Learning Objectives:Learning Objectives:To recognize the elements of an argument.

To recognize types of arguments.

To evaluate arguments.To recognize errors in logical reasoning.

Parts of an Parts of an ArgumentArgument

1. ISSUE - problem or controversy about which people disagree

2. CLAIM - the position on the issue3. SUPPORT - reasons and

evidence that the claim is reasonable and should be accepted

4. REFUTATION/COUNTER CLAIM - opposing viewpoints

5. CONCLUSION – end essay with a final thought and restatement of the issue and claim.

Types of Claims:Types of Claims:1. CLAIM OF VALUE - states that

one thing or idea is better or more desirable than another. Ex: “Requiring community service in high school will produce more community-aware graduates.”

2. CLAIM OF POLICY - suggests what should or ought to be done to solve a problem. Ex:“To reduce school violence, more gun and metal detectors should be installed in public schools.”

Types of Support:Types of Support:REASON - a general statement that supports a claim.

EVIDENCE - consists of facts, statistics, experiences, comparisons, and examples that show why the claim is valid.

EMOTIONAL APPEALS - ideas that are targeted toward needs or values that readers are likely to care about.

Audience AppealAudience AppealPathos: Emotional Appeal = Appeals to the HEARTCommercials Fundraising Campaigns

Ethos: Ethical Appeal = Based on the writer’s authority, credibility and expertiseAdvertising using expert testimonyDoctors prescribing treatment

Logos: Logical Appeal = Appeals to reasoning and logic; include facts, statistics, etc. that cannot be refutedHave sound and proven evidence for argumentEmploys the use of inductive and deductive reasoning

Inductive vs. Deductive Inductive vs. Deductive ReasoningReasoningInductive: an argument in which it is thought

that the premises provide reasons supporting the probable truth of the conclusion. In an inductive argument, the premises are intended only to be so strong that, if they are true, then it is unlikely that the conclusion is false.

Deductive: an argument in which it is thought that the premises provide a guarantee of the truth of the conclusion. In a deductive argument, the premises are intended to provide support for the conclusion that is so strong that, if the premises are true, it would be impossible for the conclusion to be false.

Inductive and Deductive Inductive and Deductive Arguments:Arguments:

INDUCTIVE - reaches a general conclusion from observed specifics.

Ex. “By observing the performance of a large number of athletes, you could conclude that athletes possess physical stamina.”

Inductive and Deductive Inductive and Deductive ArgumentsArguments

DEDUCTIVE - begins with a major premise and moves toward a more specific statement or minor premise.

Ex: “Athletes possess physical stamina. Because Anthony is an athlete, he must possess physical stamina.”

Errors in Logic – Not Errors in Logic – Not ALL Arguments are ALL Arguments are Good Ones!Good Ones!

Sometimes, arguments are not logical, the evidence or reasoning provided doesn’t “prove” anything valid. These are arguments for the sake of arguments.

Errors in Logical Errors in Logical Reasoning: Reasoning: Commonly called Commonly called logical fallacies invalidate the logical fallacies invalidate the argument or render argument argument or render argument flawed.flawed.Circular Reasoning/Begging the

Question: Argument continues without proof/reason. Ex: “Female police officers should not be sent to crime scenes because apprehending criminals is a man’s job.”

Hasty Generalization: Conclusion derived from insufficient evidence. Ex: “Because one apple is sour, all of them in the bowl must be sour.”

More Errors in Logical More Errors in Logical Reasoning:Reasoning:Non Sequitur (“It Does Not Follow”):“Because my doctor is young, I’m sure she’ll be a good doctor.”

False Cause: The effect could have more than one cause, therefore the argument’s not necessarily true. Ex. “Because I opened the umbrella when I tripped on the sidewalk, the umbrella must have caused me to trip.”

Either-Or Fallacy: There is more than one reason behind this; the evidence doesn’t support it. Ex: “Because of the violence, TV must be either allowed or banned.”

Now that you know HOW speakers use persuasive techniques to get an audience’s attention, see if you can analyze and explain how one of our nation’s greatest speakers won millions of Americans…

Define the following Define the following terms:terms:Archaic: No longer in everyday use but sometimes

used to impart an old-fashioned flavor.Allusion: Reference to some thing, person or event

in literature or history.Metaphor: Comparison of two unlike things to

establish a better understanding of something.Homonym: Two words that sound/are spelled alike

and have two different meanings.Tone: The attitude with which a speaker addresses

an audience.Mood: The emotional quality the speaker intends to

evoke.Repetition: Using the same words or phrase

repeatedly to make a point or to connect ideas.Audience Appeal: The quality of being attractive to

an audience in appearance, rhetoric or emotional assertion.

Martin Luther King Jr.Martin Luther King Jr.

Who was he?What issues did he address?What historical events were going on during his time?

Why is he so famous?How educated was he?What was he able to accomplish?

First, read and analyze for First, read and analyze for historical context::1. Name of speaker: Date of Speech:2. Title of Speech:3. Intended Audience:4. Topics/Issues:5. What is he trying to tell the audience

regarding these issues?6. What problem is he addressing?7. What solution is he proposing?8. What is the tone of the speech?9. What mood does King establish?10. How does he employ the use of pathos,

logos and ethos?

Application to the Stasis Application to the Stasis Theory:Theory:1.1. FactsFacts (conjecture): What facts does the

speaker refer to that let the audience know what the problem is? What is the problem?

2.2. Meaning of the issue Meaning of the issue (definition): What, specifically, is the issue being addressed? Define it to the best of your ability.

3.3. Seriousness of the issue Seriousness of the issue (quality): How important is the issue being addressed? How does he make sure the audience knows this?

4.4. Plan of action Plan of action (policy): How does the speaker propose the problem be solved or addressed?

Second, analyze for PERSUASIVE & Second, analyze for PERSUASIVE & LITERARY techniques used in the LITERARY techniques used in the speech:speech:Emotional AppealEmotional Appeal: : Connection with the

audience. The use of “my friends”, “my people”, “we” and “happy to join you”—he’s indicating that he, himself, is part of the audience as well, that they share something.

Emotional LanguageEmotional Language: : he conveys passion, talks about freedom and justice—strong emotional words and phrases. He also makes religious connections—this suggests moral values.

AllusionsAllusions: : King makes several references to the Bible itself, uses biblical language in several paragraphs and also alludes to the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution.

PERSUASIVE & LITERARY PERSUASIVE & LITERARY techniques cont’d:techniques cont’d:RepetitionRepetition: : The repetition of “I have a dream” is obvious; it becomes a chant, makes the audience consider their own dreams and binds them together.

ParallelismParallelism: : All of the paragraphs flow and all contain a connectedness and builds a rhetorical momentum

Figurative LanguageFigurative Language: : He uses METAPHORS throughout the speech: ““who have been seared in the flames who have been seared in the flames of withering justice”of withering justice”““lonely island of poverty”lonely island of poverty”““vast ocean of material prosperity”vast ocean of material prosperity”““we are architects of our republic”we are architects of our republic”““Bank of justice is bankrupt”Bank of justice is bankrupt”““great vaults of opportunity”great vaults of opportunity”““drug of gradualism”drug of gradualism”““sweltering summer…of discontent”sweltering summer…of discontent”What others do you What others do you see?see?

Background of the Play & Terms Background of the Play & Terms DefinedDefined

Falstaff is one of the King’s old friends; they used to be close, but not any more. Therefore, when Falstaff goes to talk to him, he acts like they’re still good friends. However, when the King addresses Falstaff he acts very arrogant, like he’s too good to be talking to someone so common. He says that in their youth, Falstaff made him do stupid things. He jokes at his size, says all he was to him was a “jester,” someone who was stupid and made him laugh, and then basically dismisses him without acknowledging their friendship.

Imp: mischievous child Surfeit: excessive amount Gape: wide opening or breach Banish: to turn away Dismissive: act like someone is

unworthy of consideration Wits: keen intelligence Jester: person who habitually

plays the fool Thrice: 3 times Misleaders: someone who leads

astray Competence: ability to do

something well Tenure: permanent post or

occupation Grieve: deep sorrow

Unit #3 – Proficiency Prep - Unit #3 – Proficiency Prep - VocabularyVocabulary

1. Scullery maid: the lowest-ranked and often the youngest of the female servants and acted as assistant to a kitchen

2. Indictment: formal charge or accusation of a serious crime

3. Domestic: of or relating to the home or family4. Tranquility: calmness; peacefulness; quiet;

serenity5. Posterity: future generations6. Ordain: To invest with ministerial or priestly

authority7. Mockery: to make fun of; ridicule8. Disenfranchisement: Deprive (someone) of the

right to vote 9. Consent: to give permission to10. Derive: obtain something from

11.Sovereign: A supreme ruler 12.Dissension: Disagreement that leads to

discord13.Discord: lack of harmony14.Hardihood: boldness, daring15.Abridge: the shortened version of

something16.Privilege: a special right or advantage17.Immunities: Protection or exemption from

something18.Subservient: Prepared to obey others

unquestioningly19.Odious: extremely unpleasant; repulsive20.Oligarchy: a state governed by a small

group of people

Unit #3 – Proficiency Prep –Literary Unit #3 – Proficiency Prep –Literary DevicesDevicesStage Directions: the part in a play or monologue

that describes what the characters are doing Hyperbole: extreme exaggerationParallelism: use of successive verbal constructions

in poetry or prose that correspond in grammatical structure, sound or meaning

Rhetorical Question: statement that is formulated as a question but that is not supposed to be answered

Irony: when the opposite of what is expected to happen actually occurs

Emotional Appeal: persuasive technique intended to draw a particular feeling from the audience

Oxymoron: two things that contradict one anotherRestatement: when something is stated, then stated

again, in a different manner, for clarity

Unit #3 – Proficiency Prep – Unit #3 – Proficiency Prep – GrammarGrammar

Neutral Gender Words: Do NOTNOT use “him”, “he” or “his” when the sentence may be referring to a mixed group. Use either “his and hers” or “their”

Use of “You”: Unless it is in a direct quote, “you” should be REPLACEDREPLACED with a third person pronoun; such as “his or her”, “their” or “they”

Use of pronouns: Make sure that the pronouns used in a sentence match the subject they are referring to.

GRAMMAR REVIEWGRAMMAR REVIEWComplete the following exercises out of the Grammar handbook:Ex. 12, pg. 132Ex. 13, pg. 136