أن) ولدك في المستقبل يصير خوش رجال مؤمن فعليك في كل مرة

يسوي شي مطابق ألمر الخالق (عز وجل ) تكافئه على ذلك لكي يزيد من تكرار الفعال الموافقة لشريعة وكل ما يسوي شي مخالف تعاقبه

( عليه لكي يقلل من تكرار هذا الفعل1. Edward L. Thorndike developed the law of effect, which says that a

behavior is more likely to be repeated when it is followed by satisfaction or

reward.

2. The school of (Behaviorism) has then rapidly grown with the work of B. F.

Skinner who developed the view that behavior is determined by its

consequences and that only directly observable behavior should be studied.

3. Responses are elicited in classical conditioning and emitted in operant

conditioning. Operant conditioning involves trial-and-error learning in which

responses are acquired through reinforcement of operant behaviors.

4. Acquisition involves shaping, which means reinforcing successive

approximations of the desirable behavior. Shaping is important in both

human and animal learning. Withdrawal of reinforcement leads to extinction.

The passage of time can lead to spontaneous recovery.

- Two important concept on the operant condition :

a- reinforcement ; -+ve ( تأخذ منم ) ve– ( ريال2\1تعطيه شي يحبه إذا سوى شيء مطلوب مثال

(شيء يحبه إذا ما سوى الشي الطلوب

both of them increased the desirable behavior

b- punishement : +ve (تكفخه إذا سوى شي مكروه ) –ve ( تاخذا منه شي

( مزعجه مثالمنبة السرعة في السيار

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both of them decreased the desirable behavior

5.A reinforcer is any object or event that increases the likelihood of a response

occurring. Reinforcement occurs when the consequence of a response

increases the likelihood or probability that the response will be repeated.

6. Reinforcement could be positive or negative. Negative reinforcement is

different from punishment. Punishment is a consequence that follows a re-

sponse and decreases its probability. In punishment, a response is followed by

aversive events, which result in eliminating the response. Negative

reinforcement involves termination of aversive events following a response,

and this will increase the probability of response.

Summary ( Operant Conditioning= change in environment change on the behavior , change on the environment either reinforcement (either +ve or _ve both of them are increase the incidence of occurrence) or punishment ( either +ve or _ve both of them are decreased the incidence of occurrence)_ the different between classical C & operant C the C.C. has less sequences (e,g

the dag produceslaivation with or without the meat , so the meat does not

consider as the reinforcement , however P.C. there are more sequences if there

are change in the environment there are change on the behavior.

Principles of operant conditioning

Extinction – a previously learned response stops because it is no longer reinforced

Spontaneous recovery – Return of a response that has been extinguished Immediate consequences are more effective than delayed consequences Stimulus generalization – Stimuli similar to that in the initial learning may

produce the same reaction Stimulus discrimination – the ability to distinguish between similar stimuli

and to respond only to the one that results in the reinforcers Schedules of reinforcement The pattern of delivery of reinforcements; can have powerful effects on

rate, form, and timing of behavior Continuous reinforcement – Partial, intermittent Shaping – Method of getting a response to occur by reinforcing

successive approximations to the desired response Punishment: the goal of punishment is to decrease the probability of a

behavior Type I Punishment: presentation punishment, presenting an aversive

stimulus following a behavior. Type II Punishment: removal punishment, removing a pleasant

stimulus following a behavior. Areas of application of behavior modification:

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Parenting, education, severe psychological and developmental problems (schizophrenia, autism, mental retardation), clinical behavior therapy, self-management, medical and health care (direct treatment, establishing treatment compliance, promotion of healthy living, stress management, management of care givers), gerontology, behavioral community psychology (applications to socially significant problems in unstructured community settings where the behavior of individuals is not considered deviant in the traditional sense), organizational behavior management, sport psychology (improving athletic skills, strategies for motivating practice and endurance training, changing the behavior of coaches, preparing for competition), behavioral assessment

Clinical Applications: Examples of treatment techniques that are based on

operant conditioning includes: 1) Shaping, (2) Token economy, (3) Stimulus

control techniques, (4) The bell and pad for the treatment of enuresis

TOKEN ECONOMY: A behavior therapy procedure, based on operant

conditioning principles, in which institutionalized patients are given tokens,

such as chips, for socially constructive behavior, and are withheld when

unwanted behaviors are exhibited. The tokens themselves can be exchanged

for desirable items and activities such as tea or coffee and extra time away

from the ward.

Time-Out: Time-out: weaken undesired behavior by temporarily removing

positive reinforcement. Example: Sending a student who frequently interrupts

classroom routine to sit in an empty room for 10 min. (Punishment II).

Response Cost: tokens are withdrawn when child makes an undesired response Extinction: weaken undesired behavior by ignoring it. Example: A mother ignoring a whining child, or a teacher ignoring a student who speaks out of turn.FLOODING: This is the type of exposure therapy that starts with the most

feared rather than the least feared stimulus is called flooding; If conducted only

in the imagination, it is sometimes called implosion. The therapist controls the

timing and content of the scenes to be imagined or confronted, and instead of

trying to relax, the patient is told to experience the fear fully until it subsides.

Flooding is quicker than systematic desensitization, but relapse may be more

common, and the procedure is simply too frightening for many patients. A

compulsive washer, for example, is allowed to become dirty or even made dirty

and then prevented from washing. The water might be turned off for most of

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the day. Exposure reduces hypersensitivity to dirt and the associated anxiety,

while response prevention eventually eliminates (extinguishes) compulsive

washing.

SHAPING: Operant conditioning can be used to shape behavior so that

patients perform complex actions or acquire skills that were formerly beyond

their capacities. Successive approximation: The method is to approximate the

desired behavior gradually, rewarding each small step toward mastery. The

gradual process of reinforcing behaviors that get closer to some final desired

behavior. Shaping is often necessary for severely impaired people whose

behavioral repertoire is very limited. For example, the mouth movements of a

mute autistic child are reinforced at first, then sounds, and later only sounds

closer and closer to normal speech. The process of dressing is divided into

stages and the child is given candy or applause for completing each partial

task.

Observational Learning: Social-Cogitive Learning Theory ( Albert

Bandura)

1. Observational learning best represents social and cognitive learning.

Behaviors are acquired by watching another person (the model) perform that

behavior. A model displays it and the learner observes it.

2. This kind of learning does not involve direct experience of S-R association or

rewards and punishment.

3. Reinforcement is not necessary for observational learning. It is needed,

however, for the behavior to be repeatedly performed at some later point. An

observer's behavior can be affected by the positive or negative consequences--

called vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment-- of a model's behavior.

Vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment affects the willingness of

people to perform behaviors they learned by watching others

4. One major difference between the Social-Cognitive theory and the strict

behaviorism is that the social-cognitive theory stresses the cognitive factor: we

are not completely determined by external environment. Because people can

mentally represents situations, they are able to foresee the likely

consequences of their action and to alter their behavior accordingly.

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5. Four basic observational learning processes are attention, retention,

reproduction, and motivation. Each one of these cognitive and learning

processes is essential for learning to occur.

Cognitive Factors in Learning

1. Another kind of learning occurs through cognitive maps. Even rats running

a maze, according to Edward Tolman use cognitive maps. Blocking is

important because it shows that learning involves the use of expectancies to

predict outcomes. Insight learning is characterized by sudden resolution

after a period of study without action.

Prepared by Dr. Mohamed Salah KhalilAssistant professor /consultant of Clinical Psychology

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