UNIT 8. TEACHING AND LEARNING SUPPORTIVE STRATEGIES. VOCABULARY BUILDING jsp 2011-2012.
Learning Strategies 2012
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Transcript of Learning Strategies 2012
Faculty of Education
How to promote learning in the classroom
By
Zarina &
Nazatul Ashikin
2012
Abstract
Teaching has been recognised as one of the most important profession in the world where they make up
one of the largest career proportion in the public service industry. Teachers have great responsibility to
ensure students’ achievement in various ways where they are considered as having great influence over the
students in shaping their future and a country’s development. This article will explain further on the
methods and strategies used to promote learning in the classroom and to ensure that teaching is done in
most effective manner. The strategies used are usually tied to the needs and interests of students to enhance
learning and are based on many types of learning styles (Ekwensi, Moranski, &Townsend-Sweet, 2006).
Various Learning Domain and strategies such as Bloom Taxonomy and Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence
are discussed here to help promote the best approach of learning for students with diverse competency
level and capabilities. The article will further explain on Bloom Taxonomy which classifies the different
objectives set by educators for the students’ learning objectives. Three learning domains involved in the
process are described as cognitive, affective and psychomotor where each progress will depend on the
earlier attained prerequisite knowledge and skills acquired at lower levels. This approach will help
motivate educators to create a more holistic form of education by focussing on all learning domains. It
indicates the teaching strategy suitable for each level of performance where the results shows that more
passive learning methods is required for lower level of performance whereas action or learners’
involvement is more appropriate to stimulate higher level performers.
1.0 Introduction
Teaching has been recognised as one of the widest and most important profession in the world. As stated
by Harrison & Killion (2007), teacher leaders have ten crucial roles to ensure the success of teaching
objective. Apart from being a resource provider, teachers also act as instructional specialist, curriculum
specialist, classroom supporter, learning facilitator, mentor, school leader, data coach, catalyst for change
as well as a learner. Due to this extended and enhanced teaching roles, various research studies have been
conducted from time to time in trying to analyse and improve the education system in Malaysia and all
over the world over the years.
As such, the Malaysian Education Ministry has acclaimed the teaching profession as one of the core area
in the Education Development Master Plan (PIPP 2006-2010). This has then raised the effort to produce
highly educated teachers with degree where the special programme has been upgraded to of university
level such as the TESL, International Languages, Teachers with Degree and other similar programmes.
(Ruzain Syukur Mansor, 2008). The effort aims to strengthen the teaching trainings, build up the teaching
career, refine the work environment and welfare as well as enhancing the planning and management of the
human resource as strategies in further establishing the teaching careers. (PIPP 2006-2010).
In line with the various efforts done from to time to enhance public education, teachers are also trained to
provide better education in continuously improving teaching system environment to ensure that the
students learn and achieve well, along with enhancing the school’s image and prestige. Following this,
teachers are stimulated to initiate and devise various creative strategies to attract students’ to learn and
discover more in school classes.
2.0 Strategies To Promote Learning
Various Learning Styles
There are many various learning styles derived from a number of learning theories such as Gardner’s
Multiple Intelligence Theory, Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory, Dunn and Dunn learning Model as well as
Bloom’s Taxonomy. Despite the different and unique approaches in each theory, they all acknowledge the
different ways of human in learning things. Cuban (2004) highlighted Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
theory popularity as being widely adopted in learning theories in the field of education. Gardner (2003)
noted the nine different intelligences that human have, ranging from linguistic, logical mathematical, spatial,
bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, and, his most recent addition,
existentialist. Gardner (2003) believes that despite everyone’s dominance in one or two categories of
intelligence, they still have some level of competency in every other intelligence. Cuban (2004) stated how
educators have been applying this theory and approach of multiple intelligences of their students in the
traditional classroom setting. The advancements of technology and abundant amount of resources made
available to teachers’ today have led to an evolving learning styles to fit the modern learner’s technological life.
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence and Technology Utilisation
To further promote learning, teachers and instructors could promote learning by analysing the students’
best capability and highest competency aspect. The article will further discuss on the various aspects of
students’ competency level by utilising the current mass availability of various technology media as
outlined by Gardner Multiple Intelligence approach.
Linguistic Learners
Linguistic learners can be detected in excellent writers and speakers where they are also very expensive as
stated by McCoog (2007). Such students with highlighted ability could be encouraged to create podcasts,
blogs, wikis or even take part in online discussion boards (Johnson & Lamb, 2007 ; McCoog, 2007). They
could also be encouraged to create a video which will involve writing a script and dialogues.
Logical-Mathematical Learners
When teachers notice students who like to solve problems, organise data or even work with tangile
projects, they could be channelled to projects using the web to find answers and then put together a
solution to a problem such as to question on the fastest route or similar problems. Such students could be
directed to strategy games, problem solving software, spreadsheet programmes or even graphic organising
software like Inspiration. (Johnson & Lamb, 2007 ; McCoog, 2007).
Spatial Learners
McCoog (2007) further outlined how visual and creative learners also associated with spatial learners
usually are involved with interpretation and beauty where they are more suitable to related software
programmes and projects such as photo creating albums, digital stories, SketchUp Google where they will
more excel in. Visual math games and graphic software will turn harder concepts for concrete and rational
for visual learners (Johnson & Lamb, 2007 ; McCoog, 2007).
Musical Learners
As excellent listeners, musical learners can easily focus on rhythms and patterns where they can best
express themselves via auditory means (McCoog, 2007). As such, they could benefit most by creating or
even listening to podcasts and adding sounds or music to enhance the content. Working with programmes
related to music (playing instrument or composing software) will make them learn better. (Johnson &
Lamb, 2007 ; McCoog, 2007).
Bodily-Kinesthetic
Simulation and role-playing games, virtual field trips and video productions are most suitable for
kinesthetic learners who are very aware of their bodies. By acting out the content in the action activities,
this approach allows learners to have contact with the keyboard, mouse, joystick and other device during
the learning process.
Interpersonal
Possessing the ability to work well with others, interpersonal learners are very social, where they are aware
of the others’ feeling around them, making them good group leaders and motivators (McCoog, 2007). They
interact better with others in activities like discussion boards, collaborative wikis and online surveying
tools (Johnson & Lamb, 2007 ; McCoog, 2007) where they can also create presentations using the
computer software like Powerpoint to share with others.
Intrapersonal
Such learners are more towards the self-motivated, very self-aware and independent type (McCoog, 2007)
where they will learn better by writing blogs, working on independent research, playing single player
instructional games or even using any software independently (Johnson & Lamb, 2007 ; McCoog, 2007).
Naturalistic
As they like to make connections between content and the natural world, naturalistic learners associate
better in projects that allow students to document change over time, find correlation between ideas or map
content on a map beneficial to them. Excellent technological resources for naturalistic learners are such as
Photo journals, blogs, wikis, Google Earth and graphic organizing software. (Johnson & Lamb, 2007 ;
McCoog, 2007).
Existentialist
Teachers could help existentialist learners by letting them involve in tools such as email, chat and even
discussion boards to allow them to pose questions and talk them through with others as they enjoy
analysing why things work the way they do to know the big picture of things. Such learners may utilise
Web research, graphic organizing software, video production software, and presentation applications to let them
study their questions and present findings in interesting ways. (Johnson & Lamb, 2007; McCoog, 2007).
2.1 Teacher-Parent Communication
In order to improve the public education, researchers have diverted their studies to the successful schools’
planning and implementation that can be replicated by inferior schools in ensuring achievement throughout
time. Research found that one common trait shared by successful, responsive and productive schools are
that they encourage, solicite, facilitate and promote parental communication where parental involvement
and opinions are always welcomed and consulted. (Rick Lavoie, 2008). Lavoie (2008) further stressed on
the importance of proactive and consistent teacher-parent communication as being a most effective way in
improving the students’ learning and achievement in school. Special Education programmes for the
disabled for example, requires and heavily dependent on the quality and frequency of such communication
to ensure the child’s progress and success. Despite being time consuming and viewed as threat to some
teachers, research actually shows that such effective, responsive and well planned home/school
communication actually produces better scores, improved grades, more positive student attitudes, better
staff morale, less dropout rates and other positive results.
2.2 Active Learning
Another strategy to promote learning can also be done via active learning. In active learning method,
students are encouraged to actively engage in the classroom activities via reading, writing, talking,
listening and even reflecting what has been taught in the classroom during the day lesson. In contrast to
passive learning or teaching, students are expected to actively engage in the classroom activities to reflect
their understanding of the information disbursed by teachers in the class. Research indicates that
opportunities to clarify, question, apply and consolidate new knowledge is crucial in improving the overall
quality of teaching and learning and developing a better understanding of a subject. Teachers as instructors
help actively in guiding students to understand and apply information better during the learning process.
Other teaching strategies include creating group discussions, problem solving, case studies, role plays,
journal writing and structured learning groups which will benefit students via enhanced critical thinking
skill development process, increased retention and transfer of new information, improved interpersonal
skills andincreasedmotivation.(Retrievedfrom
http://www1.umn.edu/ohr/teachlearn/tutorials/active/what/index.html)
2.3 Basic Elements of Active Learning
Basic activities that form specific active learning strategies are categorised into four broad elements,
namely talking and listening, writing, reading and reflecting as stated earlier. During talking and listening
process, students will organise and reinforce what they have learned during the day when answering a
teacher’s question or even when explaining a point to another student. They also need reasons and
stimulations for listening such as some thought provoking lecture process by the teacher during the lesson
for them to grasp a point deeper. In the writing process, students will be forced to process new information
in their own words, hence pushing them to understand a subject matter better. Such technique is effective
in large classrooms where it also appeals to individual independent learning approach preference. On the
other hand, to grasp an effective reading process, students will engage in active learning exercises such as
writing summary and note checks to help them develop their understanding better and focus on the
important information. During the reflecting process, students will have time to reflect, connect and retain
the information they just gain by teaching each other or answering questions on the day topic. All these
strategies involving active learning classroom may be done either by individual, paired, informal small
groups or even in cooperative student projects activities. The teachers’ choice to promote this learning
strategies may depend on the size of the class, physical space available, learning objectives, amount of time
available and comfort level of the strategy selected.
2.4 Instructor Teaching Strategies
There are a number of ways and teaching methods that may help students focus and be more alert in the
classroom. Jim Wright (2001) elaborated the list of effective instructional practices as using various
approaches such as instructional match, scaffolding, step-by-step strategies, modelling and demonstration,
performance feedback, Opportunities to Drill & Practice to Strengthen Fragile Skills, Student 'Talk-
Through' Activities, Periodic Review and progress monitoring. The Instructional Match method may be
challenging to the students where they are taught at optimal instructional level to keep them confident and
invested in learning. Scaffolding method helps students master a new task and keep up with more advanced
learners by providing scaffolding support to each other via individual instructional modifications to
students where necessary. This approach also promote cooperative learning groups that pool group’s
knowledge to complete assignments faster and may also be aided by technological aids.
Another useful strategy is by using step by step method for complex, conceptually difficult or multi-step
academic operations. Students will be taught skills to break these operations down into simple steps where
the formula could be presented in a poster or handout forms for their reference later. The next strategy is
using modelling and demonstration where this method gives clearer instruction to students for better
understanding in learning their academic material or completing assignments. This strategy must be used
under supervision until the students really understand and are able to use them correctly. In performance
feedback method, students will be frequently encouraged and given opportunities to try their new skills
mastered with immediate corrective feedback and positive morale support. When they become more
proficient and are able to work independently, students should also be given a lot of opportunities to drill
and practise their newly acquired skills to strengthen it by engaging them in interesting game-like activities
such as coming up with real world, applied assignments or even incorporating themes or interested topics
as their practice sessions.
After the students have successfully learned a skill, teachers may create verbally active activities which
will let them explain aloud and announcing steps taken in describing their problem solving strategies, any
obstructions or roadblocks incurred as well as problem solving strategies in the ‘student talk-through
activities’ approach. Following that, students who have mastered a particular academic skill can be moved
on to a more advanced learning objective. However, to ensure that they actually retain the previously
mastered academic skills, students should be reminded to review the material periodically to keep them
abreast and sharp with their acquired academic skills. Finally, teachers may use several assessment
approaches such as curriculum-based assessment, accuracy and completeness of student assignemnt and
even activities such as talk-through demonstrations of problem-solving from time to time to verify that they
are making appropriate learning progress on regular basis.
2.5 Critical Thinking
Critical thinking is another effective strategy that can be used by instructors to help students develop
deeper understanding of a subject. In critical thinking approach, students will be encouraged to study a
topic or a problem with open-mindedness. To help advance the learning, instructors may guide students to
use a list of steps and guidelines in the following order. First they may develop a statement of the topic, list
what they have understood and been told including any relevant opinions about the topic, identify available
resources for further research, define the timelines and due dates and how it affect the development of their
study and finally printing the list for their own reference.
Source : dimurroa.wordpress.com Source : 1vigor.com
Alec Fischer (2001) defined critical thinking skills as critico-creative thinking sills where the teaching
skills expressly aims to facilitate the transfer to other subjects and other contexts by developing the
person’s creativity critically. Also called ‘transferable thinking skills’, Fischer (2001) values the critical
thinking skills as to its ability to being transferable and extended into various contexts during the learning
process. As displayed on the above diagrams, critical thinking skills involve five to six steps such as
analysing, reasoning, inferencing, evaluating, problem solving, decision making and interpretating. In its
classic definition, John Dewey (1909) who was regarded as father of modern critical thinking, also referred
it as reflective thinking which involve active, persistent and careful consideration of a suppposed form of
knowledge in the light of the grounds which support it and the further conclusions to which it tends
(Dewey, 1909, p.9). Glaser (1941, p.5) further extended and categorised critical thinking in three broad
contexts, namely as an attitude of being disposed to consider in a thoughtful way the problems and subjects
that come within the range of one’s experience, as a knowledge of the methods of logical enquiry and
reasoning as well as some skill involved in applying those methods. According to him, critical thinking
calls for a persistent effort to examine any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the
evidence that supports it and the further conclusions to which it tends. Fischer (2001) further concluded the
critical thinking skills as a skillful activity that meets various intellectual standards such as clarity,
relevance, adequacy, coherence and others. Applying this skill, he believes students will be find it helpful
and notice the importance of this method in most appropriate situations as it involves various stimulating
stages from reasoning to analysing and finally arriving to the best decisions and conclusions.
3.0 Bloom Taxonomy – Types of Learning
In order for teachers to promote learning and teach more effectively, Benjamin Bloom (1956) has
introduced and identified three domains of educational activities, namely from the cognitive, affective to
the psychomotor aspect of human capability. Dubbed as an incredible teaching tool, Bloom’s Taxonomy
assist teachers to guide students through the cognitive learning process where the focus on all three
domains has made it a more holistic form of education. (Wikipedia). For an effective learning, Bloom
categorise the six levels of reasoning skills ranging from the knowledge, comprehension, application,
analysis, synthesis to the evaluation dimension. Here, teachers have to approach students from the three
different domains, namely the cognitive aspect which is related to mental skills and knowledge, the
affective aspect concerning growth in feelings or emotional areas, also related to attitudes and also from the
psychomotor aspect, which is related to the manual or physical skills. This taxonomy of learning behaviors
can be thought of as “the goals of the learning process” where after a learning episode, the learner should
have acquired new skills, knowledge, and/or attitudes.
Bloom (1956) states that the cognitive domain involves knowledge and the development of intellectual
skills which include the recall or recognition of specific facts, concepts and even procedural patterns that
serve in the development of the intellectual abilities and skills. The six major categories involved begins
from the simplest to the most complex order, also referred to as the degree of difficulties where it requires
mastering the knowledge or skills before pacing to another step. The affective domain (Krathwohl, Bloom,
Masia, 1973) concerns with the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values,
appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. Same with the other domains, the psychomotor
aspect which includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas also list all the
seven major categories from the simplest to the most complex behaviour. Again, the development of these
skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in
execution.
Specific Active Learning Strategies
To attract students to learn and focus in the classroom, teachers could also use specific techniques to
develop their interest in the subject. There are various techniques that can be used in the classroom such as
using leading question, in puzzle or contradiction form, insight, empathy, mind mapping, cognitive
analogies and so on.
4.0 Active Learning Techniques
Leading question
A question so framed as to guide the student questioned to respond with a particular obvious answer. This
answer is then explored in further depth which may ultimately conclude with an answer that was not so
explicit, or one that fosters cognitive dissonance, moral challenging, or self-questioning on the part of the
student.
Puzzle, enigma, contradiction
Information presented to student that is accurate, but is either incomplete, ambiguous, or paradoxical in
nature.
Insight, epiphany
The capacity to discern the inward or hidden nature of things or of perceiving in an intuitive manner. A
comprehension or perception of a topic by means of a sudden intuitive realization.
Empathy
Identification with and understanding of another's situation, feelings, and motives. The attribution of one's
own feelings to a situation or person in a story.
Connecting a topic
Pointing out similarities between the topic to be studied and one that is more contemporary, more familiar,
or more interesting to your students.
Stereotype, conventional wisdom
A conventional, formulaic, and oversimplified conception, opinion, or image that often stands in for reality.
These can be explored further by examining them in more complexity, in different contexts, or analyzing
the rationales/origins for the stereotypes in the first place.
Challenges to knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes
Devil’s advocate: to argue against a cause or position not as a committed opponent but purely in order to
provoke a discussion or argument, or to determine the validity of the cause or position.
Focused questioning:
Questioning designed to extract the underlying assumptions, situatedness, or logical construction of a
cause, position, or opinion.
Poll, pretest
A poll is a survey conducted about a topic by asking questions that can be answered by yes/no or
agree/disagree. These generally give quick collective feedback which can influence the ensuing
instruction, although it is usually not detailed in nature and does not assess individual student perceptions.
A pretest is an examination given before the instruction that tests what students will be expected to know
after the instruction. It enables instructors to know what kinds of initial knowledge and misconceptions
students have when they begin the module of instruction.
Brainstorming
A method of collaborative problem solving in which all members of a group spontaneously contribute
ideas, or a similar process undertaken by an individual to solve a problem by rapidly generating and
recording a variety of possible solutions.
Collaborative listing and ranking
A group process by which members determine determine the individual aspects or elements of a task or
concept, and then prioritize them or place them in a hierarchical order.
Mind mapping
A strategic process involves writing down a central idea and thinking up new and related ideas which
radiate out from the centre. By focusing on key ideas written down in your own words, and then looking
for branches out and connections between the ideas, you are mapping knowledge in a manner which will
help you understand and remember new information.
Concept mapping is a technique for representing knowledge in graphs. Knowledge graphs are networks of
concepts. Networks consist of nodes and links. Nodes represent concepts and links represent the relations
between concepts. Concepts and sometimes links are labeled. Links can be non-, uni- or bi-directional.
Concepts and links may be categorized, they can be simply associative, specified or divided in categories
such as causal or temporal relations. Concept mapping can be done to generate ideas, to design a complex
structure (long texts, hypermedia, large web sites, etc., to communicate complex ideas, to aid learning by
explicitly integrating new and old knowledge, or to assess understanding or diagnose misunderstanding.
Visual webs are concept maps that may also contain images, different ways of visually constructing
relationships (such as Venn diagrams instead of points and lines), and explanatory textual material.
Cognitive analogies Students are encouraged to imagine multiple ways in which an idea, fact,
explanation, procedure, etc. could be understood. How, for example, might a painter represent Darwin’s
ideas about kin selection? Or, how might the musicological structure of a Beethoven violin sonata be
realized with tinker toys? Or, how might
Oedipal conflicts serve to represent the confinement of negative electrical charge to specific nuclear
orbitals?
Instructor-created charts, matrices, flowcharts, models
Visually-inspired representations of concepts which enable students to approach the material in more
concrete ways. These generally not only include the concepts themselves, but also ways in which they can
be ranked, prioritized, compared, contrasted, and understood in context.
Student-created charts, matrices, flowcharts, models
Students are encouraged to build charts, matrices, flowcharts, and models as contexts for extending their
understanding of key course-specific concepts. This sort of exercise encourages students to ask questions
like “What would a good model look like? How should the model actually be constructed? What are the
strengths and weaknesses of the model?” Computers provide an excellent resource for this sort of work
(SimCity is a nice example of a commercial product that enables multi-level modeling of techno-socio-
political problems, ideas, issues, etc.).
5.0 Promote Teaching in a Diverse Classroom.
Knowing who your students are, as a group and as individuals, is an important part of
good teaching. In recent years, higher education in general, have become increasingly
diverse. The variety of students is far greater, and their needs are very different, than in the
past. This part will consider how to teach effectively in an environment of diverse learners. If
you wish to facilitate the learning process of students with a variety of backgrounds and
needs, the following points are important:
• Treat all students as individuals with unique strengths, weaknesses, and needs rather than as
generalized representatives of particular racial, ethnic or cultural groups.
• Employ a variety of teaching styles to respond to the needs of diverse learners.
• Create an open classroom that values the experiences and perspectives of all students.
Diversity: In Higher Education
Colleges and universities have become, in recent years, increasingly diverse institutions. Van
Note Chisom (1999) identifies the following trends to illustrate this point:
• Older students (those outside of the traditional 17- to 22-year-old age range) now make up more than
half of student population in higher education.
• Nationally, women account for 54 percent of bachelor’s degree students.
• The presence of minority students is growing, led by Asian Americans and Hispanic Americans.
• Gay, lesbian and bisexual students are becoming more vocal about their presence and their needs.
• Students with learning or physical disabilities are being identified more frequently.
What these facts and figures show is that learners come to us with many different experiences, many
different ways of seeing the world, and many different learning needs. Teaching in such an
environment can be challenging. But if you understand yourself and your students, it also can be
very rewarding.
Learning Styles in a Diverse Classroom
Eddy (1999) describes a learning style as the way in which we prefer to organize, classify and
assimilate information about the environment. That is, how do we like to learn?
There is a great deal written on learning styles – and probably as many theories as there are
writers on the subject. However, in their most basic form, there are three main learning styles
(Eddy):
Auditory learners prefer to receive ideas and information by hearing them. These students may
struggle with reading and writing, but excel at memorizing spoken words such as song lyrics. They
often benefit from discussion-based classes and the opportunity to give oral presentations.
• Visual learners prefer to receive information by seeing it. Typically these students pay much
attention to detail. They are less likely to speak in class than their auditory peers, and generally use
few words when they do. Outlines, graphs, maps and pictures are useful in helping these students
learn.
• Kinaesthetic-Tactile learners tend to learn best via movement and touch. These students are often
labelled “hyperactive” because they tend to move around a great deal. Because they like movement,
they may take many notes and learn best when allowed to explore and experience their environment.
It is important to note that the various styles are those preferred by learners. If we looked at complete
descriptions of each style, we would probably see some of ourselves in each. But we could also probably
identify our dominant style. The fact that we learn in many ways is further justification for utilizing variety
of teaching approaches is so important.
Understanding learning styles can help you create more inclusive classrooms where everyone has a chance
to succeed. For instance, a student from a culture that teaches children to listen quietly in a classroom (or a
visual learner who is uncomfortable with speaking) can be at a disadvantage when a portion of the grade is
based on participation in class. Sensitive teachers can allow for group work during class to create smaller,
safer environments for these students to speak and for their classroom performance to be evaluated. TIPS
Understanding Diverse Students
Students from different cultures, backgrounds and educational environments learn in distinctly different
ways. Be aware that the way you learned best might not be the way that other students will learn -- or that all
students learn in the manner(s) you did. For more information on specific differences in student learning and
development, a number of fine summaries of different ways students learn and develop during their
collegiate experiences are available, including Evans, Forney, and Guido-DiBrito,1998; Moore, 1990;
Pascarella and Terenzini, 1991.
Students’ Special Needs
Some students will have unique challenges that make learning in a traditional classroom difficult. Examples
include visual or hearing impairments, Attention Deficit Disorder, mobility challenges, chronic illness (such
as that brought about by chemotherapy), and learning disabilities.
There are many possible accommodations that help to create a productive learning environment
for these students. It may be necessary for a student with a hearing impairment to have an inter-
preter present, for instance. A student with a chronic illness may need you to be flexible about
the due dates for assignments.
Below are suggestions to consider when you work with students with special needs:
• Even though two students may have the same disability, their needs for accommodation may be quite
different. Treat each student as an individual.
• Keep in mind that disabilities are not always visible to us. You are not required to assess a student’s
health; you should accept authorized documentation concerning an individual student’s needs.
• Using many modes (written, verbal, video/slide, etc.) to present information is one way to help some
learners with special needs learn more effectively.
Tips on Teaching in a Diverse Classroom
Our students are diverse in their cultures and ethnicity, their experiences, their learning styles, and
many other dimensions. And all of these dimensions shape who they are and how they learn.
Effective teachers understand this and use a variety of teaching methods to promote student learn-
ing. Below are some basic tips on how to teach effectively in a diverse learning environment:
• Having a “color-blind” classroom is probably neither possible nor a good idea. Trying to do so
inevitably privileges a particular perspective (usually that of the teacher) and fails to recognize the
experiences and needs of the learners. It is preferable to use strategies that recognize and capitalize on this
diversity.
• Appreciating the individuality of each student is important. While generalizations sensitize us to
important differences between groups, each individual student has unique values, perspectives, experiences
and needs.
• Articulate early in the course that you are committed to meeting the needs of all students and that you
are open to conversations about how to help them learn.
18
As teachers, it is important that we recognize our own learning styles and cultural
assumptions, because these styles and assumptions influence how we teach and what we
expect from our students. Being aware of them allows us to develop a more inclusive teaching
style.
As you plan your course, and each class, prepare multiple examples to illustrate your points.
Try to have these examples reflect different cultures, experiences, sexual orientations,
genders, etc., to include all students in learning.
Help students move between abstract, theoretical knowledge and concrete, specific
experiences, to expand everyone’s learning.
Use different teaching methods (lectures, small groups, discussions, collaborative learning) to
meet the variety of learning needs.
Promoting Effective Learning in a Multicultural Classroom.
Cultural diversity in society, the workplace and classrooms in Australia is a fact of life.The multi-
cultural classroom provides an opportunity for students from different cultures to bring their
enormous range of experiences, knowledge, perspectives and insights to the learning – if the
process is enabled. This is not always easy to do.This paper outlines part of a one year project
which will draw on the literature,interviews with teaching staff and focus groups of ‘best practice’
teachers, to present some practical strategies for the effective teaching of business disciplines. The
student perspective will be incorporated in the next stage of the project. A number of assumptions
underpin the research and the development of this paper.
• Australian classes use Western teaching and learning strategies that focus on critical
analysis, oral discussion, problem solving and the possibility of multiple solutions.
• The classes are made up of students from a wide number of cultures, including
English speaking Australians.
• Many of the students have a language other than English as their mother tongue.
• Organisations around the world, and therefore students, work in increasingly
culturally and linguistically diverse work places and many will operate
internationally. The capacity to work with people who are different is important for
all students to learn.
19
“You learn from foreigners that there is more than one path to a goal. Effective wealth creation
demands that we use all the paths available to us “ (Hampden-Turner & Trompenaaars, 1993:16,
cited in Sinclair and Wilson 1999:27)
• Teaching practices that assist the learning of international students will in fact be of
benefit to all students.
The paper identifies a number of issues related to effective teaching in multi cultural
business classrooms at universities, it addresses the potential barriers to effective
learning, the challenges to teachers and offers a range of strategies that have been
demonstrated to improve teaching and learning in this context and outlines the processes
for building on current knowledge to improve the quality of teaching in multicultural
classrooms.
Promoting Effective Learning in a Multicultural Classroom.
The teaching and learning implications of such a large,very diverse international student population
has yet to be addressed at most institutions of higher education.
These international students may want to understand the ‘Western’ way of doing things,but may not
be familiar or comfortable with, the processes used to facilitate learning. (Pincas 2001) MBA
classrooms traditionally use a range of Western teaching and learning strategies that focus on
critical analysis, oral discussion, problem solving and the possibility of multiple solutions using
case studies and discussion groups that require active participation by the students, which many
international students find unfamiliar. These students come with their own expectations arising
from the educational practices of their communities. Their potential lack of participation in
classroom activities puts constraints on classroom interaction and learning. It also means that
nothing that they have to teach about their way of doing things is learned. The potential benefits of
diversity are many. Not only do international students bring significant revenue to the university but
they provide an opportunity for intercultural learning, for a sharing of knowledge and perspectives
that could be so important for success in today’s global business environment. Yet research
suggests that cultural engagement is largely unidirectional – Australian students expect international
students to adjust to them, not vice versa. (cited in Marginson 2002). An important question then
arises, how do the facilitators of learning, the teachers, lecturers and tutors ensure effective teaching
and learning in such a complex environment?
20
In classrooms with students from Europe, North and South America, Asia, India and Australia the
potential for intercultural understanding and skills development is enormous. But it won’t happen
without assistance. Most international students spend most of their time with other students who
speak their language or who come from a similar cultural background. Australians are not different
in this respect. Therefore many international students who come to study in Australia, learn about
Australian business practices in the classroom but gain no practical experience of what Australian
business, or in fact Australians, are like.
All of these factors impact on providing effective learning experiences to all students in
culturally diverse classrooms.
The project
Early discussion with staff in the Brisbane Graduate School of Business led to the identification of a
number of perceived barriers to learning and strategies to overcome these barriers and improve
learning outcomes, particularly for international students. To explore these issues further and
develop strategies to improve the support to international students and the internationalisation of the
curriculum throughout the
Faculty of Business
This fellowship aimed to:
1. Develop a better understanding of the issues of teaching and learning in diverse classrooms from
the perspective of both teaching staff and students.
2. Identify best practice and effective strategies in facilitating positive learning outcomes for
international students.
3. Develop resources that illustrate ‘best practice’ in teaching post-graduate classes that are a mix of
domestic and international students.
4. Provide learning opportunities for staff that promote more effective teaching and learning in
diverse classrooms
5. Disseminate outcomes through publications and workshops. This paper looks at the issues from
the ‘best practice’ perspective and offers ideas from the staff and the literature to improve the
teaching and learning in culturally diverse classrooms.
Methods
The approach taken was largely inductive, gathering as much evidence as possible about the topic,
with nothing ruled out, using individual interviews and focus groups. Through the inductive
21
process, it is possible to identify issues that have not previously been identified in the existing
literature. The interviews of staff started with a general formulation of the potential issues gained
from previous experience and the literature,but this is general in nature, and did not start with a
theory or an hypothesis. As Miles and Huberman (1984) comments “any researcher, no matter how
unstructured or inductive, comes to fieldwork with some orienting ideas, foci and tools.” (Page 27).
Semi-structured interviews with teaching staff who have involvement with international students
were conducted. The fairly relaxed conversational nature of the interviews enabled whatever issues
were raised, to be explored. However, the interviews did have some of the characteristics of
ethnographic interviews in that the interviewee was informed of the purpose of the interview and
the interviewer had control of the interview, asking questions and probing the person’s responses.
(Potter, page 96).The purpose was to get an idea of the nature of the issues teachers saw as
confronting international students and the teaching strategies/techniques they have found the most
helpful. The staff were asked to identify what they considered to be the critical issues for effective
teaching and learning in their classrooms and the strategies they have found most effective in
delivering good learning outcomes. A random sample of QUT Faculty of Business was selected and
contacted with the support of the Associate Dean. In addition a focus group of ‘interested’ teachers
was conducted, who shared their ideas about the issues and their strategies for enhancing teaching
and learning. The 4 teachers in the focus group came from the Schools of International Business
and the Brisbane Graduate School of Business. They were self selecting in that they accepted an
invitation that was sent to a number of ‘recommended’ teachers to share their perceptions and
strategies.
Nature of the respondents.
The sample proved to be very diverse and reflected the diversity of the teaching staff in the Faculty
of Business. Twelve of the respondents were full-time, 3 casual. All but 1 teach undergraduate
students, 8 also teach post graduate students. One teaches postgraduate only. The length of
experience of respondents varied considerably from 1 to 33 years. The range of disciplines taught
was also very diverse and included: marketing, advertising, organisational behaviour,
entrepreneurship, internet promotions, international business, cross cultural communication, project
management, strategic management, economics, business law, ethics, accounting, banking, finance,
management. This suggests that the staff are teaching across very diverse disciplines, with the
different issues raised by both quantitative and ‘human focused’ disciplines. The range of class
sizes common in the Faculty was also reflected. Most respondents operated in both the large lecture
scenario with classes of 100-500 and the smaller tutorial classes of between 20-25. Post-graduate
classes ranged from 10- 40 students.
22
The percentage of international students in the classes varied from 10% to as much as 75%. Two
respondents also taught classes that were exclusively international. Most of the classes appear to
have between 25% and 40% international students.
Issues Raised by the presence of international students
The staff interviewed identified a range of issues that need to be addressed for effective teaching
and learning to occur. All issues are not present in all situations but there was considerable
similarities in what teachers saw to be the issues.
The issues identified by the respondents included:
Personal issues created by the fact that they were far from familiar environments such a home
sickness, culture shock and associated grief and stress created by family
expectations.
Language issues, which were very diverse and included such factors as: language barriers, very low
English language ability for a minority, the broad range of discipline specific language/concepts
that is often difficult to grasp. These language-related issues raised particular challenges for
teachers including: the choice of words becomes important particularly the use of colloquial
language, pace needs to be slower and it is often difficult to know whether the problem is language
or ability. Ability to write academic papers is often poor. Contextual issues are also important
Teaching and learning issues. These appear to differ a little between undergraduate and post
graduate levels – or at least appear more prevalent at undergraduate level. Undergraduates are often
very quiet and tend not to listen to instructions, need to be checked individually. They need a lot
more time than domestic students. Students want ‘templates’ which is inappropriate at particularly
at post-graduate level. It can appear that they come to pass exams rather than learn. International
students want face-to-face contact with lecturers rather than electronic/telephone contact and this is
very time consuming. There appears to be a lack of shared expectations as a result perhaps of
cultural difference in past educational experiences. There can limited interaction/discussion in class.
It is important to have integration between international and domestic students but this can be
difficult and can lead to international students ‘free riding’ when in mixed groups with domestic
students.
At post graduate level international students are a resource that can be drawn on to add
professionally and culturally to the group. This is very important as we need to have global business
education to develop global business skills. However, providing an international context can be
seen to be criticizing other systems – causing offence. Previous experiences of learning for many
23
international students leads them to not challenge the information they are given. They seek the
‘right answer’. They are trained as the recipients of learning rather than active learners. They want
to be clear about what is expected, what is right. Often there is the expectation that the teacher will
know the right answer and all they have to do is learn it from. They will accept ‘the teacher’s truth’.
This is most apparent amongst students from Asian countries – but they are not the only students
who exhibit dependent behaviour. Many students appear to be unfamiliar with the expectations of
critical analysis, oral presentations, participation and debate.
Many cultures have a high level of respect for teachers. As a result they will not challenge. Even to
ask questions can suggest that the lecturer is not being effective.
This is most obvious amongst students from Asia but again these attitudes are shared by students
from other countries. One Swiss student remarked that all through his undergraduate degree he had
very little contact with the academic staff, and when he did it was on a very formal footing. One of
the greatest changes for him was the fact that here he was expected to address the lecturers by their
first names and had an opportunity to meet them socially. Indian students have shared how difficult
they found it to address their lecturers by their first names. “if a lecturer does not answer a student’s
question in class but asks the other students what they think, in my country we would think that
teacher is either poorly qualified or lazy. But in Australia this way of not giving the answer …it is
common in our class, even when the Professor is our teacher. (3rd year Thai Botany student)
(Ballard & Clanchy 1997:1) “the other students ask many questions and even argue with the
professor. I could never do that, because I do not think that is right behaviour. I do not want to
become like Australian students. (2nd year Thai undergraduate) (Ballard and Clanchy 1997:15)
Support issues were seen to be important in a number of areas. There is a need for students to
support each other to reduce isolation. There is also a need for institutional support for students,
both academically and socially. It is important that lecturers have access to information outlining
what support services are available for international students.
Professional Development Issues. Lecturers need better education/training with regard
to international students. This is essential if promises are to be delivered.
Group work. The integration of domestic with internationals students in groups is often
difficult because of language difficulties and time pressures. The difficulties with
tutorials and group work require lecturing /tutorial staff to have patience, firmness and
understanding.
Individual ability. Some international students lack English language and the academic foundation
to do well; they are not confident in using English and are not capable of the required academic
level. They are not taught the required academic skills, they are expected to have them.
Demands on lecturing/tutorial staff. The respondents identified a number of different
24
demands placed on them when they have international students in their classes.
Lack of contextual knowledge can be a problem in both teaching and assessment, as it
can make understanding more difficult. Students need longer for examinations.
The presence of international students can also curb the amount of material that can be covered, the
amount of participation and discussion that occurs. It can lead to being less specific in trying to
globalise the issues. More repetition and explanation is required and there is a need to be careful
with choice of words. It is often difficult to know at what level to pitch the class and this can lead to
a tendency to teach to the lowest level of domestic student. International students often appear to be
passive learners and there is a need to choose learning resources and activities carefully and
consider different types of assessment.
Strategies
So given what is known about learning and the issues that arise when this level of cultural diversity
is present, the respondents were asked to identify what teaching and learning strategies they used to
encourage participation and success on Western programs? Here are the strategies that they and the
focus groups identified as being effective in culturally diverse classrooms. These need to be
employed from the beginning of the class as the first few weeks are critical, as if international
students fall behind they are unable to catch up.
Be aware of stereotyping. Avoid prejudging others’ knowledge or ability, even their language skills,
on the basis of presumed difference – someone who looks Chinese may turn out to be third
generation Australian. Recently a colleagues came into a day classes and commented that the class
had divided down the middle with Asian on one side and Australians on the other. From an
appearance point of view there was a difference. However, several of the ‘Asians’ were in fact
Australian and most of the ‘Australians’ were from Europe.
Don’t be afraid to ask for help in pronouncing names, in finding out about how things
are done in a different place. By asking you are indicating a genuine interest.
Make the material relevant. Most international students will use what they learn in their own
countries so acknowledge this. Talk about their countries as an integral part of the discourse. Ask
them to contribute local information. Draw in class examples from different countries and ask
students to identify what, how, it occurs in their homeland.
Provide a context. When talking about government – clarify whether everyone has a shared
understanding? If there is no time to explain the context, produce handout with
a glossary of terms (This may help some local students as well).
Make explicit the benefits of diversity. In encouraging participation, explain why cross cultural
groups are useful for an activity. This is important for both international students and domestic
25
students. Domestic students are often impatient with those who are slow with their English, and the
reasons for them to participate should also be clearly spelled out. Be explicit as to why it is
important for them to be able to participate. They are learning how it is done in the local culture.
Ask them to share,wherever possible, how it is done in their culture. One lecturer in the Graduate
School when he offers an example will ask for students to provide similar examples from at least
two other countries.
Practice good communication in the classroom. Avoid acronyms, jargon or ‘local’
jokes. This will help all students. Practice active and genuine listening. Try not to be
impatient and give those who try to express themselves an opportunity to complete what they have
to say. Prepare written material that they can refer to can help them clarify that they understand the
instructions. When taking feedback from the groups write the answers, conclusions, ideas on the
board so that the students can see how the ideas given by members of the group interrelate. This
also gives these answers credibility.
There are students who do not recognise the importance/validity of their fellow students’
observations.
Process instructions.
Explain very clearly why a participative activity is important, and exactly what the students are to
do. Explain the process not just the outcome. If the activity is group discussion, give them clear
questions to answer. The more specific about the requirements, particularly early on, the more self
confident the students will
become and the more willing to participate.
Recognise language difficulties Give people time to answer questions. Don’t ask
students to answer questions without notice. Give them time to work out their answer.
Small group work in class appears to work well. Asian students are often very good at
working in small groups. They can prepare their feedback so have time to manage the
language. Sometimes the teacher can move around the groups so that they can give the feedback to
them in that small environment, before they have to present back to the larger group. Relate the
issues being discussed to the specific place in the text, for ease of access to those who are slow at
reading English.
Clearly set out expectations. Clarify your expectations so that they match with the
students’ expectations. Use a marking criteria sheet for assignments. This will assist all students to
learn from their mistakes. Explain how the assessment works and what the expectations are.
Important to explain and discuss plagiarism. Also ensure they have the necessary data collection
skills for the assessment type that you are setting.
26
Recognising age and experience. At post graduate level the difference is one of work
experience and maturity rather than nationality – some lecturers stream according to
work experience others deliberately mix and explain the reason for mixing.
Supplementary tutorials – these can be on any topic from study skills to understanding statistics.
They are open to everyone, but are used largely by international students.
Glossary of terms so that students can ensure an understanding of unfamiliar terms. The aural
component is also important. Students may understand what the word means when they read it, but
not recognise it when spoken. If such a glossary could be oral as well as written this may assist.
Use of Activities. Discussion groups around important content work well. A ‘getting to know you
activity’ can help break the ice and encourage integration between different groups.
Conclusions
All of these strategies are currently being used successfully, and the search for more ideas is a
continuous one. Being as inclusive as possible is important – if talking about cities, mention cities
from around the world. When discussing theories, provide the cultural context for the theory and
then ask students to think about their own context, and express a view. They won’t always answer –
but the issue is raised in a way that gives importance to their context. Small groups appear to
encourage discussion. The importance of inter-cultural communication and activity – the fact that in
today’s business world every one will have to deal with people from different countries and
cultures must be explicit. The classroom provides a safe environment for developing skills in this
area. Although there is much more work to do the results so far have been promising. Lecturers
using these strategies appear to have far less difficulty with domestic students complaining about
international students in group work activity. When the students form groups for any activity it
appears taken for granted that diversity is important.The ability of international students to use
acceptable analytical processes appears to be growing. At the end of the interviews respondents
were asked if participation in the interviews had changed their view about international students in
any way. Some of the respondents appear particularly relevant “I don’t know how to deal with these
issues.” “At the workplace comments about international students are largely negative – the
interview provided an opportunity to see them in a more positive light. There appears to be an
unfair distribution of resources – international fee income does not appear to be distributed in a way
that impacts on the quality of the teaching and learning process. With the fast evolving technology,
teachers could also make use of the correct technology and match it with the students’ competency
level and interest to continue and successfully reach their students in a technological world. The
biggest challenge is however, to encourage staff to develop the attitudes and skills to implement
27
these strategies, and to recognise that this will assist not only their students but also make their jobs
more fulfilling.
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