Learning & Learner

7/29/2019 Learning & Learner

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2.0 Concept of

Teachingand Learning

2.1 Definition ofTeaching and

Learning


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Learning

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Teaching is a series of activities carried

out to produce changes in behavior ofstudents.

Teaching is a process of delivering

knowledge, skills, attitudes and values

which causes changes of behavior of

students.


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Teaching refers as an activity orprocess which is related with the

impart of certain specific

knowledge or skill, guiding andassessing, with the aim of

assisting students to learn

effectively.


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Thomas F. Green in his book TheActivities of Teaching, considered that the

aim of teaching is to change thebehaviourandcharacterof the studentsthrough theacquiring ofknowledge andbelief.

Within the context of formal education,the concept of teaching can be

explained as a process which is relatedwith the impart of knowledge or skillsso that students can learn and acquirethem effectively.


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In order to achieve the aim of teaching, the

teaching process has to be implemented

systematically, according to the teachingprocedures such as planning, organizing,

implementing and assessing, including

feedback.

Planning & Implementation Assessment

organizing

Feedback

Teaching Process


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Teaching can be defined as an

assignment activity which issystematically planned, organized,

implemented and assessed by the

teacher, who, in the process ofteaching, applied suitable teaching

method and technique to guide,

encourage and motivate student totake their own initiative to learn, so as

to achieve the learning objectives set.


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Elements in teaching series areteaching procedures, climate

and environment,implementation strategies

(teaching strategies), monitoring

and evaluation.


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Learning: Individual changes due

to experience (Slavin,1997)

learning occurs when

experience causes a relatively

permanent change in anindividuals knowledge or behavior

(Woolfolk, 2004)


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Learning refers to a relatively durablechange in behaviour of any organism,including the lowest strata of animals, dueto experience.

Kimble (1961) defined learning as an

experience which produces a relativelypermanent change in potential behaviour.This change in potential behaviourexcludes natural changes of behaviour

due to biological growth or development,or temporary changes due to effects ofdrugs or physical fatigue.


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Wayne Weiten (1994) considered learning

not only includes the acquisition of

knowledge and skills, but also formation of

habits, personality traits, emotionalresponses and personal tastes. In fact,

most of the human behaviours are the

result of learning.


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Concept of learning process:

Humans use their sensory organs to acquire

experience and knowledge in their environment.

Human sensory organs are being used to selectsuitable stimuli from their surrounding and later

process them in their mind to becomemeaningful experience or knowledge.

Subsequently these will be applied when a

similar situation occurred. The act to applyexperience or knowledge which has beenacquired during the learning process can beseen as a change in the human behaviour


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8 learning components adaptedfrom Ewells understandings of

the richness and complexity of

learning based on the convergingevidence from neuroscience,

cognitive psychology, anddevelopmental research.


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2.2 Principles of Learning (Ewell)

Active involvement:

Student is actively involved and

participates in the instruction. Information

is not delivered but they create it.

Pattern recognition and connectivism:

They have the opportunity to establish, test, and

rework patterns and connections

as they make meaning out of learning

situations


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Informal learning:

Learning does not occur inclassroom settings only, nor is it

contained within the time frame of

a lesson. Learning is informal and

it can be acquired anywhere, at

any time.


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First hand experience:

Because students are actively involved in

creating their own patterns andconnections and because learning

occurs in informal settings, besides the

classroom, it is inevitable that we willhave misconceptions.

Direct experience in a real context is

required in order to change or alter these

preconceived notions.


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Compelling situation:If a learning situation is a compelling

situation, which goes beyond a direct

experience in that the situation

involves real consequences, then the

learning will be more challenging and

interesting for the students.


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Continuous reinforcement:

Ewell stresses the importance of the

incentives as well as the corrective

role of frequent feedback, which

students should get from instructors

and peers throughout the learning

process; without opportunity forpractice, even well learned abilities

will go away.


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Stimulating environment:

Following the point about frequentfeedback, Ewell emphasizes that

the feedback will be most effective

if it is delivered in an enjoyablesetting that involves personal

interactions and a considerable

level of personal support.


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Reflection:

Reflection is necessary to reach thepoint of deeper learning required for

this information to be used in future

situations. In our model, reflectionbecomes one of the primary elements

of learning because we feel that

through reflection students can takecontrol of their own learning.


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The practise of reflection

enhances self-assessment skillsthat lead to recognizing what has

worked and what needs to beimproved. All of this leads to

transfer of learning to new setting

and for long term impact.

(Bransford et al.. 1999. ch. 3)


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2.3 Types of learning (Gagne)

Intellectual skills

Cognitive strategies

Verbal information Psychomotor skills

Attitude


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3.0 Theories of Learning

3.1 Behaviorist Theory

3.1.1 Watsons Conditioning Theory

Humans inherit three kinds of naturalemotions, i.e. fear, anger and love.

Human emotion can be learned

through the process of conditioning.


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Watsons experiment White mouse-Little Albert interested to

play. White mouse and loud sound- Little Albert

panic and frightened.

After conditioned response wasestablished, only white mouse appeared,Little Albert responded with fear.

Little Albert has related loud startling

sound with white mouse which he saw. Through conditioning process, he has

learned to respond with fear.


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Stimulus generalization:

Stimuli resembling white mouse was

responded with similar fear reaction which

he generalized from a variety of stimulisimilar to the original conditioned stimulus

(i.e. the white mouse)


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Implications of Watsons learning

theory:

All types of behavior can be learned through theconditioning process.

To master the skill of solving problems, relatethe relationship between all responses

systematically. To consolidate what has been learned in the

memory, more exercises should be carried outafter learning.

During the teaching process, teacher should usesuitable stimulus to motivate pupils in learning.Avoid using stimulus which will produce negativeeffect.


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3.1.2 Pavlovs Classical

Conditioning

Pavlov observed that the dog salivates at

the sight of the meat powder was a

natural, unlearned reaction.

The unconditioned response (UCR :

salivation) is an unlearned reaction to an

unconditioned stimulus (UCS: meat

powder) that occurs without previous

conditioning.


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The conditioned response (CR: salivation)

to a conditioned stimulus (CS: bell) that

occurs was the result of previousconditioning.


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Sequence of events in classical

conditioning:A) Before conditioning

UCS: meat powder UCR: salivation

NS: bell sound no responseB) During conditioning

NS: bell sound

UCS: meat powder UCR: salivationC) After conditioning

CS: bell sound CR: salivation


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Basic processes in classical conditioning:

1. Acquisition: Forming new conditionedresponses. Stimuli (UCS & CS) that arespecial, novel or intense would havemore opportunity to produce classical

conditioning2. Extinction: Weakening of conditioned

responses.

Extinction of learned responses is theresult of gradual weakening anddisappearance of a conditionedresponse.


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3. Spontaneous recovery: Resurrecting

responses.

Spontaneous recovery of a learnedresponse is the reappearance of a

conditioned response (CR) which was

extinct after a long period of non-appearance of the conditioned stimulus

(CS)


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4. Stimulus generalization

The conditioned response of an organism

that applies not only to the exact ,

original conditioned stimulus, but also to

other similar stimulus.

Stimulus generalization occurs when an

individual who has acquired a

conditioned response to a certain

stimulus, would response the same wayto any new stimuli that are similar to the

original stimulus.


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5. Stimulus discrimination

The individual would not respond the

same way as the original stimulus when

he/she encounters new stimuli that are

similar.

6. Higher-order conditioning

Referred to a new conditioned response

which is built on the foundation of

learned response. A conditioned stimulus

is now functioning as an unconditioned

stimulus.


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Implications of Pavlovs conditioning theory

in teaching-learning:

1. Conditioned responses can be fostered

through the process of teaching-learningactivities.

2. Originally Pavlovs Classical ConditioningLearning Model was used in the field ofpsychology, and later in behaviourallearning (e.g. language learning). Manymathematical principles and laws canalso be learned through the process ofhigher-order conditioning


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3. In order to teach effectively the teacher

ought to relate practical experience

(conditioned stimulus) with the learningtask (unconditioned stimulus) so as to

produce satisfactory conditioned learning

response, i.e. through satisfactorylearning activities.


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4. Guide pupils to apply skill to make accurate

generalization by using various related

examples.5. Guide pupils to use skill to make

discrimination e.g. to ascertain the

different specific characteristics of

parallelogram and rhombus.

6. Allocate sufficient exercises for pupils to

strengthen the application of conditioned

stimulus and conditioned response. e.g.

give related exercises regularly to solve

mathematics problems.


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7. Use secondary reinforcement to sustain

conditioned response and to avoidextinction. e.g. use new, similar stimulus

as conditioned stimulus to motivate

pupils for their subsequent learning

activities.

8. Assist pupils to restore their memory by

allowing sufficient resting time until all existing

interference in learning has been removed.


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3.1.3 Thorndikes Operant

Conditioning:

Thorndike viewed learning as a series ofstimulus-response (S-R) connections or bonds.

He described the ways in which these S-Rconnections could be strengthened orweakened.

Learning is a trial and error process.

Three laws of Thorndike:

1. The law of readiness2. The law of exercise

3. The law of effect


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1. The law of readiness: When an organism

is in a state in which the conduction units

(S-R connections) are ready to conduct,

then the conduction is satisfying. If theconduction unit is not ready to conduct,

then conduction is annoying

Three laws of Thorndike:


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2. The law of exercise: Also called the law of

use and disuse, states that the more an

S-R connection is used, the stronger it will

become; the less it is used, the weaker it

will become.


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3. The law of effect: Thorndikes most

important law. It states that an S-R

connection followed by satisfaction

(reward) is strengthened. Also, aconnection followed by annoyance

(punishment) is weakened

3 1 4 Skinners Operant


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3.1.4 Skinner s Operant

Conditioning

Operant conditioning: responses (learning)are obviously influenced mainly bystimulus events that follow them.

According to Skinner, organisms normally

operate on the environment instead ofreacting to the stimuli presented to them.

Learning occurs because of the influence

of the consequences that follow. OC is a form of learning in which voluntary

responses are influenced by theirconsequences.


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Two categories of human behaviour(Skinner):

1. Respondent behaviour- an unconditioned behaviour (PavlovsConditioning Theory).

The response towards stimulus from theenvironment.

Respondent learning (stimulus-response

learning)- pupils response towards thepresentation of stimulus and is consideredpassive because without the presence of astimulus, learning would not occur.


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2. Operant behaviour----a kind of voluntary or

expected behaviour.

A response emitted from own self without thepresence of any known stimulus.

Active learning---because learning

(response) that occurs is based on itsown initiative without waiting for any

related stimulus to appear.

OB would be strengthened if suitable

reinforcement is given immediately after theresponse.

T t f i f t


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Two types of reinforcement:

(Skinner)

1. Positive reinforcement

2. Negative reinforcement

Eff t f i f t t


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Effects of reinforcement on operant

behaviour:

Positive reinforcement---possibility of

repeating desirable (or undesirable)

operant behaviour will be enhanced.

Negative reinforcement---possibility of

repeating the operant behaviour will be

enhanced by transferring or removing theunpleasant stimulus.

Operant Conditioning Learning


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Operant Conditioning LearningModel covers three important

concepts:

1. Operant response occurs from own self.

2. Stimulus which can sustain response isknown as reinforcer or reinforcing

stimulus.

Reinforcer can be positive (e.g. reward) ornegative (e.g. punishment-withdrawal of

reward).


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Reinforcer can be primary or

secondary.

Primary reinforcers-unlearned reinforcers-

things that satisfy biological needs.

Secondary reinforcers-learned reinforcer

(money, salary, good grades, praise,

attention, and flattery).

3. Reinforcement is a technique or process

which uses the reinforcer to strengthenand sustain the relevant response.


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Positive reinforcement occurs when aresponse is strengthened because of a

rewarding stimulus that follows. Negative reinforcement occurs when a

response is strengthened because of theremoval of an unpleasant stimulus.

Punishment involves the presentation ofan unpleasant stimulus e.g. canning, withthe effect ofweakening a response.

Negative reinforcement andpunishment are opposite proceduresthat yields opposite effects onrespondents behaviour.


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The effect of negative reinforcement:

1. Escape learning---acquires a response that

decreases or diminishes its unpleasant stimulus

e.g. play truant to escape punishment, which

becomes a negative reinforcement.

2. Avoidance learning---acquires a response that

prevents a certain unpleasant stimulus from

occuring e.g. run away from seeing a sign ofdanger, thus avoiding being exposed to danger.

Sched les of reinforcement


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Schedules of reinforcement:

1. Continuous reinforcement---occurs every time

when an expected response is explicitly given.Usually used to shape or establish a new

desirable response.

2. Intermittent reinforcement---occurs when a

repeated response is reinforced only at some of

the time. Provides more resistance to extinction

and durable effect for a response.

(Reinforces given occasionally would strengthena response, and provide great resistance to

extinction).

Basic Processes in Operant


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Basic Processes in Operant

Conditioning:

Acquisition process refers to theformation of a new response.

Effective to mould many aspects of animal

and human behaviourA gradual process of shaping.

Extinction process refers to a gradual

weakening and finally disappearance of aresponse tendency by removal of apositive reinforcement.


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Stimulus generalization process refers to

increase in responding in the presence ofa new stimulus that resembles the original

discriminative stimulus. (When a particular

stimulus, e.g. a red light occurredconsistently with a reinforcer. This

particular stimulus would act as a signal

indicating that the response would lead tothe expected reinforcer.


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Stimulus discrimination process refers

to non-increase in responding in the

presence of a new stimulus that resembles

the original discriminative stimulus. (e.g.the dog would only wag its tail when it

heard the footstep of the caregiver.

Implications of Skinners Operant


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Implications of Skinner s Operant

Conditioning Theory in Teaching and

Learning:

1.A newly learned skill or technique can be

strengthened and sustained by giving

continuous reinforcement followed by

intermittent reinforcement.2.The use of positive reinforcement is more

effective than negative reinforcement.

3.The extinction process can be used tomodify undesirable behaviour.


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4.Guide pupils to master the concept ofdiscrimination to enable them to acquire

knowledge and skills accurately.

5.Negative reinforcement can also be usedto achieve the desired behaviour.


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3.2 Cognitive Theory

Theories based on cognitive perspective,

concentrate efforts on learning methods

such as insight, reasoning, approach of

problem-solving, discovery,conceptualization, assimilation and

accommodation


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3.2.1 Kohlers Learning Theory

Kohler and Koffka used the cognitive approach

to study how a chimpanzee managed to obtain a

banana which was hung on a roof of his cage.

Situation : Chimpanzee in the cage with threeboxes and a banana hung on a roof

Tried to jump up several times, but failed to

reach the banana.

Arranged boxes and managed to get the

banana.

C l i F E i t


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Conclusion From Experiment

Animal also used cognitive process to learn.

Chimpanzee used the boxes => rational action

based on former experience and its perception

of the relationship between the stimuli.

The perception of this relationship which is usedto solve the problem is considered as insight.

Insight is the mental ability which helps an

individual to perceive all of a sudden, the

relationship of the elements in the environment

that would provide a way to solve the problem.

Implications of Kohlers Learning


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Implications of Kohler s Learning

Theory:

Encourage pupils to use their insight to solvelearning problems.

Guide pupils to use their perception to relateelements in the surroundings

Present teaching activities step by step Use specific related examples to guide pupils to

conclude or generalize.

Teaching new experience must be based onpupils ability and existing experience

Provide sufficient learning materials to solveproblems.


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3.2.2 Bruners Concept Formation

Three categories of concept:

1. Conjunctive concept--a concept which contains

two or more integrated attributes and they

cannot be separated or lessened.2. Disjunctive concept--attributes which have

been integrated into a concept so that they can

be used in a certain situation or other situation.

3. Relational conceptattributes contained in the

concept which possess special relationship

between one another


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According to Bruner, language is an

important representative in humans

cognitive development.

Humans use symbols and language so asto help them to think and solve problems,

by means of formation of concepts and

derivation of generalizations.

Implications of Bruners Theory of


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Implications of Bruner s Theory of

Teaching and Learning:

(1) Theorem of learning Mathematics

Theorem of Construction

Theorem of Notation

Theorem of Contrast and Variation

Theorem of Relation

(2) The Strategy of Teaching and LearningMathematics

3 2 3 R M Gagnes Information


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3.2.3 R.M. Gagne s Information

Processing Model of Learning

Gagnes learning theory:How humans obtain information during the

learning process?

Stimuli from the external environment willactivate the nervous system through humansensory organs. This information will beinterpreted in the short term memory , encode,transit and store in the long term memory in

conceptual form. When retrieved, it will first enterthe response operator, which will decide ,control and implement the form of humansbehaviour that interacts with the environment.


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According to Gagne, experiences which

have been kept in the long term memory

are important for humans to facilitate the

process of new learning.

Gagnes Phases of Learning and the


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Gagne s Phases of Learning and the

Instructional Events That Support Learning

Learning Phase Instructional Event

1. Attention; alertness Gain learners attention

through unusual event,

question, or change ofstimulus

2. Expectancy Inform the learner of the

objective; activate

motivation

3. Retrieval (of relevant

information and/or skills)

to working memory

Stimulate recall of prior

knowledge


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Learning Phase Instructional Event

4. Selective perception ofstimulus features Present material; highlightdistinctive features

5. Encoding; storage in

LTM

Provide learning guidance

6. Retrieval andresponding

Elicit performance

7. Reinforcement Provide informative

feedback8. Cueing retrieval Assess performance

9. Generalizing

In the instructional events model:


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In the instructional events model:

1. The first step in learning, and the first

challenge for the teacher, is to gain thestudents attention.

2. The next step is to set an expectancy forlearning by letting the students know the

goals of the lesson and perhaps arousingtheir curiosity or providing other motivationfor learning.

3. When the students are paying attentionand have the right expectations, they needto be reminded of what they already knownthat is related to the material to be learned.


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4. With this prior knowledge in their working

memories, they are ready to make connections

between new and old information. Now it is timeto present the new material, highlighting the

important aspects or key features.

5. At this point the students should have the newmaterial in their short-term or working memories,

so they are ready to process the information and

move it to long-term memory. The teachers role

now is to provide learning guidance, such asexplanations and examples or a guided-

discovery exercise.


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6. Students have to demonstrate, to the teacher

and to themselves, that they really understand

the material. The students must respond insome way.

7. These responses allow the teacher to check the

students understanding and provide

reinforcement or corrections or both.

8. Finally, to ensure that they can retrieve and

apply their new knowledge readily, students

should practice in a variety of situations.9. Reviews at the end of the lesson, week, and unit

encourage transfer by extending practice over

time.


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Gagnes Taxonomy of Learning

1. Signal learning

2. Stimulus-response learning

3. Learning through chaining

4. Learning through verbal association

5. Learning through multiple discrimination

6. Concept learning7. Principle learning

8. Problem-solving

Implications of Gagnes taxonomy of learning


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Implications of Gagne s taxonomy of learning

with referance to learning of Mathematics:

Four important categories which must be

mastered by pupils in Mathematics are

fact, skill, concept and principle.

Mathematics factsstimulus-response

learning

Skillschaining

Mathematics conceptconcept learning

Mathematics principleproblem-solving

3 2 4 David P Ausubels Theory of


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3.2.4 David P. Ausubel s Theory of

Reception Learning

Meaningful reception learning is more

effective than learning through inquiry-

discovery which was suggested by

Bruner.

Changes in the development of a pupils

cognitive structure by assimilating new

information can be acquired through

subsumption


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Two types of subsumption:

1. Derivative subsumption is a new conceptderived from existing information and isassimilated into a persons cognitive structure.

2. Correlative subsumption refers to a new

information or concept received through thedevelopment process of its meaning andassimilated into a pupils cognitive structure.

As the new information or concept acquired ismore than the existing information (existing

cognitive structure), the pupil has to changehis existing information throughaccommodation.

Subordinate learning (deductive learning):


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General Specific

Formulae, 1.Application of fomulae,principles principles, theorems or

or rules rules.

which have 2.To derive new formulae,been principles, theorems or

learned rules


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Superordinate learning (inductive learning):

Specific GeneralSpecific To observe, Derive

Examples to study, generalization,

ascertain, concept,

interpret principle or

law

Learning process according to Ausubels Theory of


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Learning process according to Ausubel s Theory of

Reception Learning:

Subordinate

learning

(deductive) Development of

Derivative cognitivesubsumption structure

Existing process Superordinate through

stimuli, learning the process

information, (inductive) of assimilation

concept, Correlative or

principle. subsumption Integrated accommodation

process learning

Advance Organizer:


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g

Theory of reception learningadvance organizer

Advance Organizercan be used as a technique to

present information in the form of language or

learning materials to the pupils, with the aim to

activate their existing cognitive structures so thatthe assimilation process could occur effectively

through the learning process. AO can be in the

form of concept, principle, law or specific examples

which are related to the existing cognitivestructure.

Ausubels Cognitive Learning Theory

Acq ired Information


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Acquired Information

Advance Organizer

Reception Learning Discovery Learning

Meaningful Rote Meaningful Rote

Learning Learning Learning Learning

Derivative Subsumption Correlative Subsumption

Subordinate learning (Deductive approach)

Superordinate learning (Inductive approach)Integrated learning (Eclective approach)

Through assimilation/ accommodation process

Changes and development in the cognitive structures

Implication of Ausubels Learning Theory:


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Implication of Ausubel s Learning Theory:

1. Teach new concept, principle and law byrelating them with the existing concept,

principle and law.

2. Use advance organizer as learningmotivation at the beginning of each

lesson.

3. Teach concept, principle and law byusing inductive approach, deductive

approach or the combination of both, i.e.

integrated approach (eclective).


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4. Use meaningful reception learning by

arranging the learning content

systematically and according to the

stages, so that pupils can follow them

effectively.

5. When using inductive approach apply

specific but related examples to guide

pupils to derive generalization, concept,

principle or law accurately.


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6. Use concept, principle and law which

have been learned for deductive learningand guide pupils to apply them in various

specific examples or formulate new

concept, principle or law.

7. Guide pupils to make discrimination by

comparing either the similar or differentcharacteristics among the elements or

concepts which have been learned.

3 3 Theory of Constructivism


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3.3 Theory ofConstructivism

Constructivism Theory assumed thatknowledge will not exist outside the mind,

but can be created in the mind based on

actual experience.

C t ti i


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Constructivism

Definition:

Constructivism is a philosophy of learning founded

on the premise that, by reflecting our own

experiences, we construct our ownunderstanding of the world we live in. Each of us

generates our own rules and mental models,

which we use to make sense of our experience.

Learning, therefore, is simply the process ofadjusting our mental models to accommodate

new experiences.

Theory of Constructivism is identical to the


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yTheory of Cognitive Constructivism orConstructivism.

According to Von Glaserfeld(1991), theconcept of constructivism is based on thefollowing assumptions:

Knowledge can be formed by individualswho take their own initiatives.

The aim to form knowledge is to adapt

oneself in the environment. The process of knowledge formation is the

result of individual experience.

Guiding principles of constructivism:


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Guiding principles of constructivism:

1. Learning is a search for meaning.Therefore, learning must start with the

issues around which students are

actively trying to construct meaning.2. Meaning requires understanding wholes

as well as parts. And parts must be

understood in the context of wholes.Therefore, the learning process focuses

on primary concepts, not isolated facts.

3 In order to teach well we must


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3. In order to teach well, we must

understand the mental models that

students use to perceive the world and theassumptions they make to support those

models.

4 The purpose of learning is for an


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4. The purpose of learning is for an

individual to construct his or her own

meaning, not just memorize the rightanswers and regurgitate someone elses

meaning. Since education is inherently

interdisciplinary, the only valuable way to

measure learning is to make the

assessment part of the learning process,

ensuring it provides students with

information on the quality of their learning.


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The idea of constructivism was originatedfrom Piagets Cognitive Development

Theory and Vygotskys Zone of Proximal

Development.

Piagets Cognitive Development


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g g p

Theory

(1) Schema Referred as a structured clusters of

information (represent event, concept, actionor process)

The way to organize and simplify information

Individuals schema=>characteristics ofindividual behaviour (eg: action, language,thinking, opinion or idea) varies according tothe process of learning.

(2) Adaptation and Equilibration


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- Individual in his environment = existingschemas satisfy all his needs during

self-adaptation process (no need tochange the present schema)

- Individual in a new environment =

existing schemas cannot fulfilladaptation process (need to changeschemas to fulfill the needs,equilibration will be restored again)

- Adaptation => a process of change inschema to meet the requirement of acertain situation


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-The process of change in an individuals

behaviour (schema) to adapt himself in

the environment => learning process

- During this process, equilibration is

equivalent to the internal motivatingforce (learning motivation)

- Piaget referred this internal motivating

force as intrinsic motivation of individualto adapt himself in the environment

(3) Assimilation and Accommodation


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(3) Assimilation and Accommodation

- During adaptation process, individuals

schemes will slowly change.- Two forms of adaptation are assimilation and

accommodation.

- Assimilation: Fitting new information into

existing schemes.


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- Accommodation: Altering existing schemes or

creating new ones in response to new

information.

- Both of these are interrelated and

complementary .

- To use assimilation or accommodationdepends on decision involving individuals

cognitive structure.

- Cognitive structure is individuals existed

experience.

Vygotskys Zone of Proximal


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yg y

Development

ZPD is the pupils performance , under the help ofadults or cooperation from their peers; would bebetter than using their own ability alone, and inthis way, they can achieve a higher level of

potential development.Pupils early understanding normally comes from

the support of educated adults, teachers orpeers through interaction.

This will enable pupils to make further progress inthe zone of proximal development, which isbeyond their independent ability to achieve.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)


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Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Pupils actual

development(able to learn and

perform task

individually)

Zone of Proximal

Development

(able to learn and

perform various

tasks with help

from others

Potential

developmentlimit (unable to

learn or perform any

task even with help)

Most difficult task

that can be

learned orperformed

individually

Most difficult task

that can be

learned orperformed with

help from

others


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According to Theory of Constructivism,knowledge can be formed through the

process of inter-influence between

previous learning and related newlearning.


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Theory of Constructivism also emphasized

the metacognitive development process.(plan, direct, control, examine and

evaluate all cognitive thinking processes,

covering critical and creative thinking, so

as to make appropriate decision to solve

problems).


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In order to achieve the aim of effectivelearning, pupils need to plan their own

learning strategy, think of the effective way

to learn, as well as to evaluate and makereflection regarding what they have

learned


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Under constructivism, knowledge is not used

to clarify reality, but it is used as a meansto rationalize the action and experience

which an individual undergoes.

Thus in a similar situation, knowledge

acquired may not be the same for every

individual.

How constructivism impacts learning:


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How constructivism impacts learning:

CurriculumConstructivism calls for theelimination of a standardized curriculum.

Instead, it promotes using curricula

customized to the students priorknowledge. Also, it emphasizes hands-on

problem solving.

InstructionUnder the theory of


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Instruction Under the theory of

constructivism, educators focus on making

connections between facts and fosteringnew understanding in students. Instructors

tailor their teaching strategies to student

responses and encourage students toanalyze, interpret, and predict information.

Teachers also rely heavily on open-ended

questions and promote extensive dialogue

among students.


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AssessmentConstructivism calls for theelimination of grades and standardized

testing. Instead, assessment becomes

part of the learning process so thatstudents play a larger role in judging their

own progress.

3 4 Social Learning Theory


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3.4 Social Learning Theory

Social perspective or Neobehaviourism

suggested that learning theory should

integrate behaviourism and cognitivism.

Bandura: Learning should go through the

process of modelling (observation and

imitation process)

Three basic elements of Social Learning


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Theory:

1. Individual process intrinsic motivation

2. Environment external stimulus

3. Behaviourindividuals action

Learning =I x B x E (the interaction between

an individuals intrinsic motivation

and behaviourwith his environment).

Banduras Modelling Theory


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Children in general normally imitate the model andeven react more agressive than the aggressivebehaviour they have observed.

Learning through observation is a basic form ofhuman behaviour.

Observational learning, also called social learningtheory, occurs when an observers behaviourchanges after viewing the behaviour of a model.

An observers bahaviour can be affected by the

positive or negative consequencescalledvicarious reinforcement or vicariouspunishmentof a models behaviour.

Process of Observational Learning


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Process of Observational Learning

Pupil

A

observes Pupil Brecites

poem

Reinforcement:Praise from

teacher

Imitation:

Tendency

of pupil A

to recite

poem

strengthened

Learning Process Through Observation


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Modelling:

Bandura identified four basic elements in thelearning process through observation,namely:

1. Attention---concentration while observing

2. Retentionsustain the behaviourobserved in his memory.

3. Reproductionrepeat his imitated

behaviour.

4. Reinforcement/Motivationsatisfaction,reward

How Observational Learning Impacts Learning:


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Curriculumstudents must get a chance toobserve and model the behaviour that leads to apositive reinforcement.

InstructionEducators must encouragecollaborative learning, since much of learninghappens within important social andenvironmental contexts.

AssessmentA learned behaviour often cannot beperformed unless there is the right environment

for it. Educators must provide the incentive andthe supportive environment for the behaviour tohappen. Otherwise, assessment may not beaccurate

3 5 The Humanistic Learning Theory


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3.5 The Humanistic Learning Theory

Humanistic psychologists advocatepsychological research on human nature,

potential, experience, values, creativeness

and self-actualization. Individual valueshould be respected in the course of

learning.

Concepts of Humanistic Theory


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1. Human nature is basically good and

noble. Human becomes evil because ofthe influence of the environment.

2. The theory of hierarchical needs is

basically the motivation theory.3. The theory of self-actualization is the

main core of humanistic psychology. The

elements of self-actualization shouldcover the actualization of perfect human

nature and individual potentials.

4 Theory on education reformation is the


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4. Theory on education reformation is the

main theme of humanistic psychology.

Education development should be pupil-centred; teaching should emphasize

individual potential, meaningful and

useful learning experience and process,and the fostering of true, sincere

relationship and mutual trust between

teacher and pupils (affective educationand knowledge-based education))

Humans learning depends on their


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individual emotion and feeling.

They have their own way of learning and isdifferent from others.

Thus, teaching and learning strategy shouldbe organized to meet the need and

emotional development of the pupils.

Every individual possesses his own potentialand desire to achieve self-excellence.

Teachers should consider pupils self-esteem and guide them to develop theirpotential to the optimal level.

3.5.1 Carl Rogerss Learning Theory


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3.5.1 Carl Rogers s Learning Theory

1. Every individuals experience is a logical-phenomenon, i.e. his experience can only befelt and understood by himself.

2. Every individual forms his own unique conceptthrough the value system and self-belief whichare different from others.

3. An individuals explicit behaviour is inaccordance with his own self-concept andbelief.

4. Understanding of an individuals behaviour canonly be obtained through the communicationprocess.

Principles of Rogerss Approach in

Ed ti


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Education:

1. Emphasize on learner-centred education.2. Emphasize on freedom to learn. The

rational and approach are:

Learning is considered as curiousity toknow.

Learning can only occur if the learningmaterials are meaningful as well as inaccordance with the pupils learningobjectives.

Effectiveness in learning can only be


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Effectiveness in learning can only beachieved under non-threatening condition.

Effectiveness in learning result will onlyoccur when pupils take their own initiativeand fully involve themselves in thelearning activities.

Guide pupils to evaluate their own learningresult, so as to improve their reflectivethinking and creative skill.

Teaching-learning activities should berelated to actual life experience. The aimis to instill the value of living skill amongpupils.

Rogerss view on education:


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g

Humans are born with the potential tostrive for self-perfection.

Learning is a natural instinct possessed by

human beings. Meaningful learning materials and in

accordance with pupils learning objectivewill assist them to participate in learning

activities, with the aim of producingeffective results.

Evaluation based on pupils own reflective


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thinking is better than others evaluation

on them. Learning activities should be based on

everyday experience, so as to instill the

value of actual living skill. The most effective learning method is

learn how to learn, so that the pupils could

acquire knowledge by means of his ownlearning.

The main focus of the curriculum should


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shift from environmental factors to the

individuals world (learning materials,method of learning, quantity of learning

and values should be determined by the

pupils themselves).

School should provide opportunity for

pupils to discover themselves and master

reflective thinking skill to assess their own

self, as well as to acquire the ability forself-discipline

3.5.2 Maslows Learning Theory


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g y

Abraham Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

5. Self-Actualization

4. Esteem: Respect

3. Belonging: Family and Friends

2. Safety: Shelter and Security

1. Physiological: Food and Water

The basic concepts in Maslows Theory of


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The basic concepts in Maslow s Theory of

Needs are based on these hierarchical human

needs. The concepts are:1. Motivation:

-is referred to intrinsic motivation, the internal

power existed in the physiological andpsychological development of individuals.

-would help humans to strive for excellent

achievement which occurs spontaneouslywithout any influence of external stimuli.

2. The motivational relationship among the

hierarchical needs


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hierarchical needs.

-When an individual has obtained satisfaction

in a certain hierarchy, then the need to

achieve a higher hierarchical need will

be aroused naturally.

3. If individuals hierarchical need is at the lowest

level, then there will be more similar

characteristic and less flexibilities, as well as

very little differences among the individuals.(Only a few can reach the highest level of self-actualization)

According to Maslow, individuals whopossess potential to strive with their own


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possess potential to strive with their owninitiative, so as to obtain satisfaction in a

higher hierarchical order, will usuallypossess the following characteristics:

Able to understand reality

Possess own thinking Able to accept ownself, other people and

the natural environment

Possess own philosophy of life andmoral values

Able to follow the time trend without


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Able to follow the time trend without

loosing their own identities

Possess wide range of interest in varioussocial activities

Have few closed friends and like to help

others

Practise democracy and possess

humorous character

Able to handle conflict between happyfeeling with bitter experience

Implications of the concepts of

needs in classroom practice:


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needs in classroom practice:

1. Ensure the pupils basic needs arefulfilled

2. The classroom condition must be

conducive so that pupils would feelpleasant, happy, harmonious and secureto involve themselves in the learningactivities.

3. Be emphatic to fulfill pupils need for loveand affection.

4. Instill self-esteem value and provide


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suitable motivation and reinforcement.

5. Plan teaching activities according topupils ability so as to enhance their

confidence and fulfill their thriving need.

6. Instill self-motivation value so that pupilsunderstand and accept themselves,

actively involve in social activities and

subsequently determine their aim in lifeand try to achieve the highest level of

self-actualization

Main Ideas of Learning Theories in

Humanistic Perspective:


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1. Humanistic psychologists emphasized theimportance of affective aspect.

2. Every pupil has his own inclination to achieve

self-objective and goal through the realization

of his own potential development.

3. Human instinct possess the need to acquire

knowledge and understanding.

4. Learning motivation should be directed todevelop pupils overall potentials.

Implications of Learning Theories in



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The approach of humanistic school stressed theimportance of developing individual potential.

The strategy and method of teaching-learningshould be oriented towards pupil-centred,

individual method, inquiry-discovery, practicalapproach, as well as enrichment and remedialactivities.

Teacher should play the role as facilitator and

organizer so as to motivate the pupils to usetheir own learning strategy to achieve self-perfection.

Islamic Perspectives


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p

Islam gives special attention to life longeducation in mankind. Therefore many

Muslim thinkers came forward to

contribute ideas to promote education.

Saidina Ali r.a.


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Educate your children to enable them tolive in an era which is very different from

your present era.

Implications of learning theories on the

learning of children with special needs:


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learning of children with special needs:

1. Obtain as much information as possibleabout each pupil.

2. Consult and collaborate with specialists.

3. Communicate regularly with parents.

4. When reasonable, hold the same

expectations for pupils with disabilities as

for other pupils.


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5. Identify prerequisite knowledge and skills

a pupil may not have acquired.

6. Be flexible in approaches to instruction.

7. Include pupils in planning and decisionmaking.

8. Promote interaction between pupils withspecial needs and their nondisabledclassmates


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classmates.

-teach effective social skills

-provide examples of effective interaction

-ask pupils with and without disabilities to assisttheir classmates

-provide opportunities for cooperation onacademic tasks and in recreation

-encourage pupils with special needs toparticipate in extracurricular activities andcommunity events.

-develop nondisabled pupils understanding ofpupils with special needs


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9. Look for gradual improvement rather thanovernight success.

10.Individualize instruction for all pupils.

11.Keep your eyes open for pupils which

may qualify for special services.

Learning & Learner

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