Learning Theory Question

7/27/2019 Learning Theory Question

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learning theory

What is learning? Is it a change in behaviour or understanding? Is it a process? Here we surveysome common models.

contents:introductionlearning as a producttask-conscious or acquisition learning,and learning-conscious or formalized learninglearning as a process the behaviouristorientation to learningthe cognitive orientation to learningthe humanistic orientation

to learningthe social/situational orientation to learningfurther readinghow to citethis article

I want to talk about learning. But not the lifeless, sterile, futile, quickly forgotten stuff that iscrammed in to the mind of the poor helpless individual tied into his seat by ironclad bonds ofconformity! I am talking about LEARNING - the insatiable curiosity that drives the adolescent boyto absorb everything he can see or hear or read about gasoline engines in order to improve theefficiency and speed of his 'cruiser'. I am talking about the student who says, "I am discovering,drawing in from the outside, and making that which is drawn in a real part of me." I am talkingabout any learning in which the experience of the learner progresses along this line: "No, no, that'snot what I want"; "Wait! This is closer to what I am interested in, what I need"; "Ah, here it is! NowI'm grasping and comprehending what I need and what I want to know!"Carl Rogers 1983: 18-19

For all the talk of learning amongst educational policymakers and practitioners, there is a surprisinglack of attention to what it entails. In Britain and Northern Ireland, for example, theories of learningdo not figure strongly in professional education programmes for teachers and those within differentarenas of informal education. It is almost as if it is something is unproblematic and that can be takenfor granted. Get the instructional regime right, the message seems to be, and learning (as measured bytests and assessment regimes) will follow. This lack of attention to the nature of learning inevitablyleads to an impoverishment of education. It isn't simply that the process is less effective as a result,but what passes for education can actually diminish well-being.

Here we begin by examining learning as a product and as a process. The latter takes us into the arena

of competing learning theories - ideas about how learning may happen. We also look at Alan Roger's
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(2003) helpful discussion of task-conscious or acquisition learning, and learning-conscious orformalized learning.

Learning as a product

Pick up a standard psychology textbook - especially from the 1960s and 1970s and you will probablyfind learning defined as a change in behaviour. In other words, learning is approached as an outcome

- the end product of some process. It can be recognized or seen. This approach has the virtue ofhighlighting a crucial aspect of learning - change. It's apparent clarity may also make some sensewhen conducting experiments. However, it is rather a blunt instrument. For example:

Does a person need to perform in order for learning to have happened?

Are there other factors that may cause behaviour to change?

Can the change involved include the potential for change? (Merriam and Caffarella 1991: 124)

Questions such as these have led to qualification. Some have looked to identifying relatively

permanent changes in behaviour (or potential for change) as a result of experiences (see behaviourismbelow). However, not all changes in behaviour resulting from experience involve learning. It wouldseem fair to expect that if we are to say that learning has taken place, experience should have beenused in some way. Conditioning may result in a change in behaviour, but the change may not involveddrawing upon experience to generate new knowledge. Not surprisingly, many theorists have, thus,been less concerned with overt behaviour but with changes in the ways in which people 'understand,or experience, or conceptualize the world around them' (Ramsden 1992: 4) (see cognitivism below).The focus for them, is gaining knowledge or ability through the use of experience.

The depth or nature of the changes involved are likely to be different. Some years ago Slj (1979)carried out a simple, but very useful piece of research. He asked a number of adult students what theyunderstood by learning. Their responses fell into five main categories:

1. Learning as a quantitative increase in knowledge. Learning is acquiring information orknowing a lot.

2. Learning as memorising. Learning is storing information that can be reproduced.3. Learning as acquiring facts, skills, and methods that can be retained and used as necessary.4. Learning as making sense or abstracting meaning. Learning involves relating parts of the

subject matter to each other and to the real world.5. Learning as interpreting and understanding reality in a different way. Learning involves

comprehending the world by reinterpreting knowledge. (quoted in Ramsden 1992: 26)

As Paul Ramsden comments, we can see immediately that conceptions 4 and 5 in are qualitativelydifferent from the first three. Conceptions 1 to 3 imply a less complex view of learning. Learning is

something external to the learner. It may even be something that just happens or is done to you byteachers (as in conception 1). In a way learning becomes a bit like shopping. People go out and buyknowledge - it becomes their possession. The last two conceptions look to the 'internal' or personalaspect of learning. Learning is seen as something that you do in order to understand the real world.

knowing that' and 'knowing how'

A man knowing little or nothing of medical science could not be a good surgeon, but excellence at surgery is not thesame thing as knowledge of medical science; not is it a simple product of it. The surgeon must indeed have learnedfrom instruction, or by his own inductions and observations, a great number of truths; but he must also have learned

by practice a great number of aptitudes. (Ryle 1949: 48-49)


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Learning how or improving an ability is not like learning that or acquiring information. Truths can be imparted,procedures can only be inculcated, and while inculcation is a gradual process, imparting is relatively sudden. Itmakes sense to ask at what moment someone became apprised of a truth, but not to ask at what moment someoneacquired a skill. (Ryle 1949: 58)

In some ways the difference here involves what Gilbert Ryle (1949) has termed 'knowingthat' and'knowing how'. The first two categories mostly involve 'knowing that'. As we move through the thirdwe see that alongside 'knowing that' there is growing emphasis on 'knowing how'. This system of

categories is hierarchical - each higher conception implies all the rest beneath it. 'In other words,students who conceive of learning as understanding reality are also able to see it as increasing theirknowledge' (Ramsden 1992: 27).

Learning as a process - task-conscious or acquisition learning and learning-conscious or formalized learning

In the five categories that Slj identified we can see learning appearing as a process - there is aconcern with what happens when the learning takes place. In this way, learning could be thought of as'a process by which behaviour changes as a result of experience' (Maples and Webster 1980 quoted inMerriam and Caffarella 1991: 124). One of the significant questions that arises is the extent to which

people are conscious of what is going on. Are they aware that they are engaged in learning - and whatsignificance does it have if they are? Such questions have appeared in various guises over the years -and have surfaced, for example, in debates around the rather confusing notion of'informal learning'.

One particularly helpful way of approaching the area has been formulated by Alan Rogers (2003).Drawing especially on the work of those who study the learning of language (for example, Krashen1982), Rogers sets out two contrasting approaches: task-conscious or acquisition learning andlearning-conscious or formalized learning.

Task-conscious or acquisition learning. Acquisition learning is seen as going on all the time. Itis 'concrete, immediate and confined to a specific activity; it is not concerned with general principles'

(Rogers 2003: 18). Examples include much of the learning involved in parenting or with running ahome. Some have referred to this kind of learning as unconscious or implicit. Rogers (2003: 21),however, suggests that it might be better to speak of it as having a consciousness of the task. In otherwords, whilst the learner may not be conscious of learning, they are usually aware of the specific taskin hand.

Learning-conscious or formalized learning. Formalized learning arises from the process offacilitating learning. It is 'educative learning' rather than the accumulation of experience. To thisextent there is a consciousness of learning - people are aware that the task they are engaged in entailslearning. 'Learning itself is the task. What formalized learning does is to make learning moreconscious in order to enhance it' (Rogers 2003: 27). It involves guided episodes of learning.

When approached in this way it becomes clear that these contrasting ways of learning can appear inthe same context. Both are present in schools. Both are present in families. It is possible to think ofthe mix of acquisition and formalized learning as forming a continuum.

At one extreme lie those unintentional and usually accidental learning events which occurcontinuously as we walk through life. Next comes incidental learning - unconscious learning throughacquisition methods which occurs in the course of some other activity... Then there are variousactivities in which we are somewhat more more conscious of learning, experiential activities arisingfrom immediate life-related concerns, though even here the focus is still on the task... Then comemore purposeful activities - occasions where we set out to learn something in a more systematic way,using whatever comes to hand for that purpose, but often deliberately disregarding engagement withteachers and formal institutions of learning... Further along the continuum lie the self-directed

learning projects on which there is so much literature... More formalized and generalized (andconsequently less contextualized) forms of learning are the distance and open education programmes,
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where some elements of acquisition learning are often built into the designed learning programme.Towards the further extreme lie more formalized learning programmes of highly decontextualizedlearning, using material common to all the learners without paying any regard to their individualpreferences, agendas or needs. There are of course no clear boundaries between each of thesecategories. (Rogers 2003: 41-2)

This distinction is echoed in different ways in the writings of many of those concerned with education- but in particular in key theorists such asKurt Lewin,Chris Argyris,Donald Schn, orMichael

Polanyi.

Learning as a process - learning theory

The focus on process obviously takes us into the realm of learning theories - ideas about how or whychange occurs. On these pages we focus on four different orientations (the first three taken fromMerriam and Caffarella 1991).

the behaviourist orientation to learning

the cognitive orientation to learning

the humanistic orientation to learning

the social/situational orientation to learning

As with any categorization of this sort the divisions are a bit arbitrary: there could be further additionsand sub-divisions to the scheme, and there a various ways in which the orientations overlap and drawupon each other.

The four orientations can be summed up in the following figure:

Four orientations to learning (after Merriam and Caffarella 1991: 138)

Aspect Behaviourist Cognitivist Humanist Social andsituational

Learningtheorists

Thorndike, Pavlov,Watson, Guthrie,Hull, Tolman,Skinner

Koffka,Kohler,Lewin,Piaget,Ausubel,Bruner,Gagne

Maslow,Rogers Bandura,Laveand Wenger,Salomon

View of thelearning process

Change inbehaviour

Internal mentalprocess (includinginsight, informationprocessing,memory,perception

A personal act tofulfil potential.

Interaction/observation insocial contexts.Movement fromthe periphery tothe centre of acommunity ofpractice

Locus of learning Stimuli in externalenvironment Internal cognitivestructuring Affective andcognitive needs Learning is inrelationship
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between peopleand environment.

Purpose ineducation

Producebehaviouralchange in desireddirection

Develop capacityand skills to learnbetter

Become self-actualized,autonomous

Full participation incommunities ofpractice andutilization ofresources

Educator's role Arrangesenvironment toelicit desiredresponse

Structures contentof learning activity

Facilitatesdevelopment ofthe whole person

Works to establishcommunities ofpractice in whichconversation andparticipation canoccur.

Manifestations inadult learning

BehaviouralobjectivesCompetency -based education

Skill developmentand training

CognitivedevelopmentIntelligence,learning andmemory asfunction of age

Learning how tolearn

AndragogySelf-directedlearning

SocializationSocial participation

Associationalism

Conversation

As can seen from the above schematic presentation and the discussion on the linked pages, these

approaches involve contrasting ideas as to the purpose and process of learning and education - andthe role that educators may take. It is also important to recognize that the theories may apply todifferent sectors of the acquision-formalized learning continuum outlined above. For example, thework ofLave and Wengeris broadly a form of acquisition learning that can involve some more formalinterludes.

Further reading

For this listing I have tried to bring together a selection of books that look to the main themes arisingin the literature around learning (and education). For those familiar with Tennant (1997) (which is aset text on a course I teach!), the writers can be grouped as follows:

humanistic orientations - here I chosen Maslow and Rogers. psychoanalytical approaches - Salzberger-Wittenberg et alprovide a useful introduction. the cognitive orientation - with Piaget, Gagn and Bruner learning styles - Witkin on field dependence and independence; and Kolb on experiential

learning. behaviourism - represented here by Skinner. building learning communities - Dewey on group investigation; Lave and Wenger on situated

learning. critical awareness - Mezirow on the transformative dimensions of learning; Freire on

'conscientization'.

Overviews can be found in Tennant (1997), and Joyce et al(1997).
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Overviews

Hartley, J. (1998)Learning and Studying. A research perspective, London: Routledge. 178 + xiipages. A well written and entertaining introduction to studying and learning in higher education. Thefocus is very much on practice.

Hergenhahn, B. R. and Olson, M. H. (1997)An Introduction to Theories of Learning 5e, Upper SaddleRiver, NJ: Prentice-Hall. 502 + x pages. Good, standard psychology text on the subject that takes an

approach via thinkers. Part one contains three short chapters examining the nature of learning,different approaches to study; and early notions of learning. Part two looks at the predominantlyfunctionalist theories of Thorndike, Skinner and Hull. Part three turns to associationalist theorists:Pavlov, Guthrie and Estes; and part four looks at predominantly cognitive theorists: Gestalt, Piaget,Tolman, Bandura, Norman. Part five explores Hebb as a neurophysiological theorist. A concludingsection examines implications for educators.

Illeris,K. (2002) The Three Dimensions of Learning. Contemporary learning theory in the tensionfield between the cognitive, the emotional and the social, Frederiksberg: Roskilde University Press.Interesting, but at times debatable exploration.

Joyce, B., Calhoun, E. and Hopkins, D. (1997)Models of Learning - tools for teaching, Buckingham:

Open University Press. 205 + viii pages. Slightly quirky, but very useful outline of different models oflearning The writers isolate four 'families' of teaching based on the the types of learning they promote:information processing; social/building a learning community; personal; and behavioural. They havechapters on learning: to think inductively, to explore concepts, to think metaphorically;mnemonically, through co-operative disciplined enquiry, to study values, through counselling andthrough simulations. Concluding chapters exami integrating models, and teaching and learningtogether.

Merriam, S. and Caffarella (1991, 1998)Learning in Adulthood. A comprehensive guide, SanFrancisco: Jossey-Bass. 528 pages. Now pretty much the standard text, Merriam and Caffarellaprovide a good overview of learning theory. In the new edition, part two deals with adult developmentand learning; and part three with the learning process.

Murphy, P. (ed.) (1999)Learners, Learning and Assessment, London: Paul Chapman. 352 + xiiipages. One of four readers for the Open University MA in Education course Learning, Curriculum andAssessment. This volume has a useful collection of pieces on views of the mind; curriculumimplications; and learning and assessment processes. See, also, Leach, J. and Moon, B. (eds.)(1999)Learners and Pedagogy, London: Paul Chapman. 280 + viii pages; and McCormick, R. andPaetcher, C. (eds.) (1999)Learning and Knowledge, London: Paul Chapman. 254 + xiv pages.

Ramsden, P. (1992)Learning to Teach in Higher Education, London: Routledge. 290 + xiv pages.Ramsden's text can be profitably read by those teaching in other arenas. It provides a focusedintroduction to learning and the implications for programme design and encounters in the classroom.

Rogers, A. (2003) What is the Difference? A new critique of adult learning and teaching, Leicester:NIACE. 85 pages. Short and very helpful exploration of the nature of learning (with particularattention to current debates around informal learning) and the extent to which adult learning and theteaching of adults is the same or different from that of younger persons.

Tennant, M. (1988, 1997)Psychology and Adult Learning, London: Routledge. 182 + xii pages. Gooddiscussion of the relevance of psychological theory to adult education. Includes material onhumanistic psychology and the self-directed learner; the psychoanalytical approach; adultdevelopment; cognitive developmental psychology; learning styles; behaviourism; group dynamics;critical awareness. New edition includes helpful material on situated learning plus updates on theliterature


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Tennant, M. and Pogson, P. (1995)Learning and Change in the Adult Years. A developmentalperspective, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 218 + xvii pages. Examines relationships betweendevelopment and learning in adulthood; intellectual and cognitive development; practical intelligenceand expertise; theories of the life course; autonomy and self-direction; experience; and teacher-learner relationship. Provides a helpful series of insights drawn from a developmental psychologytradition.

Key texts

Bruner, J. (1960, 1977) The Process of Education, Cambridge Ma.: Harvard University Press. 97 +xxvi pages. Argues for 'the spiral curriculum' with a discussion of the importance of structure;readiness for learning; intuitive and analytical thinking; motives for learning; and aids to teaching.

Dewey, J. (1933)How We Think 2e, New York: D. C. Heath. Classic and highly influential discussionof reflective enquiry, with Dewey's famous five elements: suggestion, problem, hypothesis, reasoning,testing. For a discussion that focuses on learning communities see, J. Dewey (1915) The School andSociety, 2e., Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

The introduction of active occupations, of nature-study, of elementary science, of art, of history; the relegation of themerely symbolic and formal to a secondary position; the change in the moral school atmosphere, in the relation ofpupils and teachers - of discipline; the introduction of more active, expressive, and self-directing factors - all theseare not mere accidents, they are necessities of the larger social evolution. It remains to but to organize all thesefactors, to appreciate them in their fullness of meaning, and to put the ideas and ideals involved into complete,uncompromising possession of our school system. To do this means to make each one of our schools an embryoniccommunity life, active with types of occupations that reflect the life of the larger society and permeated throughoutwith the spirit of art, history, and science. When the school introduces and trains each child of society intomembership within such a little community, saturating him with the spirit of service, and providing him with thenstruments of effective self-direction, we shall have the deepest and best guaranty of a larger society which is

worthy, lovely, and harmonious.

John Dewey (1915) The School and Society, 2e., Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pages 28-9.

Freire, P. (1972)Pedagogy of the Oppressed, Harmondsworth: Penguin. Classic account of Freire'sposition. See, also, P. Freire and A. Faundez (1989)Learning to Question. A pedagogy of liberation,Geneva: World Council of Churches. Gives an account of learning through problem-posing.

Gagn, R. M. (1985) The Conditions of Learning 4e, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. 308 +viii pages. Important study, first published in 1965, that 'attempts to consider the sets ofcircumstances that obtain when learning occurs, that is, when certain observable changes in humanbehaviour take place that justify the inference of learning' (p. 5). Basically a systems approach withchapters on varieties of learning (8 types); basic forms of learning (signal, stimulus response);chaining: motor and verbal; concept learning; problem solving; learning structures; the motivation

and control of learning; learning decisions.

Jarvis, P. (1987)Adult Learning in the Social Context, London: Routledge. 220 pages. Importantattempt to ground thinking about adult learning in a sociological perspective. A useful addition tothinking around reflection and experiential learning.

Kolb, D. A. (1984)Experiential Learning, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice Hall. 256 pages. Learning isapproached as a process leading to the production of knowledge. Substantial discussion of the ideasunderpinning Kolb's well-known model.

Lave, J. and Wenger, E. (1991)Situated Learning. Legitimate peripheral participation, Cambridge:University of Cambridge Press. 138 pages. Significant exploration of learning as participation incommunities of practice. Participation moves from the periphery to the 'centre'. Learning is, thus, notseen as the acquisition of knowledge by individuals so much as a process ofsocialparticipation. The


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nature of the situation impacts significantly on the process. Chapters on legitimate peripheralparticipation; practice, person, social world; specific communities of practice.

Maslow, A. (1968) Towards a Psychology of Being 2e, New York: Van Nostrand. In which he arguesfor the significance of self-actualization. His 'theory of motivation' moves from low to high level needs(physiological, safety, love and belongingness, self-esteem, self-actualization). See, also, A . Maslow(1970)Motivation and Personality 2e, New York: Harper and Row. for a full discussion of the model.

Mezirow, J. (1991) Transformative Dimensions of Learning, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 247 + xixpages. Exploration of some of the processes by which people can free themselves from 'oppressiveideologies, habits of perception, and psychological distractions'. Draws on psycho-analytical,behaviouristic and humanistic theories.

Newman, F. and Holzman, L. (1997) The End of Knowing. A new developmental way of learning,London: Routledge. 185 + viii pages. Looks at learning as performed activity.

Piaget, J. (1926) The Child's Conception of the World, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. It isdifficult to know which of Piaget's 50 or more books to choose here - but this and The Origin ofIntelligence in Children are classic starting points. H. E. Gruber and J. J. Voneche (1977) The

Essential Piaget: an interpretative reference and guide, London is good collection. See, also, M. A.Boden's (1979)Piaget, London: Fontana for a succinct introduction.

Retallick, J., Cocklin, B. and Coombe, K. (1998)Learning Communities in Education, London:Cassell. 248 pages. Explores the theory and practice of learning communities from an internationalperspective. Covering primary/elementary, secondary and tertiary levels in a variety of educationalcontexts, leading researchers discuss: theoretical issues and debate; processes and strategies forcreating learning communities; and learning communities in action .

Rogers, A. (2003) What is the difference? a new critique of adult learning and teaching,Leicester:NIACE. Very helpful, short discussion that distinguishes between task-conscious or acquisitionlearning and learning-conscious or formalized learning

Rogers, C. and Freiberg, H. J. (1993)Freedom to Learn (3rd edn.), New York: Merrill. Reworking ofthe classic Carl Rogers text first published in 1969. Looks at how person-centred learning can be usedin schooling and other situations and the nature of facilitation. See, also, H. Kirschenbaum and V. L.Henderson (eds.) (1990) The Carl Rogers Reader, London: Constable. 526 + xvi pages.

Salomon, G. (ed.).Distributed Cognitions, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Path-breakingcollection of pieces that explore the extent to which learning lies in the resources to which people haveaccess.

Salzberger-Wittenberg, I., Henry, G. and Osborne, E. (1983) The Emotional Experience of Learning

and Teaching, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. 155 + xii pages. While largely focused on adult-child interactions, this book demonstrates the power of psychoanalytical insight into a range oflearning relationships.

Skinner, B. F. (1973)Beyond Freedom and Dignity, London: Penguin. Probably the most accessibleentry into Skinner's work and provides a classic account of his all embracing vision of behaviourism.

Wenger, E. (1999) Communities of Practice. Learning, meaning and identity, Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press. 318 + xv pages. Substantial exploration of situated learning and communities ofpractice.

Witkin, H. and Goodenough, D. (1981) Cognitive Styles, Essence and Origins: Field dependence and

field independence, New York: International Universities Press. Account of Witkin's very influentialexploration of the impact of context on perceptual judgements.


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Other references

Krashen, S. D. (1982)Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition, Oxford: Pergamon.

Slj, R. (1979) 'Learning in the learner's perspective. I. Some common-sense conceptions',Reportsfrom the Institute of Education, University of Gothenburg, 76.

1. A group of people who share values and beliefs, learn together actively and learnfrom other individuals. The above statement refers to a

A learning community

B learning experience

C learning environment

D psychosocial environment

2. It is through play that children can understand more about their environment.

Which of these following statement does not reflect the importance of play in a childs

learning process?A Children can learn ways of solving problems

B play helps in shaping the identity of children

C Children learn to interact positively with others

D children can show off their talents and abilities

3. Creative works are produced when children play by using various types of

materials. The type of play described refers to C. constructive play

4.One of the important principles of learning in Ewells model is active environment.

Which of the following learning activities can be carried out to promote activeinvolvement in class?

A. Read books

B. Engage discussion

C. Copy teachers note

D. View educational video clips

5.Farhana does not know when reinforcement is coming, but is aware that if she

continues to do her task well, she will be rewarded. Which type of reinforcement

schedule applies in the case?A fixed ratio

B continuous

C fixed interval

D variable ratio

6. Which of the following statements is true of constructivism?

A bottom up processing is emphasized

B The learner acquires expertise through interaction with an expert

C The teacher is both a facilitator and the constructor of knowledgeD learning begin with the general and then moves on to the specific


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7.Aminah is a great fan of Siti Nurhaliza. She talks about her latest song at home and

in school all the time. She has also formed a mental image of singing in public like Siti

Nurhaliza in the future. Which phase of Banduras observational learning is Aminah in?

A attention

B retention

C motivationD reproduction

8. Which of the following statements best explains the Humanist Theory?

A Learning occurs better if the teacher plans many activities

B Learning occurs by observing another person performing an act

C Self directed learning will result in the learning processing be more meaningful

D Every learning stage must be in line with the level of students cognitive

development

9.Which of the following is one of the implicationsof the behaviorist theory with

regards to students with special needs?

A Always reprimand negative behavior

B determine realistic goals to shape behavior

C Use real or symbolic models to shape behavior

D Create suitable learning environment for students

10.Students with special needs require different treatment compared to normal

students. How can a teacher ensure that students with special needs are developedaccording to their potentials based on the humanist theory?

A Give verbal reinforcement

B Always use drill and repetition

C Teach from specific to general so as to simplify understanding

D Identify the ability of students and prepare an individual learning plans

11.Which of the following involves the lowest level of processing information?

A Scan a text and jot down notes

B Scan a text and circle all the pronounsC Scan a text and get specific information

D Scan a text and circle all the uppercase letters

12.Mastery learning based on the behaviorist theory, ensures that all students achieve

the learning objectives by

A dividing students into smaller groups for discussion purposes

B arranging for educational visits to give students experiential learning

C giving students a range of exercises on the topic to give them more practice

D breaking up a lesson into smaller units so that students can easily acquireknowledge before progressing further


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13. The social Model emphasis group inquiry such as cooperative learning. Which of

the following are principles of cooperative learning?

I interdependence among students

ii create competition among students

iii students accountability toward task

iv emphasis given to high performance studentsA I and ii only

B i and iii only

C ii and iv only

D iii and iv only

14.The personal Model which involves learning through counseling aims to

A activate students prior knowledge to recall what they know

B direct students towards achieving better mental health and emotion

C ensure students acquire knowledge and skills that are in the curriculumD enhance students creative thinking by using analogy to solve problems

15.The cognitive teaching Models helps teachers in the teaching and learning process

in the classroom. Which of the following is an implication of the use of The cognitive

Teaching Model?

A enables teachers to repeat desired behaviours among students

B enables teachers to try the memorization strategy among students

C Give students opportunities to encode, remember and solve problems

D Gives students freedom to select learning activities most suitable for them

16.

Which of the following techniques is described above

A discussion

B story telling

C brainstorming

D problem solving

17.Teacher A starts her lesson by explaining the characteristics of a cat. Then the

teacher relates the characteristics of her pet to other pets. The approach used by

teacher A is

A eclectic

B inductive

C deductive

D generative

18.Which of the following students is inclined towards verbal linguistic intelligence?A student A likes to jokes in the classroom


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B student B draws mind map during revision

C student C takes part actively when the teacher conducts group works

D student D always sits in the mini garden in her school during recess to enjoy the

beauty of the scenery

19.On receiving her assignment Alia said I dont think I can do the assignment on

time and have outstanding quality; Based Bandura self efficacy theory of motivation,Alias teacher needs to do these following to increase Alias confident

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