Learning Chapter 5 Part II Last revised: May 2005 William G. Huitt.
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Transcript of Learning Chapter 5 Part II Last revised: May 2005 William G. Huitt.
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LearningChapter 5
Part II
Last revised: May 2005
William G. Huitt
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Operant Conditioning
The major theorists for the development of operant conditioning are:
• Edward Thorndike
• John Watson
• B.F. Skinner
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Operant Conditioning
• Operant conditioning investigates the influence of consequences on subsequent behavior.
• Operant conditioning investigates the learning of voluntary responses.
• It was the dominant school in American psychology from the 1930s through the 1950s.
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Operant Conditioning
• Where classical conditioning illustrates S-->R learning, operant conditioning is often viewed as R-->S learning
• It is the consequence that follows the response that influences whether the response is likely or unlikely to occur again.
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Operant Conditioning
• The three-term model of operant conditioning (S--> R -->S) incorporates the concept that responses cannot occur without an environmental event (e.g., an antecedent stimulus) preceding it.
• While the antecedent stimulus in operant conditioning does not ELICIT or CAUSE the response (as it does in classical conditioning), it can influence its occurrence.
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Operant Conditioning
• When the antecedent does influence the likelihood of a response occurring, it is technically called a discriminative stimulus.
• It is the stimulus that follows a voluntary response (i.e., the response's consequence) that changes the probability of whether the response is likely or unlikely to occur again.
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Operant Conditioning
• There are two types of consequences:
– positive (sometimes called pleasant)
– negative (sometimes called aversive)
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Operant Conditioning
• Two actions can be taken with these stimuli:
– they can be ADDED to the learner’s environment.
– they can be SUBTRACTED from the learner’s environment.
• If adding or subtracting the stimulus results in a change in the probability that the response will occur again, the stimulus is considered a CONSEQUENCE.
• Otherwise the stimulus is considered a NEUTRAL stimulus.
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Operant Conditioning
• There are 4 major techniques or methods used in operant conditioning.
• They result from combining:
– the types of stimuli used (positive/pleasant or negative/aversive), and
– the action taken (adding or removing the stimulus).
– the two major purposes of operant conditioning (increasing or decreasing the probability that a specific behavior will occur in the future),
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Operant Conditioning
Outcomes of Conditioning
Increase Behavior
Decrease BehaviorStimulus
Positive/pleasant
Negative/Aversive
Add Subtract
Subtract Add
Positive Reinforcement
Response Cost
Negative Reinforcement
Punishment
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• Two stages of negative reinforcement– Escape learning
• Learning to perform a behavior because it terminates an aversive event
– Avoidance learning• Learning to avoid events or conditions associated with
dreaded or aversive outcomes• Many avoidance behaviors are maladaptive and occur in
response to phobias
Operant Conditioning
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• Disadvantages of punishment and response cost
– Punishment and response cost do not extinguish an undesirable behavior; rather, they suppress that behavior when the punishing agent is present.
– Punishment and response cost indicate that a behavior is unacceptable but does not help people develop more appropriate behaviors.
Operant Conditioning
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• Disadvantages of punishment and response cost
– The person who is severely punished often becomes fearful and feels angry and hostile toward the punisher. These reactions may be accompanied by a desire to retaliate or to avoid or escape from the punisher and the punishing situation.
– Punishment frequently leads to both negative affect and aggression. Those who administer physical punishment may become models of aggressive behavior.
Operant Conditioning
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• Shaping behavior– An operant conditioning technique that consists of
gradually molding a desired behavior (response) by reinforcing responses that become progressively closer to the desired behavior
– B. F. Skinner demonstrated that shaping is particularly effective in conditioning complex behaviors
Operant Conditioning
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• Shaping behavior – Successive approximations
• A series of gradual steps, each of which is more like the final desired response
– The motives of the shaper and the person or animal whose behavior is being shaped are different
– The shaper seeks to change another’s behavior by controlling its consequences
– The person or animal’s motive is to gain rewards or avoid unwanted consequences
Operant Conditioning
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Use Conditioning to Modify Your Own Behavior
1. Identify the target behavior.• observable • measurable
2. Gather and record baseline data. • daily record • note where the behavior takes place • note cues (or temptations) in the environment
3. Plan your behavior modification program. • Set goals (small steps, moderate & systematic change)• Develop steps and actions
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4. Choose reinforcers• Pick appropriate for action• Be prepared for not receiving
5. Set the reinforcement conditions and begin recording and reinforcing your progress. • Keep in mind Skinner’s concept of shaping – rewarding small
steps toward the desired outcome. • Be perfectly honest with yourself and claim a reward only when
you meet the goals. • Chart your progress as you work toward gaining more control
over the target behavior.
Use Conditioning to Modify Your Own Behavior
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Schedules of consequences
Stimuli are presented in the environment according to a schedule of which there are two basic categories:
• Continuous
• Partial or Intermittent
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Schedules of consequences
Continuous reinforcement simply means that the behavior is followed by a consequence each time it occurs.
• Excellent for getting a new behavior started.
• Behavior stops quickly when reinforcement stops.
• Is the schedule of choice for punishment and response cost.
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Schedules of consequences
Intermittent schedules are based either on the
• passage of time
OR
• number of correct responses
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Schedules of consequences
The consequence can be delivered based on
• a fixed amount of time or number of correct responses
OR
• a slightly different amount of time or number of responses that vary around a particular number
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Schedules of consequences
This results in an four classes of intermittent schedules.
Fixed Interval
• The first correct response after a set amount of time has passed is reinforced (i.e., a consequence is delivered).
• The time period required is always the same.
• Example: Spelling test every Friday.
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Schedules of consequences
Pattern of behavior for fixed interval schedule
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Schedules of consequences
Variable Interval
• The first correct response after a set amount of time has passed is reinforced (i.e., a consequence is delivered).
• After the reinforcement, a new time period (shorter or longer) is set with the average equaling a specific number over a sum total of trials.
• Example: Pop quiz
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Schedules of consequences
Pattern of behavior for variable interval schedule
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Schedules of consequences
Fixed Ratio
• A reinforcer is given after a specified number of correct responses. This schedule is best for learning a new behavior.
• The number of correct responses required for reinforcement remains the same.
• Example: Ten math problems for homework
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Schedules of consequences
Pattern of behavior for fixed ratio schedule
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Schedules of consequences
Variable Ratio
• A reinforcer is given after a set number of correct responses.
• After reinforcement the number of correct responses necessary for reinforcement changes. This schedule is best for maintaining behavior.
• Example: Student raises hand to be called on.
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Schedules of consequences
Pattern of behavior for variable ratio schedule
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Rules In Analyzing Examples
• The following questions can help in determining whether operant conditioning has occurred.
a. What behavior in the example was increased or decreased?
b. Was the behavior
• increased (if yes, the process has the be either positive or negative reinforcement),
OR• decreased (if the behavior was decreased
the process is either response cost or punishment).
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Rules In Analyzing Examples
• The following questions can help in determining whether operant conditioning has occurred.
c. What was the consequence / stimulus that followed the behavior in the example?
d. Was the consequence (stimulus) added or removed?
• If added, the process was either positive reinforcement or punishment.
• If it was subtracted, the process was either negative reinforcement or response cost.
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Analyzing An Example
Billy likes to campout in the backyard. He camped-out on every Friday during the month of June. The last time he camped out, some older kids snuck up to his tent while he was sleeping and threw a bucket of cold water on him. Billy has not camped-out for three weeks.
a. What behavior was changed?
Camping out
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Analyzing An Example
Billy likes to campout in the backyard. He camped-out on every Friday during the month of June. The last time he camped out, some older kids snuck up to his tent while he was sleeping and threw a bucket of cold water on him. Billy has not camped-out for three weeks.
b. Was the behavior strengthened or weakened?
Weakened (Behavior decreased)
Eliminate positive and negative reinforcement
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Analyzing An Example
Billy likes to campout in the backyard. He camped-out on every Friday during the month of June. The last time he camped out, some older kids snuck up to his tent while he was sleeping and threw a bucket of cold water on him. Billy has not camped-out for three weeks.
Having water thrown on him.
c. What was the consequence?
d. Was the behavior consequence added or subtracted? Added
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Analyzing An Example
Billy likes to campout in the backyard. He camped-out on every Friday during the month of June. The last time he camped out, some older kids snuck up to his tent while he was sleeping and threw a bucket of cold water on him. Billy has not camped-out for three weeks.
Since a consequence was ADDED and the behavior was WEAKENED (REDUCED),
the process was PUNISHMENT.
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Classical vs Operant Conditioning
• Processes of generalization, discrimination, extinction, and spontaneous recovery occur in both classical and operant conditioning
• Both types of conditioning depend on associative learning
• In classical conditioning, an association is formed between two stimuli
• In operant conditioning, the association is established between a response and its consequences
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Classical vs Operant Conditioning
• In classical conditioning, the focus is on what precedes the response
• In operant conditioning, the focus is on what follows the response
• In classical conditioning, the subject is passive and responds to the environment rather than acting on it
• In operant conditioning, the subject is active and operates on the environment