Learning(

Long(las,ng(change(in(behavior(due(to(experience.(

Classical(Condi,oning(•  Ivan(Pavlov(•  Studied(diges,on(in(dogs.(

•  Dogs(salivated(before(they(were(given(food((triggered(by(sounds,(lights(etc…)(

•  Dogs(must(have(LEARNED(to(salivate.(

Classical(Condi,oning(•  This(is(passive(learning((automa,c…learner(does(NOT(have(to(think).(

•  First(thing(you(need(is(a(uncondi,onal(rela,onship.(

•  Uncondi'onal*S'mulus*(UCS)M(something(that(elicits(a(natural,(reflexive(response.(

•  Uncondi'onal*Response*(UCR)M(response(to(the(UCS.(

(

Classical(Condi,oning(•  Next(you(find(a(neutral(s,mulus((something(that(by(itself((elicits(no(response).(

•  You(present(the(s,mulus(with(the(UCS(a(whole(bunch(of(,mes.(

Classical(Condi,oning(

•  AQer(a(while,(the(body(begins(to(link(together(the(neutral(s,mulus(with(the(UCS.(

•  Acquisi,on((

Classical(Condi,oning(•  We(know(learning(takes(places(when(the(previously(neutral(s,mulus(elicits(a(response.(

•  At(this(point(the(neutral(s,mulus(is(called(the(condi'oned*s'mulus*(CS)*and(the(uncondi,onal(response(becomes(the(condi'oned*response*(CR).**

Classical(Condi,oning(•  TRICKY(FACT:(learning(exists(because(the(CS(is(linked(to(the(UCS.(

•  This(is(called(ACQUISITION.(

•  Acquisi,on(does(not(last(forever.(

•  The(moment(the(CS(is(no(longer(associated(with(the(UCS,(we(have(EXTINCTION.(

Popular(Classical(Condi,oning(Examples(

Classical(Condi,oning(in(The(Office.(

Iden,fy(the(UCS,(UCR,(CS(and(CR.(

Classical(Condi,oning(in(The(Big(Bang(Theory.(

Spontaneous(Recovery(

•  Some,mes,(aQer(ex,nc,on,(the(CR(s,ll(randomly(appears(aQer(the(CS(is(presented.(

Who*wants*to*be*condi'oned?*

Timing(MaYers((•  Delayed*Condi'oning:(present(CS,(while(CS(is(s,ll(there,(present(

UCS.(•  Trace*Condi'oning:(present(CS,(short(break,(then(present(UCS.(•  Simultaneous*Condi'oning:(CS(and(UCS(are(presented(at(the(

same(,me.(•  Backward*Condi'oning:(UCS(is(presented,(then(CS(is(presented.(

Generaliza,on(and(Discrimina,on(Something(is(so(similar(to(the(CS(that(you(get(a(CR.(

Something(so(different(from(the(CS(that(you(do(not(get(a(CR.(

FirstMOrder(and(SecondMOrder(Condi,oning(

First(Order(Condi,oning.((• Bell(+(meat(=(saliva,on.((((• Bell(=(Saliva,on.(

Second*Order*Condi'oning*aka(Higher*Order*Condi'oning*(AQer(first(order(condi,oning(has(occurred)(*• Light(+(Bell(=(Saliva,on.(

• Light(=(Saliva,on.(

Extending(Pavlov’s(Understanding(

Pavlov(and(Watson(considered(consciousness,(or(mind,(unfit(for(the(scien,fic(study(of(psychology.(However,(they(underes,mated(the(importance(of(cogni,ve(processes(and(biological(constraints.(

Pavlov(and(Watson(believed(that(laws(of(learning(were(similar(for(all(animals.(Therefore,(a(pigeon(

and(a(person(do(not(differ(in(their(learning.((

However,(behaviorists(later(suggested(that(learning(is(constrained(by(an(animal’s(biology.(

(

Biological(Predisposi,ons(

John(Garcia(

Garcia(showed(that(the(dura,on(between(the(CS(and(the(US(may(be(long((hours),(but(yet(result(in(condi,oning.(A(biologically(adap,ve(CS((taste)(led(to(condi,oning(and(not(to(others((light(or(sound).((

Garcia(and(Koelling(Study(

•  Studied(rats(and(how(they(make(associa,ons.(

•  Some(associa,ons(seem(to(be(adap,ve.(

CS* UCS* Learned*Response*

Loud(Noise( Shock( Fear(

Loud(Noise( Radia,on((nausea)( Nothing(

Sweet(Water( Shock( Nothing(

Sweet(Water( Radia,on((nausea)( Avoid(Water(

Classical(Condi,oning(and(Humans(John(Watson(brought(Classical(Condi,oning(to(psychology(with(his(Baby(Albert(experiment.(

Learned(Taste(Aversions(•  When(it(comes(to(

food(being(paired(with(sickness,(the(condi,oning(is(incredible(strong.(

•  Even(when(food(and(sickness(are(hours(apart.(

•  Food(must(be(salient((no,ceable.)(

•  This(type(of(Classical(Condi,oning(is(also(known(as(Aversive*Condi'oning(=(using(punishment(to(stop(an(unwanted(behavior.((

Operant(Condi,oning(

The(Learner(is(NOT(passive.(Learning(based(on(consequence!!!(

23(

Operant(&(Classical(Condi,oning(

1.((Classical(condi,oning(forms(associa,ons(between(s,muli((CS(and(US).(Operant(condi,oning,(on(the(other(hand,(forms(an(associa,on(between(behaviors(and(the(resul,ng(events.(

24(

Operant(&(Classical(Condi,oning(

2.  Classical(condi,oning(involves(respondent(behavior(that(occurs(as(an(automa,c(response(to(a(certain(s,mulus.(Operant(condi,oning(involves(operant(behavior,(a(behavior(that(operates(on(the(environment,(producing(rewarding(or(punishing(s,muli.(

The(Law(of(Effect(

•  Edward(Thorndike(•  Locked(cats(in(a(cage(•  Behavior(changes(because(of(

its(consequences.(•  Rewards(strengthen(behavior.(•  If(consequences(are(

unpleasant,(the(S,mulusMReward(connec,on(will(weaken.(

•  Called(the(whole(process(instrumental*learning.(

B.F.(Skinner(•  The(Mac(Daddy(of(Operant(Condi,oning.(

•  Nurture(guy(through(and(through.(

•  Used(a(Skinner(Box((Operant(Condi,oning(Chamber)(to(prove(his(concepts.(

Skinner(Box(

How(do(we(actually(use(Operant(Condi,oning?(

Do(we(wait(for(the(subject(to(deliver(the(desired(behavior?(

Some,mes,(we(use(a(process(called(shaping.(

Shaping(is(reinforcing(small(steps(on(the(way(to(the(desired(behavior.(

(

To(train(a(dog(to(get(your(slippers,(you(would(have(to(reinforce(him(in(small(steps.((First,(to(find(the(slippers.((Then(to(put(them(in(his(mouth.((Then(to(bring(them(to(you(and(so(on…this(is(shaping(behavior.(

To(get(Barry(to(become(a(beYer(student,(you(need(to(do(more(than(give(him(a(massage(when(he(gets(good(grades.((You(have(to(give(him(massages(when(he(studies(for(ten(minutes,(or(for(when(he(completes(his(homework.((Small(steps(to(get(to(the(desired(behavior.((

Chaining(Behaviors(•  Subjects(are(taught(a(number(of(responses(successively(in(order(to(get(a(reward.(

Click(picture(to(see(a(rat(chaining(behaviors.(

Click(to(see(a(cool(example(of(chaining(behaviors.(

Reinforces(•  A(reinforcer(is(anything(the(

INCREASES(a(behavior.(Posi've*Reinforcement:*•  The(addi,on(of(something(

pleasant.(Nega've*Reinforcement:*•  The(removal(of(something(

unpleasant.(•  Two(types(of(NR(•  Escape(Learning(•  Avoidance(Learning((Gejng(kicked(out(of(class(

versus(skipping(class)(

Posi,ve(or(Nega,ve?(

Pujng(your(seatbelt(on.(Studying(for(a(test.(

Having(a(headache(and(taking(an(aspirin.((

Faking(sick(to(avoid(AP(Psych(class.(

Breaking(out(of(jail.(

Gejng(a(kiss(for(doing(the(dishes.(

Primary(v.(Secondary(Reinforcers(Primary*Reinforcer*

•  Things(that(are(in(themselves(rewarding.(

Secondary*Reinforcer*

•  Things(we(have(learned(to(value.(•  Money(is(a(special(secondary(

reinforcer(called(a(generalized*reinforcer*(because(it(can(be(traded(for(just(about(anything)(

Same(Terminology(as(Classical(Condi,oning(

•  Acquisi,on(•  Ex,nc,on(•  Spontaneous(Recovery(•  Generaliza,on(•  Discrimina,on(

If(I(wanted(to(reinforce(my(son�s(dancing(by(giving(him(lollipops(when(he(dances.((Iden,fy(the(following….((

Token(Economy(

•  Every(,me(a(desired(behavior(is(performed,(a(token(is(given.(

•  They(can(trade(tokens(in(for(a(variety(of(prizes((reinforcers)(

•  Used(in(homes,(prisons,(mental(ins,tu,ons(and(schools.(

Reinforcement(Schedules(

How(oQen(to(you(give(the(reinforcer?(Every(,me(or(just(some,mes?((((

Con,nuous(v.(Par,al(Reinforcement(Con'nuous*

•  Reinforce(the(behavior(EVERYTIME(the(behavior(is(exhibited.(

•  Usually(done(when(the(subject(is(first(learning(to(make(the(associa,on.(

•  Acquisi,on(comes(really(fast.(•  But(so(does(ex,nc,on.(

Par'al*

•  Reinforce(the(behavior(only(SOME(of(the(,mes(it(is(exhibited.(

•  Acquisi,on(comes(more(slowly.(

•  But(is(more(resistant(to(ex,nc,on.(

•  FOUR(types(of(Par,al(Reinforcement(schedules.(

Ra,o(Schedules(Fixed*Ra'o*

•  Provides(a(reinforcement(aQer(a(SET(number(of(responses.(

Variable*Ra'o*•  Provides(a(reinforcement(

aQer(a(RANDOM(number(of(responses.(

•  Very(hard(to(get(acquisi,on(but(also(very(resistant(to(ex,nc,on.(

Fixed(Ra,onM(She(gets(a(manicure(for(every(5(pounds(she(loses.(

Interval(Schedules(Fixed*Interval*

•  Requires(a(SET(amount(of(,me(to(elapse(before(giving(the(reinforcement.(

Variable*Interval*•  Requires(a(RANDOM(

amount(of(,me(to(elapse(before(giving(the(reinforcement.(

•  Very(hard(to(get(acquisi,on(but(also(very(resistant(to(ex,nc,on.(

Fixed(Interval:(She(gets(a(manicure(for(every(7(days(she(stays(on(her(diet.((

Premack(Principle(

•  You(have(to(take(into(considera,on(the(reinforcers(used.(

•  Is(the(reinforcer(wanted….or(at(least(is(it(more(preferable(than(the(targeted(behavior.(

A(Philly(Cheesesteak(might(be(a(great(posi,ve(reinforcer(for(me,(but(it(would(not(work(well(on(a(vegetarian.((

Punishment(Meant(to(decrease(a(behavior.((Posi've*Punishment*

•  Addi,on(of(something(unpleasant.(

Nega've*Punishment*(Omission(Training)(

•  Removal(of(something(pleasant.(

Punishment(works(best(when(it(is(immediately(done(aQer(behavior(and(if(it(is(harsh!(

Mo,va,on(Intrinsic(Mo,va,on:(The(desire(to(perform(a(behavior(for(its(own(sake.((Extrinsic(Mo,va,on:(The(desire(to(perform(a(behavior(due(to(promised(rewards(or(threats(of(punishments.((Overjus,fica,on(effect.((

Shaping(Shaping(is(the(operant(condi,oning(procedure(in(which(reinforcers(guide(behavior(towards(the(desired(target(

behavior(through(successive(approxima,ons.(

A(rat(shaped(to(sniff(mines.(((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((A(manatee(shaped(to(discriminate(((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((objects(of(different(shapes,(colors(and(sizes.(

Cogni,on(&(Operant(Condi,oning(

Evidence(of(cogni,ve(processes(during(operant(learning(comes(from(rats(during(a(maze(explora,on(in(which(they(navigate(the(maze(without(an(obvious(reward.(Rats(seem(to(develop(cogni,ve(maps,(or(mental(representa,ons,(of(the(layout(of(the(maze(

(environment).(

Latent(Learning(Such(cogni,ve(maps(are(based(on(latent(learning,(which(becomes(apparent(when(an(incen,ve(is(given((Tolman(&(Honzik,(1930).(

Latent(Leaning(

•  Edward(Toleman(•  Three(rat(experiment.(•  Latent(means(hidden.(•  Some,mes(learning(is(not(immediately(evident.(

•  Rats(needed(a(reason(to(display(what(they(have(learned.(

Observa,onal(Learning(

•  Albert(Bandura(and(his(BoBo(Doll(

•  We(learn(through(modeling(behavior(from(others.(

•  Observa,onal(learning(+(Operant(Condi,oning(=(Social*Learning*Theory*

Click(pic(to(see(some(observa,onal(learning.(

Learning(by(Observa,on(

Higher(animals,(especially(humans,(

learn(through(observing(and(imita,ng(others.(

(The(monkey(on(the(right(imitates(the(

monkey(on(the(leQ(in(touching(the(pictures(in(a(certain(order(to(obtain(a(reward.(

Mirror(Neurons(

Neuroscien,sts(discovered(mirror(neurons(in(the(brains(of(animals(and(humans(that(are(ac,ve(during(

observa,onal(learning.(

Imita,on(Onset(

Learning(by(observa,on(begins(early(in(life.(This(14MmonthMold(child(

imitates(the(adult(on(TV(in(pulling(a(toy(

apart.(

Bandura's(Experiments(

Bandura's(Bobo(doll(study((1961)(indicated(

that(individuals((children)(learn(through(imita,ng(others(who(receive(rewards(and(

punishments.(

Applica,ons(of(Observa,onal(Learning(

Unfortunately,(Bandura’s(studies(show(that(an,social(models(

(family,(neighborhood(or(TV)(may(have(an,social(

effects.(

Posi,ve(Observa,onal(Learning(Fortunately,(prosocial((posi,ve,(helpful)(models(may(

have(prosocial(effects.(

Television(and(Observa,onal(Learning(

Gen,le(et(al.,((2004)(shows(that(children(in(elementary(school(who(are(exposed(to(violent(television,(videos,(and(video(games(express(increased(aggression.(

Modeling(Violence(Research(shows(that(viewing(media(violence(leads(to(

an(increased(expression(of(aggression.(

Children(modeling(aQer(pro(wrestlers(

Insight(Learning(

•  Wolfgang(Kohler(and(his(Chimpanzees.(

•  Some(animals(learn(through(the(�ah(ha�(experience.(

Click(pic(to(see(insight(learning.(

59(

Skinner�s(Legacy(

Skinner(argued(that(behaviors(were(shaped(by(external(influences(instead(of(inner(thoughts(and(feelings.(Cri,cs(argued(that(Skinner(dehumanized(

people(by(neglec,ng(their(free(will.(

Falk/(Photo(

Researchers,(Inc.((

60(

Applica,ons(of(Operant(Condi,oning(

Skinner(introduced(the(concept(of(teaching(machines(that(shape(learning(in(small(steps(and(provide(

reinforcements(for(correct(rewards.(

In(School(

61(

Applica,ons(of(Operant(Condi,oning(

Reinforcement(principles(can(enhance(athle,c(performance.(

In(Sports(

62(

Applica,ons(of(Operant(Condi,oning(

Reinforcers(affect(produc,vity.(Many(companies(now(allow(employees(to(share(profits(and(par,cipate(in(

company(ownership.(

At(work(

Applica,ons(of(Operant(Condi,oning(

In(children,(reinforcing(good(behavior(increases(the(occurrence(of(these(behaviors.(Ignoring(unwanted(

behavior(decreases(their(occurrence.(

64(

Operant(vs.(Classical(Condi,oning(