LearningLearning Styles Styles

Margit Pabst

21.06.2006

SE: Current Issues in Technology Enhanced Learning

Learning Styles

Overview:

●Introduction

●Families of learning styles by Coffield, Moseley, Hall & Ecclestone (2004)

●The Dunn and Dunn model

●Kolb´s model

●Vermunt´s framework for classifying learning styles

Learning Styles

What are learning styles?

Learning styles are simply different approaches or ways of learning.

Introduction

WHY LEARNING STYLES?

● How can we teach students if we don´t know how they learn?

● How can we improve the performance of your employees if we don´t know how we ourselves learn or how to enhance their learning?

● People have different strengths and preferences in the ways they take in and process information

Introduction

● Some prefer to work with concrete information (facts, experimental data)

● Others are more comfortable with abstractions (theories, symbolic information, mathematical models)

● Some are partial to visual presentation of information – pictures, diagrams etc.

● Others get more from verbal explanations

● Some like to learn but trying things out and seeing and analyzing what happens

● Others would rather reflect on things they plan to do and understand as much as they can about them before actually attempting them

Introduction

● Teachers and course designers should pay closer attention to students’ learning styles – by diagnosing them - and designing teaching and learning interventions around them

● When the learning styles of the most students in a class and the teaching style of the professor are seriously mismatched, the students are likely become uncomfortable, bored and inattentive in class etc.

● Another impetus is given by a government policy that aims to develop the necessary attitudes and skills for lifelong learning, particularly in relation to ‘learning to learn’. These are widely assumed by policy-makers and practitioners to be well delineated, generic and transferable

Learning Styles

● The learning styles field is not unified

● It is divided into three linked areas of activity:

➔ Theoretical➔ Pedagogical➔ Commercial

Learning Styles

● The theoretical area is a growing body of theoretical and empirical research on learning styles in the UK, the US and Western Europe that began in the early years of the 20th century.

● The pedagogical area is a vast body of research into teaching and learning which draws researchers from divers specialisms, mainly from different branches of psychology, but also from sociology, business studies, management and education.

● The third area consists of a large commercial industry promoting particular inventories and instruments.

Learning Styles

Coffield, Moselesy, Hall & Ecclestone (2004) identified five families:

➔ constitutionally-based learning styles and preferences

➔ cognitive structure

➔ stable personality type

➔ ‘flexibly stable’ learning preferences

➔ learning approaches and strategies

Learning StylesFigure 1Families of learningstyles (Coffield et al., 2004)

Genetic and other constitutionally based factors

● styles are fixed, or at least are very difficult to change

● theorists refer to genetically influenced personality traits,

● or to the dominance of particular sensory or perceptual channels,

● or to the dominance of certain functions linked with the left or right halves of the brain.

The cognitive structure family

● styles are not merely habits, with the changeability that this implies,

● rather, ‘styles are more like generalized habits of thought, not simply the tendency towards specific acts, but rather the enduring structural basis for such behaviour, and as such, are not particularly susceptible to training

● styles are linked to particular personality features, with the implication that cognitive styles are deeply embedded in personality structure

● the learning styles in this family tend to be expressed as bipolar constructs. The most influential member is Witkin (1962, 1971, cited by Coffield et al., 2004)

Stable personality type

● have a common focus upon learning style as one part of the observable expression of a relatively stable personality type, a theory primarily influenced by the work of Jung (1968, cited by Coffield et al., 2004)

● the theorists in this family are concerned with constructing instruments which embed learning styles within an understanding of the personality traits that shape all aspects of an individual’s interaction with the world

● The descriptors of personality are, in taxonomic terms, polythetic – that is, grouping together observed phenomena with shared features, but not excluding from groups phenomena which share some, but not all, of the relevant features

Flexibly stable learning preferences

● A learning style is not a fixed trait, but a differential preference for learning, which changes slightly from situation to situation

● At the same time, there is some long-term stability in learning style

Learning approaches and strategies

● contextual factors influence learners’ approaches and strategies and lead to a multifaceted view of teaching

● this emphasis encourages a broad approach to pedagogy that encompasses subject discipline, institutional culture, students’ previous experience and the way the curriculum is organized and assessed

● theorists within this family of learning research tend to eschew ‘styles’ in favor of ‘strategies’ and ‘approaches’ because previous ideas about styles promoted the idea of specific interventions either to ‘match’ existing styles or to encourage a repertoire of styles

● researchers within this family refer to underlying personality differences and relatively fixed cognitive characteristics

Genetic and other constitutionally based factors

● styles are fixed, or at least are very difficult to change

● theorists refer to genetically influenced personality traits,

● or to the dominance of particular sensory or perceptual channels,

● or to the dominance of certain functions linked with the left or right halves of the brain.

The Dunn and Dunn model

● learning style is a ‘biologically and developmentally imposed set of characteristics that make the same teaching method wonderful for some and terrible for others’

● the possibility of changing each individual’s ability is limited

● ‘three-fifths of style is biologically imposed’

● they differentiate between environmental and physical elements as more fixed, and the emotional and ‘sociological’ factors as more open to change

The Dunn and Dunn model

‘learning style is divided into 5 major strands called stimuli:

➔ a) environmental

➔ b) emotional

➔ c) sociological

➔ d) psychological

➔ e) physiological elements

From these strands, four variables affect students’ preferences, each of which includes different factors.

The Dunn and Dunn modelTable 1Variables and factors in the Dunn and Dunn learning-styles model

Table 2Elements of learning style from the Dunn and Dunn model

Table 3Elements of learning style from the Dunn and Dunn model

The Dunn and Dunn model The instruments:● the Dunn and Dunn Learning Styles Questionnaire (LSQ) (1979)

● the Dunn, Dunn and Price Learning Styles Inventory (LSI) (1992, 1996)

● the Dunn, Dunn and Price Productivity Environmental Preference Survey (PEPS) (1996)

● the Building Excellence Survey (BES) (2002)

● Our Wonderful Learning Styles (OWLS) (2002)

The instruments are supported by the following resources and material for teaching and homework:

● Contract Activity Packages (CAPs)

● Programmed Learning Sequences (PLSs)

● Multi-Sensory Instructional Packages (MIPs).

The Dunn and Dunn model

Examples from the LSI:

●I study best when the lights are dim.

●When I do well at school, grown-ups in my family are proud of me.

●I like to listen to music while I´m studying .

104 self-report items

Likert scale (3point/5point)

The Dunn and Dunn model

Reliability:STRENGTHS:

● Supporters (Price & Dunn, 1997; Price, 1996 cited by Coffield et al., 2004) make strong claims for reliability

Validity:STRENGTHS:

● Supporters (DeBello, 1990; Curry 1987; Tendy & Geiser, 1998/9 cited by Coffield et al., 2004) make strong claims for face, construct and predictive validity

WEAKNESSES:

● Critics (Knapp, 1994; Hughes, 1992; Shwery, 1994 cited by Coffield et al., 2004) highlight major problems with the design and reliability of key instruments

WEAKNESSES:

● There have been external criticisms (Knapp, 1994; Hughes, 1992; Shwery, 1994 cited by Coffield et al., 2004) of evidence of validity

The Dunn and Dunn model

Implications for pedagogy:

STRENGTHS

● individual differences in preference can be discerned

● it is possible to adapt environments and pedagogy to meet these preferences

● the stronger the preference, the more effect an intervention will have

● the impact will be even greater if low-achieving learners’ strong preferences are catered for.

WEAKNESSES

● The implications for pedagogy are so forcefully expressed that no other options are considered.

● Labelling and generalising about types of student may lead to simplistic injunctions about ‘best practice’

Flexibly stable learning preferences

● A learning style is not a fixed trait, but a differential preference for learning, which changes slightly from situation to situation

● At the same time, there is some long-term stability in learning style

Kolb´s model

●One of the most influential models of learning styles was developed by David Kolb in the

early 1970s

●Learning styles are both flexible and stable

●Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of

experience. Knowledge results from the combination of grasping experience and

transforming it

Kolb´s model

Experiential learning has six characteristic features:

● Learning is best conceived as a process, not in terms of outcomes.

● Learning is a continuous process grounded in experience.

● Effective learners need four kinds of ability to learn: concrete experiences (CE); reflective observations (RO); abstract conceptualisations (AC); active experimentations (AE).

● Learning is a holistic process of adaptation to the world.

● Learning involves transactions between the person and the environment.

● Learning is the process of creating knowledge: ‘[which] is the result of the transaction between social knowledge and personal knowledge’

Reflective Observation

Watching

Concrete Experience

Feeling

Active Experimentation

Doing

Abstract Conceptualisation

Thinking

Processing Continuum

how we do things P

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onti

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how

we

thin

k ab

out t

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Assimilating (think and watch)

AC/RO

Diverging (feel and watch)

CE/RO

Converging (think and do)

AC/AE

Accommodating (feel and do)

CE/AE

Kolb´s model

Figure 2Kolb's four learning styles

Kolb´s modelFour styles:● Type 1: the converging style (abstract, active) relies primarily on abstract

conceptualisation and active experimentation; is good at problem solving, decision making and the practical application of ideas; does best in situations like conventional intelligence tests; is controlled in the expression of emotion and prefers dealing with technical problems rather than interpersonal issues.

● Type 2: the diverging style (concrete, reflective) emphasises concrete experience and reflective observation; is imaginative and aware of meanings and values; views concrete situations from many perspectives; adapts by observation rather than by action; interested in people and tends to be feeling-oriented.

● Type 3: the assimilating style (abstract, reflective) prefers abstract conceptualisation and reflective observation; likes to reason inductively and to create theoretical models; is more concerned with ideas and abstract concepts than with people; thinks it more important that ideas be logically sound than practical.

● Type 4: the accommodating style (concrete, active) emphasises concrete experience and active experimentation; likes doing things, carrying out plans and getting involved in new experiences; good at adapting to changing circumstances; solves problems in an intuitive, trial-and-error manner; at ease with people but sometimes seen as impatient and ‘pushy’

Kolb´s model

Figure 3The experientiallearning theoryof growthand development

Kolb´s model

Instruments:

● The Learning Style Inventory (LSI) (1976, 1985, 1999)

Examples:● I learn best from... (AC =rational theories... CE=personal relationships... AE= a

chance to try out and practice... RO=observation)

12 sentences

forced-choice method

Kolb´s model

Reliability:STRENGTHS:

● Changes to the instrument have increased its reliability

Validity:STRENGTHS:

WEAKNESSES:

● Long public dispute over reliability of LSI, the third version is still undergoing examination (Lam, 1997; Loo 1997; Newstead, 1992, cited by Coffield et al., 2004)

WEAKNESSES:

● The construct validity of the LSI has been challenged and the matter is not yet settled

● It has low predictive validity (Lam, 1997; Loo 1997; Newstead, 1992, cited by Coffield et al., 2004)

Kolb´s model

Implications for pedagogySTRENGTHS:

● In general, the theory claims to provide a framework for the design and management of all learning experiences.

● Teachers and students may be stimulated to examine and refine their theories of learning; through dialogue, teachers may become more empathetic with students.

● All students to become competent in all four learning styles (active, reflective, abstract and concrete) to produce balanced, integrated learners.

WEAKNESSES:

● The notion of a learning cycle may be seriously flawed.

● The implications for teaching have been drawn logically from the theory rather than from research findings.

● There is no evidence that „matching“ improves academic performance in further education.

Kolb´s model

Empirical evidence:

●Mc Neal & Dwyer (1999),

●Ehrhard (2000),

●Buch & Bartley (2000), cited by Coffield et al., 2004

Learning approaches and strategies

● contextual factors influence learners’ approaches and strategies and lead to a multifaceted view of teaching

● this emphasis encourages a broad approach to pedagogy that encompasses subject discipline, institutional culture, students’ previous experience and the way the curriculum is organized and assessed

● theorists within this family of learning research tend to eschew ‘styles’ in favor of ‘strategies’ and ‘approaches’ because previous ideas about styles promoted the idea of specific interventions either to ‘match’ existing styles or to encourage a repertoire of styles

● researchers within this family refer to underlying personality differences and relatively fixed cognitive characteristics

Vermunt´s framework for classifying learning styles

● the terms ‘approach to learning’ and ‘learning style’ are synonymous

● learning style is define as ‘a coherent whole of learning activities that students usually employ, their learning orientation and their mental model of learning’

● learning style is not conceived of as an unchangeable personality attribute, but as the result of the temporal interplay between personal and contextual influences’

● it deals not only with cognitive processing, but also with motivation, effort and feelings (and their regulation)

Vermunt´s framework for classifying learning styles

Four learning styles:

● meaning-directed

● application-directed ● reproduction-directed

● undirected

Vermunt´s framework for classifying learning styles

Each has distinguish features in five areas:

● the way in which students cognitively process learning contents (what students do)

● the learning orientations of students (why they do it)

● the affective processes that occur during studying (how they feel about it)

● the mental learning models of students (how they see learning)

● the way in which students regulate their learning (how they plan and monitor learning)

Vermunt´s framework for classifying learning styles

Table 4Vermunt's learning styleswith illustrations of theircomponents

Vermunt´s framework for classifying learning styles

Instrument:

The Inventory of Learning Styles (ILS)

● 120-item self rating instrument● 5-point Likert scales

Table 5Exemplar vignettes ofVermunt's four learning styles using ILS items

Table 6Exemplar vignettes ofVermunt's four learning styles using ILS items

Vermunt´s framework for classifying learning styles

Reliability:STRENGTHS:

● Three of the four main scales have a good internal consistency (cognitive processing, affective processes, mental model of learning)

Validity:STRENGTHS:

● Face and factorial validity

WEAKNESSES:

● The fourth scale (learning orientation) has a modest internal consistency (Boyle, Duffy & Dunleavy, 2003; Busato et al., 2000, cited by Coffield et al., 2004)

WEAKNESSES:

● It has low predictive validity (Boyle, Duffy & Dunleavy, 2003; Busato et al., 2000, cited by Coffield et al., 2004)

Vermunt´s framework for classifying learning styles

Implications for pedagogySTRENGTHS:

● It is dependent on context, ie a learning style is the interplay between personal and contextual influences.

● It provides a common language for teachers and learners to discuss and promote changes in learning and teaching.

● Emphasis not on individual differences, but on the whole teaching–learning environment.

–

WEAKNESSES:

● Little evidence so far of impact on pedagogy.

● It is not a strong predictor of learning outcomes.

Learning Styles

Resources: Index of learning styles (ILS)

http://www.ncsu.edu/felder-public/ILSpage.htmlLearning style resources

http://www.support4learning.org.uk/education/lstyles.htm Collfield, F., Moseley, D., Hall, E. & Ecclestone, E. (2004). Learning

styles and pedagogy in post-16 learning. A systematic and critical review. Learning and Skills Research Centre, London. Available: http://ferl.becta.org.uk/display.cfm?resID=7619

iClass deliverables on learning styles● Provides reference to comprehensive review and various

theoretical conceptions

ThankThank you for your attention!you for your attention!