Learning: Classical Conditioning

Learning1)Behaviorists:relatively

permanent change in behavior that results from experience

2) Cognitive:learning is made evident by behavioral change, but learning is defined as an internal and not directly observable process.

Classical Conditioning Involves some of the ways in

which we learn to associate events (red traffic light=stop)

Ivan Pavlov:Salivating dogs Salivation in response to meat

powder=Reflex (unlearned response to a stimuli)

Classical Conditioning Stimulus: an environmental condition that elicits a response (ex:stopping because we see a red light)

Pavlov discovered that reflexes can also be learned, or conditioned, through association (dogs began to salivate when they heard clinking of a food tray)

US,UR,CS,CR Unconditioned Stimulus

(US):meat powder

Unconditioned response (UR):salivation in response to the meat powder is unlearned

US,UR,CS,CR Conditioned stimulus (CS):

ringing of the bell (before it was just a neutral stimulus not associated with anything)

Conditioned response (CR): salivation in response to the bell is learned

More examplesUS: walking my puppyUR: puppy gets excited

CS: leash or running shoesCR: puppy gets excited_________________________

US: dancing with your crush to a love songUR: getting warm fuzzies

CS: hearing the love song randomlyCR: getting warm fuzzies

Extinction The process by which

conditioned stimuli (CS) lose the ability to elicit conditioned responses (CR) because the CSs are no longer associated with unconditioned stimuli (US)

The CS no longer serves its predictive function (ex: bell and no food)

Spontaneous Recovery The recurrence of an

extinguished response as a function of the passage of time

Pairing the CS with the US once more will build response strength rapidly

(ex: present food after ringing the bell)

Generalization Adaptation requires that we respond

similarly to stimuli that are equivalent in function and that we respond differently to stimuli that are not

Generalization:the tendency for a conditioned response to be evoked by stimuli that are similar to the stimulus to which the response was conditioned (Ex:Little Albert)

Discrimination Organisms must also learn1)That many stimuli perceived as

being similar are functionally different

2) Respond adaptively to each Ex: presenting circles and ellipses

to salivating dogs, discriminate between houses, spouses, etc

Higher-Order Conditioning A previously neutral stimulus

comes to serve as a CS after being paired repeatedly with a stimulus that has already become the CS

Ex: lightbellsalivate TV showcar in drivewaysqueal of

happiness

Flooding Fear-evoking reduction technique

in which the fear-evoking stimuli (CS) are presented continuously in the absence of harm so that fear responses (CR) are extinguished

Ex: Little Albert-presenting rat without the banging noise until the fear is no longer evoked

Can be unpleasant

Systematic Desensitization

Client is exposed gradually to fear-evoking stimuli under circumstances in which he or she is relaxed

Ex: when Little Albert is relaxed, show him pictures of rats before gradually bringing them over

Counterconditioning A pleasant stimulus is paired

repeatedly with a fear-evoking object, in this way counteracting the fear response

Ex: Joneses experiment with 2 year old Peter.

Placed rabbit in corner of room while Peter munched on cookies. Gradually, the animal was brought closer. Peter ate treats and touched the rabbit at the same time

Learning: Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning

A simple form of learning in which an organism learns to engage in behavior

because it is reinforced.

Edward L. Thorndike Cats in a box-trial and error As trials were repeated, it would

take less time for the cat to pull the string

Law of Effect: responses are “stamped in” by rewards (escaping from box and eating) and “stamped out” by punishments.

B.F. Skinner Reinforce: to follow a response

with a stimulus that increases the frequency of the response

Operant behavior: an organism learns to do something because of its effects or consequences

Classical conditioning-response was involuntary (salivation, eyeblink)

Operant Conditioning-response is voluntary (pressing lever, athletic skills)

“Skinner Box” Hungry rats in a cage Sniffed around the cage and engaged in

random behavior Rat’s first pressing of lever is by

accident-food pellet dropped in cage Food pellet increased the probability

that the rat would press lever again Pellet serves as a reinforcement for the

lever pressing

Types of Reinforcers Positive: a reinforcer that

when presented increases the frequency of the operant (pellet, approval, praise)

Negative: a reinforcer that when removed increases the frequency of an operant (removal of fear and pain)

Types of Reinforcers Primary-an unlearned reinforcer that are

effective because of the biological makeup of the organism

(food, water, warmth) Secondary- a stimulus that gains

reinforcement value through association with established reinforcers

(money, attention, social approval)

Positive ReinforcerBehavior Consequence Change in Behavior

Studying Positive reinforcer (Teacher approval) frequency of

is presented behavior increases-

when student ( student studies more)

studies

Negative ReinforcerBehavior Consequence Change in Behavior

Studying Negative reinforcer (Teacher disapproval)

frequency of is removed behavior increases-

when student ( student studies more)

studies

Rewards and Punishments

Reward: a pleasant stimulus that increases the frequency of the behavior it follows

Rewards and Punishments Punishments: an unpleasant

stimulus that suppresses the behavior it follows-although it works it is usually undesirable (pg. 229-230)-better to focus on rewarding behavior

Negative ReinforcerBehavior Consequence Change in Behavior

Studying Negative reinforcer (Teacher disapproval)

frequency of is removed behavior increases-

when student ( student studies more)

studies

PunishmentBehavior Consequence Change in Behavior

Talking in Punishment class (detention) frequency of

is presented behavior decreases-

when student ( student talks less in

talks in class class)

Discriminative Stimulus Act as cues

They provide information about when an operant (pecking a button) will be reinforced (food pellet dropping in cage)

Learn social discriminative stimuli (smiles, tones of voice, body language)

Schedules of Reinforcment Continuous reinforcement-a

schedule of reinforcement in which every correct response is reinforced

Partial reinforcement-one of several reinforcement schedules in which not ever correct response is reinforced (gambling and slot machines)

Shaping A procedure for teaching

complex behaviors that at first reinforces approximation of the target behavior (smiling and saying good)

Ex: driving stick shift car-first reinforce and say good when they shift without stalling

Token Economies An environmental setting that

fosters desired behavior by reinforcing it with tokens (secondary reinforcers)

Ex: giving tickets for good behavior and using the tickets to buy goodies

Star stickers for reading: more stars allows you free time or buy more books etc.

Learning: Cognitive Factors

Contingency TheoryLearning occurs when stimuli

provides information about the likelihood of the

occurrence of other stimuli.Ex: Rescorla’s dogs

(tone and shock)

Latent Learning Latent: hidden or concealed Tolman’s rats:

Rats learned about mazes in which they roamed even when they were unrewarded for doing so

Rats would acquire a cognitive map of the maze

Learning remained hidden until they were motivated to follow the rapid routes for food goals

Observational Learning The acquisition of

knowledge and skills through the observation of others (who are called models) rather than by means of direct experience.

Observational Learning May account for most human

learning Not mechanically acquired through

reinforcement We can learn by observation

without engaging in overt responses at all

Ex: observe parents cook, read, clean

Modeling Models may be live,

symbolic, or verbal instruction

Behaviors learned: Academic skills: reading, problem-solving Aggression: doll experiment, media

violence Moral thinking: generosity, self-control,

temptation resistance

Modeling Effects of modeling on Behavior:

Learn new behaviors and ways of responding

Reinforcement may facilitate or inhibit frequency of behaviors

Increases similar behavior

Modeling Traits of Effective Models:

Perceived as competent, successful, and high status individuals

Typically exhibit “gender-appropriate” behavior

Relevant to observer’s situation