Learning Theories a (1)

7/23/2019 Learning Theories a (1)

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Learning Theories

2002ATGCI
http://www.atgci.org/http://www.atgci.org/


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General learning theories

Behaviorism

Cognitivism

Constructivism


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Representations of the LearningProcess

Behaviorism

Stimulus-Response Reinforced Behavior

Antecedent Behavior Consequence

Sequenced knowledge and skills presented in logicallimited steps

Cognitivism

Cognitivist Learning Perspective

Information Processing

Schema

ental odels

Constructivism Inquir!-"ased

#iscover! learning


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Relevant $rameworks

Behaviorism Programmed Instruction %logical

presentation of content& overt responses&immediate knowledge of correctness'

Cognitivism (vents of Instruction %Conditions of

Learning'

Constructivism

Cognitive Apprenticeship

Cognitive $le)i"ilit!

Situated Learning

*one of Pro)imal #evelopment


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+e! Principles,

Behaviorism Learning happens when a

correct response is

demonstrated following thepresentation of a specicenvironmental stimulus

(mphasis is on o"serva"le andmeasura"le "ehaviors


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+e! Principles,

Cognitivism Learning is a change of knowledge state +nowledge acquisition is descri"ed as a

mental activit! that entails internal codingand structuring "! the learner.

Learner is viewed as an active participant inthe learning process

(mphasis is on the "uilding "locks ofknowledge %e.g. identing prerequisiterelationships of content'

(mphasis on structuring& organi/ign andsequencing information to facilitate optimalprocessing


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+e! Principles,

Constructivism Learners "uild personal interpretation of

the world "ased on e)periences andinteractions

+nowledge is em"edded in the conte)t inwhich it is used %authentic tasks inmeaningful realistic settings'

Create novel and situation-specic

understandings "! 0assem"ling0 knowledgefrom diverse sources appropriate to thepro"lem at hand %1e)i"le use of knowledge'


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2oal of Instruction,Behaviorism Communicate or transfer "ehaviors

representing knowledge and skills to thelearner %does not consider mentalprocessing'

Instruction is to elicit the desired responsefrom the learner who is presented with atarget stimulus

Learner must know how to e)ecute theproper response as well as the conditions

under which the response is made Instruction utili/es consequences and

reinforcement of learned "ehaviors


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2oal of Instruction,

Cognitivism Communicate or transfer knowledge in themost e3icient& e3ective manner %mind-independent& can "e mapped ontolearners'

$ocus of instruction is to create learning

or change "! encouraging the learner touse appropriate learning strategies

Learning results when information isstored in memor! in an organi/ed&

meaningful wa!. 4eachers5designers are responsi"le forassisting learners in organi/inginformation in an optimal wa! so that itcan "e readil! assimilated


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2oal of Instruction,Constructivism

Build personal interpretations of theworld "ased on individual e)periencesand interactions %constantl! open tochange& cannot achieve a predetermined&0correct0 meaning& knowledge emerges in

relevant conte)ts' Learning is an active process of

constructing rather than acquiringknowledge

Instruction is a process of supportingknowledge construction rather thancommunicating knowledge

#o not structure learning for the task&"ut engage learner in the actual use of

the tools in real world situations


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Instructional5LearningStrategies,

Behaviorism Behaviorism Instructional cues to elicit correct response Practice paired with target stimuli Reinforcement for correct responses

Building 1uenc! %get responses closer andcloser to correct response'

ultiple opportunities5trials %#rill and practice' #iscrimination %recalling facts' 2enerali/ation %dening and illustrating

concepts' Associations %appl!ing e)planations' Chaining %automaticall! performing a specied

procedure'


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Cognitivism Information

Processing odel ()planations

#emonstrations Illustrative e)amples 2estalt 4heor! atched non-

e)amples Corrective feed"ack 6utlining nemonics

#ual-Coding 4heor! Chunking Information Repetition

Concept apping Advanced 6rgani/ers Analogies Summaries +eller7s ARCS odel

of otivation Interactivit! S!nthesis


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Constructivism odeling Colla"orative Learning Coaching

Sca3olding $ading Pro"lem-Based Learning Authentic Learning

R(ALs Anchored Instruction Cognitive $le)i"ilit! 8!perte)ts 6"9ect-"ased Learning


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4heorists

Behaviorism Skinner

Bandura

4horndike Pavlov

Cognitivism 2agne

Bruner

Anderson

2ardner

:ovak

Rummelhart

:orman

Constructivism

;!gotsk!

Lave < =enger Piaget

Bransford&8assel"ring&etc.

%C42;' 2ra"inger

Spiro andcolleagues


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Constructivist Theory

Jerome Bruner


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Learning is an active process in whichlearners discover and construct newideas/concepts based on theircurrent/prior knowledge. The issues thatguide this process must be personally orsocietally relevant. Bruner believed thatthe learner selects information,

constructs ideas based on thatinformation and makes decisions byrelying on their own cognitive structureof information.


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Bruner believed that instructionshould allow the learner to

discover principles for themselvesthrough active dialog. Instructorsshould become information

facilitators instead of informationtransmitters.


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Instruction should address fourmaor aspects!

". predisposition toward learning

#. the ways in which knowledge can bestructured so that it is readily

grasped by the learner$. e%ective se&uencing of the material

'. the nature and pacing of rewards


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To Bruner, knowledge is theactivity of the person in the

content domain and learning is thestruggling of the learner with theissues within that domain.


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(rinciples!

". Instruction must be concerned with the

e)periences and conte)ts that make thestudent willing and able to learn.

#. Instruction must be structured so that itcan be easily grasped by the student*spiral organi+ation.

$. Instruction should be designed to facilitatee)trapolation and/or -ll in the gaps *goingbeyond the information given.


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Cognitive evelopment

Jean Piaget


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Cognitive evelopment

(iaget believed that cognitivedevelopment occurs through a

se&uence of successive &ualitativechanges in cognitive structures.

C iti l t


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Cognitive evelopmentPiagets Four Stages:

Sensorimotor Stage (birth - 2 yrs): actions become more intentional and integrated into

patterns, there is an increased awareness of self andsurroundings.

Preoperational Thought Stage (2 - 7yrs): development of language and conceptual thought occurs.

Concrete Operations Stage (7-yrs): increased ability to apply logical thought to concrete

problems, thinking is still primarily related to immediatee)perience.

Formal Operations Stage (yrs on):

ability to apply logic to a variety of problems0 higher orderthinking occurs.


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Cognitive evelopmentInstructional Implications!

". There should be plenty of opportunityfor assimilation and accommodation inorder for students to proceed from onestage to the ne)t.

#. The richer the e)perience, the moreelaborate the cognitive structuredevelopment.

$. 1aterials and activities should begeared for the appropriate level ofcognitive development.


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2laboration Theory

Reigeluth


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2laboration Theory

2laboration Theory details ageneral model of organi+ing

instruction from a simple to morecomple) structure.


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2laboration Theory

3eatures of the 1odel *4agan 56mith, "778!

". 9n epitome at the beginning of theinstruction

#. 9 learning:prere&uisite se&uencewithin each level of elaboration

$. 9 learner:control format'. The use of analogies, summari+ers

and sythesi+ers.


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2laboration Theory Courses can have $ di%erent structurings

which are based on the goals of the course.! Conceptual:9 course structure that is based

upon concepts. There are three types! parts,kinds, and matrices

2! Proce"ural:9 course structure wherelearning/teaching is based on knowing theprocedures for how to do something. There aretwo di%erent kinds of procedural knowledge!procedural order and procedural decision.

#! Theoretical:9 course structure wherelearning/teaching is based on theory. There aretwo types! theory that describes a naturalphenomena *descriptive and those that a%ect adesired outcome *prescriptive.


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(roblem:Based Learning

Roger Schank


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Learning that is situated around anevent, case, problem, or scenario.


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(roblem:Based Learning3ive 6trategies for ;sing (BL *u%y 5

Cunningham, "778!

1.The Problem as a Guide:theproblem is presented in order to

gain attention prior to presentingthe lesson.


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3ive 6trategies for ;sing (BL

2. The Problem as an Integrator orTest:the problem is presented

after readings are completedand/or discussed :: these are usedto check for understanding.


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3. The Problem as an !am"le:theproblem is integrated into the

material in order to illustrate aparticular principle, concept orprocedure.


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#. The Problem as a $ehicle %orProcess:the problem is used to

promote critical thinking wherebythe analysis of how to solve itbecomes a lesson in itself.


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(roblem:Based Learning3ive 6trategies for ;sing (BL

&. The Problem as a Stimulus %or'uthentic 'cti(it):the problem isused to develop skills necessary tosolve it and other problems :: skillscan include physical skills, recall ofprior knowledge, and metacognitive

skills related to the problem solvingprocess. 9 form of authenticassessment of the skills and activity

necessary in the content domain.


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Design PBL Instruction:1. Task Analysis:analysis must take place

not only within the content domain butshould also determine the actual settingwhere the learning will be authentic.

2. Problem Generation:The problemsmust be constructed so they include the

concepts and principles that are relevantand they must be set in a real conte)t.


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Learning Sequence:

". Collaborative 9nalysis session where

groups work together to solve theproblem.

#. 6elf:directed Learning where thestudents identify the informationand resources that are necessary tosolve the problem.


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The instructor in (BL only acts asa facilitator to learning, instead of

a transmitter of the necessaryinformation.


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Assessment:assessment oflearning must occur within the

conte)t of the problems andshould be in the form of both selfassessment and peer

assessment.


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Conditions of Learning

Robert Gagne


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Conditions of Learning?ine events of Instruction

*4agan 5 6mith, "778".


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1aor (rinciples of


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9ssimilation Theory

*a(id 'usubel


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9ssimilation Theory

Assimilation Teory:Concernedwith how individuals learn large

amounts of meaningful material.The primary process in learning isthat new information is related to

relevant knowledge that is alreadye)isting in an individual=s cognitivestructure.


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9ssimilation Theory

The steps to this process are!! Subsumpti$e!meaning and new

e)amples are added to an e)istingconcept

2! Superor"inate!ideas and conceptsare sythesi+ed and therefore newinclusive concepts are created

#! Combinatorial!additional backgroundis added to achieve a more globalunderstanding of the concept.


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9ssimilation Theory

9usubel di%ers from


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9ssimilation Theory

(rinciples!". The most general ideas of a subect

should be presented -rst and thenprogressively di%erentiated in termsof detail and speci-city.

#. Instructional materials should attempt

to integrate new materials withpreviously learned material bycomparing new and old ideas andconcepts.


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1eaningful Learning

*a(id 'usubel


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1eaningful Learning

1eaningful learning occurs when learnersactively interpret their e)perience usinginternal, cognitive operations.

(rior knowledge is the most signi-cant indetermining what new learning will occur.

DThe model of cognitive organi+ationproposed for the learning and retention of

meaningful materials assumes the e)istenceof a cognitive structure that is hierarchicallyorgani+ed.D *9usubel, "78$, p. #"A

1eaningful Learning


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1eaningful Learning+e) ,once"ts

Cogniti$e Structure! the learnerEsoverall memory structure or integratedbody of knowledge.

%nchoring &"eas! the speci-c, relevantideas in the learnerEs cognitive structurethat provide the entry points for newinformation to be connected.

'eception earning! the entire contentof what is to be learned is presented tothe learner in its -nal form.

1eaningful Learning


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1eaningful Learning+e) ,once"ts

isco$ery earning! learners are re&uired torearrange a given array of information,integrate it with e)isting cognitive structures,and reorgani+e the integrated combination in

such a way as to create a desired end product. 'ote earning! the learner memori+es and

makes no connection between what was knownand what was memori+ed.

*eaning+ul earning! the process of relatingpotentially meaningful information to what thelearner already knows in a substantive way.


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1eaningful Learning

!e"resentational Learning:learning themeanings of unitary symbols or words. This isthe most basic form of learning and serves as afoundation for all other learning to occur.

#once"tion Learning:knowing beyond

representation :: understanding the criticalattributes that surround a concept anddi%erentiate it from other concepts.

Pre"ositional Learning:the meanings of newideas e)pressed in verbal prepositions are

ac&uired :: individual words and concepts are nowcombined to form a new idea :: inferences arenow being made by the learner.


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1eaningful Learning

Cognitive structure and anchoringideas within the cognitive structureare the prere&uisites to meaningfullearning.

6ocial evelopment


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6ocial evelopmentTheory Fone of (ro)imal

evelopment

-e( $)gotsk)


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6ocial evelopment Theory

Gygotsky believed that socialinteraction played a role in the

development of cognition ::learning could occur through socialcontact.


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Gygotsky *"7A states Deveryfunction in the child=s cultural

development appears twice! -rst,on the social level, and then, later,on the individual level0 -rst,

between people, then inside thechild.D


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Three types of 2)perience!

". Historical! knowledge through

generations#. 6ocial! knowledge obtained through

contact with someone else

$. 9daptation! knowledge obtained byacting on the environment


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Gygotsky believed that all higherorder functions begin as actual

relations between individuals ::this should be focused on becauseit is uni&ue to humans.


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3our 9ssumptions about Learning!". 6ignali+ation! something that is common to

all organisms.

#. #. 6igni-cation! humans have evolved to adi%erent level0 the stimulus is not the onlything connected to the response. 9 symbolsystem becomes part of the response.1eaning is assigned to an arbitrary stimulus.

$. Biological! part of the evolutionary process

'. 6ociohistorical! creation and use of aculturally based signs and symbol system.


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Fone of (ro)imal

evelopmentThe distance between the actual

developmental level that is

reected and the level that isaccomplished : created in theinteraction between adult and

child.


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Fone of (ro)imalevelopment

The basic premise is that the adult

provides the support and sca%olding

for the individual until the individualassimilates the knowledge into theirown cognitive structure. The ideabehind sca%olding is that the

support system is gradually takenaway as the learner begins to takeover and understand the process.


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Cognitive 3le)ibility

Theory

Rand S"iro


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Cognitive 3le)ibility Theory

C3T states that learning should befocused in comple) and ill:

structured domains. *earsley,"77


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Cognitive 3le)ibility Theory

DThe theory is largely concerned withtransfer of knowledge and skills

beyond their initial learning situation.3or this reason, emphasis is placedupon the presentation of informationfrom multiple perspectives and use

of many case studies that presentdiverse e)amples.D *earsley, "77

ogn t ve e) ty eory


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g y yInstructional 6trategies *


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Instructional Transaction

Theory *I#

errill/ -i and Jones


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Instructional TransactionTheory

(urpose! In response to perceivedlimitations in e)isting instructional

design models and theories, 1errill,Li and Jones have developed what isreferred to as a Dsecond generationtheory of instructional designD whose

purpose is to e)pedite the design ofan automated system or DI e)pert.D


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Instructional TransactionTheory

4easons for I#!

". To analy+e, represent, and guide

instruction to teach integrated sets ofknowledge and skill

#. To produce pedagogic prescriptionsabout selection and se&uence of

instruction$. To be an open system that can

respond to new theory

ns ruc ona ransac onTh


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Theory

Critical Concepts!

&nstructional Transactions!instructional algorithms and patternsof learner interactions that have beendesigned to enable the learner toac&uire a certain kind of knowledgeor skill. 9 mutual, dynamic interactionbetween the instructional system andthe student in which there is ane)change of information.



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Theory

Critical Concepts!

Transaction Shell! the structure ofa transaction that identi-es the

interactions, parameters andknowledge representations needs fora given class of transactions. Theseshells can consist of # subsystems!

an authoring environment and adelivery environment.



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Theory

Critical Concepts!

Transaction Class! a set ofsimilar transaction shells which

have similar interactionre&uirements and similarknowledge representation

re&uirements.



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Theory

Critical Concepts!

Transaction Family! all of thetransactions necessary to enable

the learner to ac&uire all of thenecessary knowledge and skill :: toestablish an e%ective mental

model.



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Theory

Critical Concepts!

,nterprise Transaction! a higherlevel interaction which provides

direction of e)ecution andintegration of learning.


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6ituated Learning

Jean -a(e


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6ituated Learning

Learning is a function of the activity,conte)t, and culture in which it occurs.

9ll material that is taught should besituated in real:world conte)ts from the

start. *Kinn 5 6nyder, "778, p."#' Cognitive 9pprenticeships 9ll instruction should mimic the real life

situation in which that knowledge would

be useful. This will enable learners to storeinformation in such a way that is easilyretrievable. *Kilson 5 Cole, "778, p.88


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1ultiple Intelligence

Theory

0oard Gardner


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1ultiple Intelligence Theory

The theory states that there areseven distinct forms of intelligence

*recently an th was introducedthat each individual possesses to adi%erent degree.



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2ight Intelligences!

". Gerbal/Linguistic

#. Logical/1athematical

$. 6patial'. Bodily/inesthetic

@. Interpersonal

8. Intrapersonal

A. 1usical

. ?aturalistic



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Instructional Implications!

Teaching/learning should focus on

the strength *particularintelligences of each person andassessment of learning should

measure all forms, not ustspeci-c ones.


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(rinciples *earsley, "77!

". Individuals should be encouraged to use

their preferred intelligences in learning.

#. Instructional activities should appeal todi%erent forms of intelligence.

$. 9ssessment of learning should measuremultiple forms of intelligence.


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Component isplay

Theory

*a(id errill


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Component isplay Theory

Component isplay Theory is aconditions:based theory of

instructional design that is ane)tension of


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CT classi-es learning obectivesin two dimensions! performance

level *remember, use or -nd andcontent type *facts, concepts,principles, or procedures *4agan 56mith, "778.


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act ,once"t

Procedure

Princi"le

ind

se

Remember


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(rimary (resentation 3orms! Content*generality or instance and 9pproach*e)pository or in&uisitory

6econdary (resentation 3orms!(rere&uisites, conte)t, helps,representation, mnemonics, feedback.

9ccording to the theory, instruction ismore e%ective when it contains all of thenecessary primary and secondarypresentation forms.


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(rinciples *earsley, "77!". Instruction will be more e%ective if

all three primary performance formsare present.

#. (rimary forms can be presented byeither an e)planatory or in&uisitorylearning strategy.

$. The se&uence of primary forms is notcritical provided they are all present.

'. 6tudents should be given controlover the number of instances or

practice items they receive.


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6ocial Learning Theory

Mbservational Learning

'lbert Bandura


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Social earning Theory! people arenot driven by either inner forces orenvironmental stimuli in isolation0

instead behaviors are learned throughcontinuous interaction of personal andenvironmental determinants and alllearning from direct e)perience occurs

by observing other people=s behavior.*Burton, 1oore, 5 1agliaro, "778.


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Mbservation Learning (rocess *Burton etal., "778!

%ttention Processes! determine what isselectively observed and e)tracted

'etential Processes! patterns of behaviorare attended to and retained

*otor 'epro"uction Processes! thebehavior is reproduced and re-ned on a

basis of feedback. *oti$ation! the behavior is more likely

adopted if it is considered valuable orfunctional.


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9. Learn by watching! you donEthave to do something in order tolearn it

B. 9bstract, decide, engage!learners see something in theenvironment, abstract what

theyEve seen, decide if it isimportant and then repeat thebehavior.


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'eciprocal eterminism!Interpersonal and nonsocialenvironmental factors come

together. The behavior ofindividuals occurs because of priorinteractions with other people 9?with the immediate environment.*


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Bloom=s Ta)onomy

Ben4amin Bloom


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Bloom=s Ta)onomy

". nowledge! the remembering, identi-cationor recall of previously learned material.

#. Comprehension! the understanding of the

material and its meaning :: the learner canput the material in their own words.

$. 9pplication! The use of learned material innew situations :: the learner can use and

make an abstraction of the material in aconcrete conte)t


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Bloom=s Ta)onomy

'. 9nalysis! The breaking down of the materialinto its component parts so its organi+ationalstructure can be understood

@. 6ynthesis! (utting all of the pieces of thematerial together to form a whole :: thelearner can put together old knowledge innew ways

8. 2valuation! the learner can makeudgements based on their knowledge aboutthe value of methods and materials for somepurpose.

Learning Theories a (1)

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