1. Table of Definitive Questions for Learning Theories Learning Theory MatrixDefinitive Behaviorist CognitiveConstructivistSocial ConnectivismAdultQuestionsfor Learning TheoryTheory TheoryLearning TheoryLearning Theory LearningTheoriesHow Does Learning happensStructured, computational. Social, meaning created by each Individuals are more likely to adopt a Distributed within a net- Reflection on personal experi- when a correct re-Learning is a change oflearner (personal). modeled behavior if it results in out- work, social, technologi- ence (Jarvis 1987)Learning sponse is demon-knowledge state. Knowledge comes they value. Observationalcally enhanced, recogniz-Occur? strated following the acquisition is described as aLearners build personal interpre- learning is also known as imitation or ing and interpreting pat- Learners first acquire new in- presentation of a mental activity that entails tation of the world based on expe-modeling. Observation Learning:terns.formation, interpret it accord- specific environmen-internal coding and structur-riences and interactionslearn by observing others. ing to previous experiences, tal stimulus. ing by the learner. Theory for the digital age. then evaluate and rememberSelf-Efficacy: Belief that you are cable Learning is a process ofconcepts using existing mentalKnowledge is embedded in the Take the math equa- Learner is viewed as an ac-of learning/performing tasks. Self-connecting specializedschemata. (Rumelhart & Nor-context in which it is used (au- tion 2+2=? Thetive participant in the learn- regulation: Monitoring/evaluatingnodes or informationman 1978)thentic tasks in meaningful realis- learner replies withing process. progress toward self-selected goals. sources.tic settings) the answer of 4. TheLearning may reside inReflect-in-Action and Reflect- equation is the stim- non-human appliances. on-Action (Schon 1983). Emphasis is on the buildingCreate novel and situation-specific Reinforcement plays role in learning, ulus and the proper For example, database, blocks of knowledge (e.g.understandings by "assembling"not entirely responsible for it. answer is the associ- network or community. Learning takes place when the identifying prerequisite rela- knowledge from diverse sources ated response. (Skin- subject matter is relevant to tionships of content). Em- appropriate to the problem at Cognitive process plays role in learn- ner, Tolman, Ban- Knowing where to find in- the personal interests of the phasis on structuring, orga- hand (flexible use of knowledge). ing, not entirely responsible for it. dura, Thorndike and formation is more impor-student. (Knowles, 1984). nizing and sequencing infor- (Piaget, Vygotsky and Ertmer &(Rotter, Woodward, Miller, Wilson, Pavlov).tant than knowing infor- mation to facilitate optimal Newby)Ladd). mation. Learning & knowl- Learning which is threatening processing. (Piaget, Bruner, Emphasis is on ob-edge rest in diversity of to the self are more easily as- Gagne, Lewin, Kohler, Koff- servable and mea-Knowledge is constructed from the Motivation, including external, vicari-opinions. Learning hap- similated when external ka, Ausubel, surable behaviorsnotion of scaffolding. (Vygotsky) ous and self-reinforcement. (Ban-pens in different ways. threats are at a minimum. Ertmer/Newby). (Ertmer & Newby).dura, 1986). Courses, email, conversa- Learning proceeds faster tions, web 2.0, MWDs, when the threat to self is low. Knowledge is constructedMUVE, World to desktop,Interaction/observation in social con- from modeling the behaviorgaming, PDAs, iPod, pod- and self-efficacy and control. texts. Movement from the periphery Self-initiated learning is theto the Centre of a community of prac-casts, collaborative writ-most lasting and pervasive. (Bandura, Rotter, Wood- ing, voice thread, blogs,tice. (Bandura, Lave & Wenger, Sa- (Rogers, (1994) (Maslow, ward, Miller, Wilson, Ladd).etc. (Dede, C.lomon).Knowles ) Siemens,2005)

2. Table of Definitive Questions for Learning TheoriesDefinitive Behaviorist Cognitive ConstructivistSocialConnectivismAdultQuestions Theory TheoryTheoryLearning Theory Learning Theory LearningforLearningTheoriesWhat fac- Nature of reward, Existing schema previous Engagement, participation, so-Albert Bandura argued that ag-Diversity of network,Motivation affects thetors influ- punishment, and experiences. (Piaget,cial cultural. (Piaget & Vygot- gression in children is influencedstrength of ties, context of learning strategies and oth-encestimuli.Bruner, Gagne and sky)by the reinforcement of familyoccurrence. Balanceer cognitive processes anAusubel).Learner and environmental fac-members, the media, and the en- among experiential learn-individual brings to bear onlearning?ing, guided mentoring andEnvironmentaltors are the specific interaction vironment"(Bandura, 1976). a task (Dweck & Elliott, collective reflection. Ex-conditions receiveEmphasis is placed on thebetween them. (Ertmer & New- 1983; Eccles & Wigfield, pression through nonlin-the greatestrole of practice with cor- by).Environmental influence. Engage-ear association webs of1985)emphasis. rective feedback. (Ertmerment, participation and social cul- representations. Co-design& Newby) Constructivists argue that be-tural. Response consequencesof learning experiencesAssimilation and accom- havior is situational deter-(such as rewards or punishments)personalized to individual modation (Piaget 1966)Nature of reward,mined (Jonnassen 1991a).(Bandura 1976). needs and preferences. (Siemens , Cultural, political, physicalpunishment, stim-Downes, 2005) Learning new vocabulary wordsand social dynamics (Tarauli. (Thorndike,Existing schema previous is enhanced by exposure andFenwick and Mark TennantPavlov, Watson,subsequent interaction with Behavior is stiuationallyGuthrie, Hull, Tol- experiences. (Koffka, 1999). those words in context (as op-determined (Jonassen,man, Skinner, Kohler, Lewin, Piaget, posed to learning their mean- 1991a).Ladd) Social interaction and theAusubel, Bruner, Gagne)ings from a dictionary). (Ert- environment (Vygotsky mer & Newby). Actions is viewed as an interpretation of the cur- 1978) rent situation based on an Situations actually co-produceentire history of previous Level of Intellectual Devel- knowledge (along with cogni-interactions (Clancey, tion) through activity (Brown, opment. Educational Objec- 1986) Collins, and Duguid 1989). tives. Situations actually coo-pro- Every action is viewed as an duce knowledge (along with interpretation of the current cognition) through activity. situation based on an entireBrown, Collins, and Duguid history of previous interac-1989). tions. (Clancey, 1986). 3. Table of Definitive Questions for Learning TheoriesDefinitive CognitiveConstructivist ConnectivismQuestionsTheory Theory SocialLearningfor BehavioristLearning Theory Adult TheoryLearning TheoryLearningTheoriesWhat is Memory isEncoding, storage, trans-Prior knowledge remixed to Gain attention to overcome com- Adaptive patterns, rep- Rehearsal involves activethe role of hardwiring ofrepeated form, rehearse and re- trieval.current context. peting stimuli. resentative of current state, existing in net- processingChunking (Newell, A, 1990).memory? experiences The goal of instruction is not toPromote retention by using im-works. where reward andLearning results when in-ensure that individuals know agery and metaphors.(Siemens & Downes Experience is a factor in punishment areformation is stored in particular facts but rather those2005) ones ability to create, re- most influential. memory in an organized,they elaborate on and interpretUse exercises that reproduces be- tain and transfer knowl- meaningful manner. information. havior for try out and practice Understanding is de- edge (Reagans 2003). Forgetting is veloped through contin- attributed to the Designers use techniques The emphasis is not on retriev-Provide reinforcement for motiva- ued, situated use and Holds changing concept of nonuse of a such as advance organiz- ing intact knowledge struc-tion (Bandura, 1986). does not crystallize into self. (Moslow & Rogers) response over ers, analogies, hierarchi- tures, but on providing learners categorical definition time. cal relationships, and ma- with the means to create novel (Brown et al, 1989, trices to help learners re-and situation-specific under-pf33). The use of periodic late new information tostandings by assembling prior practice or reviewprior knowledge. knowledge from diverse The emphasis is not on serves to maintain sources appropriate to the retrieving intact knowl- a learners Forgetting is the inability to problem at hand. For example,edge structures, but on readiness toretrieve information fromthe knowledge of design ac-providing learners with response (Schunk, memory because of interfer-tivities has to be used by a prac- the means to create nov- 1991) ence, memory loss, or miss-titioner in too many different el and situation-specific ing or inadequate cues need- ways for them all to be antici-understandings by as- Gaining attention ed to access information pated in advance.sembling prior knowl- (reception),(Ertmer & Newby). edge from diverse Informing learnerssources appropriate to of the objectivethe problem at hand. (expectancy). (Spiro, Feltovick, Jacob- son, and Coulson, 1991). 4. Table of Definitive Questions for Learning TheoriesConnectivismAdultDefinitive CognitiveConstructivist Social LearningLearningQuestions Theory Learning TheoryTheory Theoryfor Learn-ing Theo-Behavioristries TheoryHow does Stimuli and Re- Transfer of learning oc-Facilitation, openness (Moslow and Connecting to addingCritical reflectiontransfer oc- sponses curs due to previous en- Socialization (Piaget, Vygotsky).Rogers)nodes, growing the net- Reflection/think time.cur? (Thorndike, countered situations.Build personal interpretations of work. Social/conceptual (Garvin 1993). Pavlov, Watson, (Thorndike 1928).the world based on individual ex-Behavior reproduction supportedand biological. Guthrie, Hull, Tol-periences and interactions (con- by self-efficacy and regulation. (Siemens, Downes) Development the ability man, Skinner). Ac-Communicate or transferstantly open to change cannot(Bandura, 1986).to think critically. (Merriam cording to Tolman,knowledge in the most ef-achieve a predetermined, "correct"meaning, knowledge emerges in and Caffarella 1999) a new stimulusficient, effective mannerrelevant contexts). (the sign) becomes(mind-independent, can associated with al- be mapped onto learners)Learning is an active process of ready meaningful constructing rather than acquiring stimuli (the signifi- Focus of instruction is to knowledge. cate) through a se- create learning or change ries of pairings. by encouraging the learn-Instruction is a process of support- er to use appropriateing knowledge construction rather Result of learning strategiesthan communicating knowledge. generalization. SituationsLearning results when infor- Do not structure learning for the mation is stored in memory task, but engage learner in the ac- involving identical in an organized, meaningfultual use of the tools in real world or similar features way. Teachers/designers aresituations. (Lave & Wenger, Pi- allow behaviors toresponsible for assistingaget, Bransford, & Hasselbring, transfer. (Ertmer learners in organizing infor-Grabinger and Spiro). & Newby)mation in an optimal way so that it can be readily assimi- lated. (Koffka, Kohler, Lewin, Piaget, Ausubel, Bruner, Gagne) 5. Table of Definitive Questions for Learning TheoriesWhat typesReasoning, clear objec-Social, vague (ill-defined). Classroom: k-12 and Adults Complex learning, rapid Self-directed and indepen-of learning tives, problem solvingWorkplace: Adultschanging core, diversedent. (Moslow and Rogers).are best ex- Task-based (Schunk, 1991) Jonnassen, 1991a, describedSocial: Child and Adult (Wilson, knowledge sources learning. (Skinner, three stages of knowledge ac-1980). (Heylighen, (2008), Andragogy and critical re-plained by quisition: introductory, ad-Siemens and Downesflection. (Knowles, M.this theory? Bandura, Simplification and stan- vanced, and expert. He argues 2005).Thorndike,dardization (Bednar et 1968).Pavlov). that constructive learning envi- Multiple Intelligences (Gardneral., 1991).ronments are most effective for1983) the stage of advanced knowl-Explain why specific thingsStimulus-responseMultiple Intelligencesare being taught (e.tg., cer-Intelligence is a func-edge acquisition, where initialassociation (Winn(Gardner 1983)tain commands, functions,1990), whichtion of the number ofmisconceptions and biases ac- quired during the introductoryoperations, etc.)include connections learned.instructional cues, (Thorndike, 1927). stage can be discovered, negoti- ated, and if necessary, modifiedInstruction should be task-practice and oriented instead of memo-reinforcementand/or removed. rizationMultiple Intelligences Jonnassee agrees that introduc-Learning that (Gardner 1983) tory knowledge acquisition is Instruction should takeinvolves into account the wide range better supported by more ob-discriminationsof different backgrounds of jectivistic approaches (behavior(recalling facts), learners. Since adults are and/or cognitive).generalizationsself-directed, instruction(defining andshould allow learners toillustrating discover things for them-concepts, andselves providing guidanceassociations Multiple Intelligences (Gard- ner 1983) and help when mistakes are(applyingmade. (Knowles, 1984).explanations), andchaining Multiple Intelligences(automaticallyperforming a (Gardner 1983)specifiedprocedure).(Schunk 1991). 6. Table of Definitive Questions for Learning TheoriesMultipleIntelligencesSchema (Bartlett, Mathematical Learning theoryCriterion referenced In-How is( Gardner 1983)1932), arrived at the (R. C. Atkinson 1972),Intranet internal online struction (R. Mager,technology concept from studies of Maximize mean performance ofinformation.1975). Goal/task analysisused for the whole class, Minimize the memory he conducted LMS Learning Man- to identify what needslearning invariance in performance for the in which subjects re- whole class, Maximize the agement System, web to be learned, (2) perfor-your indus-called details of stories conferencing. mance objectivesexact number of students who scoretry? that were not actuallyspecification of the out- at grade level, or maximize the The Cloud-based Ap- there. Suggested that mean performance for each comes to be accom-Information memory takes the form individual. plication for non-tra-plished and how they areProcessingTheories (g. Miller, of schema which pro-ditional learning.to be evaluated, (3) crite-1956).chunking vide a mental frame-rion references testingthe idea that short- work for understandingGeo-everything, Per-evaluation of learning interm memoryand remembering infor-sonal Web, Semantic-terms of thecould only holdmation. knowledge/skills speci-5-9 chunks ofAware Application fied in the objectives, (4)information (sevenBransford & Franks to solve difficult prob-development of learningplus or minus two)(1971) involved in modules tied to specificwhere a chunk is lemsbottom-up andshowing people picturesobjectives.any meaningfuland asking questions to-down approaches.unit. I.e., digits,them about what the(The HorizonSelf-paced course involv-words, chesspositions, or story depicted; people Report-2009)ing a variety of differentpeoples faces. would remember differ- media (e.g., workbooks,ent details dependingvideotapes, small groupTOTE (Test- upon the nature of the discussion, and comput-Operate-test-Exit)picture. er-based instruction).(miller, Galanter &Pribram (1960)), 7. Table of Definitive Questions for Learning TheoriesNovice versus expertMastery learning andperformance (e.g., Chiperformance-oriented in-et al., 1988) suggestsstruction.that the nature of ex-pertise is largely due to Feedback/Reinforcementthe possession of (Markle, S. R. (1964)).schema that guides per-ception and problem-solving.TOTE replaces thestimulus-0response as the basic unitof behavior. Thegoal is tested to seeif it has beenachieved and if notan operation isperformed toachieve the goal;this cycle of test-operate is repeateduntil the goal iseventuallyachieved orabandoned. 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