Learning Across the Expert-Novice Learning Across the Expert-Novice Continuum: Cognition in the Continuum: Cognition in the

GeosciencesGeosciences

Heather PetcovicWestern Michigan University

Heather PetcovicHeather PetcovicKathleen BakerKathleen BakerCaitlin CallahanCaitlin Callahan

Magdalena WisniewskaMagdalena Wisniewska

Julie LibarkinJulie LibarkinZach HambrickZach HambrickSheldon TurnerSheldon TurnerNicole LaDueNicole LaDueTara RenchTara Rench

This work is supported by the National Science Foundation under Grants No. DRL-0815764 (PI Petcovic) and DRL-0815930 (PI Libarkin). Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.

Joe ElkinsJoe Elkins

Thank You: IUGFSThank You: IUGFS

WHY STUDY EXPERT AND NOVICE WHY STUDY EXPERT AND NOVICE GEOCOGNITION?GEOCOGNITION?

www.cookiemadness.net

THE EMPIRICAL STUDYTHE EMPIRICAL STUDYPURPOSE: examine how cognitive processes that underlie geological thinking and skills change from novice (undergraduate student) to expert (professional geoscientist)

Geological Expertise

Education & Experience

Outdoor Comfort (Novelty Space)

General Spatial Ability

Outdoor (Field) Problem-Solving

Domain Content Knowledge Working

Memory Capacity

THE EMPIRICAL STUDYTHE EMPIRICAL STUDYMETHODS: (1) use existing or develop new cognitive tasks and measures (N=40); (2) recruit novice through expert volunteers to complete suite of lab and field tasks (N=29)

Construct Task or Measure

Experience Geologic Experience Questionnaire (General and Mapping)

Domain Content Knowledge

Geoscience Concept Inventory (GCI+)

General Spatial Ability

Paper Folding, Form Board (ETS Toolkit); Space Relations

Working Memory Capacity

General – Matrix Span, Arrow Span

Geologic – Block Diagram Test

Outdoor Comfort Novelty Space Survey

Field Problem-Solving Geologic Mapping Task

Bedrock geologic map (scanned and digitized)

GPS track during mapping (ArcGIS)

Post-mapping Interview (and audio logs, N=8)

METHODS: LAB AND FIELDMETHODS: LAB AND FIELDLABORATORY STUDY• Adopt, adapt, or develop new

tasks and measures• Recruit subjects (N=40)

– Novice = no geology experience– Intermediate = undergrad major or

grad student– Expert = professional geoscientist

• Quantitative analysis

FIELD STUDY• Develop task/measure

suite• Recruit and select

subjects (N=29)– Novice = undergrad major– Intermediate = grad or

young professional– Expert = professional

• Data collection Aug 2009– Rocky Mts., Montana– Cognitive tests– Intro to local rocks– Mapping task

• Data analysis

MEASURES: EXPERIENCEMEASURES: EXPERIENCEGEQ-G• Geoscience education

and experience survey– Demographics– Degrees and coursework– Assistantships– Teaching experience– Original research– Work experience

• Subject validation

• Scoring after AIPG certification

GEQ-M• Experience bedrock

mapping– Coursework, internship,

teaching, work experience, etc.– Related to bedrock mapping

Have you completed an undergraduate degree in geology or earth science? If no, are you currently enrolled as an undergraduate student?

Did you take a Field Geology methods course?

Do you now hold or have you ever had a position to teach geological sciences at the college level?

Have you ever been employed as a geoscientist or earth scientist (not including internships and/or assistantships while you were a student)?

RESULTS: EXPERIENCERESULTS: EXPERIENCE

FINDINGS• GEQ-G

– 10 experts (>5)– 9 intermediates (2.5-5)– 10 novices (<2.5)

• GEQ-M– 4 experts (>7)– 13 intermediates (1-5)– 12 novices (<1)

• Measures are significantly correlated

s. rho =.79, p < 0.01

MEASURES: DOMAIN CONTENT MEASURES: DOMAIN CONTENT KNOWLEDGEKNOWLEDGE

GCI+• Knowledge of geoscience content• Modified from Libarkin and Anderson’s GCI• 18 multiple choice• 2 free-response

Why does the Earth have a magnetic field? A.The Earth contains crust of different composition B.The Earth has a gravitational force of attraction C.The Earth contains moving metal liquidD.The Earth has an orbit around the sunE.The Earth does not have a magnetic field

Draw a representation of the intersection between a bedding plane and a fault on the stereonet below.

RESULTS: DOMAIN CONTENT RESULTS: DOMAIN CONTENT KNOWLEDGEKNOWLEDGE

FINDINGS• GCI discriminates

experts from novices

• GCI and GEQ-G: positive correlation

• GCI and GEQ-M: significant positive correlation

• Experts have higher domain content knowledge

N=29s. rho = .376, p = .04

MEASURES: GENERAL MEASURES: GENERAL SPATIAL ABILITYSPATIAL ABILITY

SPATIAL-VISUAL ABILITY

• Mental rotation, recognizing patterns and shapes, vertical and horizontal frames of reference, mentally manipulating a surface or volume, spatial relationships

• Paper Folding, Form Board (ETS Toolkit); Space Relations

RESULTS: GENERAL (NON-RESULTS: GENERAL (NON-GEOLOGIC) SPATIAL ABILITYGEOLOGIC) SPATIAL ABILITY

FINDINGS:• Higher scores than non-

geologists

• Experts do NOT score higher than novices

• Does not decrease with age

• Positive corr. with GCI

• Do high spatial ability students self-select into geosciences?

Spatial Ability Composite

GC

I

N=29r = .33

MEASURES: GENERAL SPATIAL MEASURES: GENERAL SPATIAL WORKING MEMORY CAPACITYWORKING MEMORY CAPACITY

WORKING MEMORY CAPACITY• Capacity to both store and process information in active

memory

• Correlates with other measuresof intelligence

• Arrow Span, Matrix Span

• Sets of 2-6• Briefly view letter• Determine if inverted• Briefly view arrow• Was letter inverted? Y/N• Draw arrow

RESULTS: GENERAL SPATIAL RESULTS: GENERAL SPATIAL WORKING MEMORY CAPACITYWORKING MEMORY CAPACITY

FINDINGS:• No better than non-

geologist population

• Experts do NOT perform better than novices

• Negative correlation with age

• Weak positive correlation with GCI

• Experts do not have greater general WMC

MEASURES: GEOLOGIC MEASURES: GEOLOGIC WORKING MEMORY CAPACITYWORKING MEMORY CAPACITY

DOMAIN SPECIFIC WMC• Block diagram test – ubiquitous in teaching• Geologic and non-geologic• Range of difficulty• Test:

• View block• Reproduce on tablet PC

RESULTS: GEOLOGIC WORKING RESULTS: GEOLOGIC WORKING MEMORY CAPACITYMEMORY CAPACITY

FINDINGS• People overall do better on geologic blocks • Geologists do NOT do better on geologic blocks• Experts are faster, can be more sloppy, give up quickly,

and tend to correct non-geologic blocks

NOVICE (Non-Geo) INTERMEDIATE EXPERT

MEASURES: OUTDOOR MEASURES: OUTDOOR COMFORTCOMFORT

• I know a lot about geology.• I have difficulty identifying geologic structures in the field.

• I know where we are going on this field project.• I am unfamiliar with this field area.

• I know what is expected of me during this field project.• I am uncomfortable working alone in the field.

RESULTS: OUTDOOR COMFORTRESULTS: OUTDOOR COMFORT

FINDINGS• Cognitive novelty

decreases with expertise

• Geographic and social novelty decrease slightly with expertise

• Experts are more comfortable with mapping task

geographic

cognitive

psychological

MEASURES: GEOLOGIC MEASURES: GEOLOGIC PROBLEM-SOLVINGPROBLEM-SOLVING

THE BEDROCK MAPPING TASK• Walk-through introduction to

rock types• Air photo and topo maps• ~1 km by 500 m area• Unlimited time• 4 major rock units

IMAGE REMOVED DUE TO ONGOING RESEARCH

MEASURES: BEDROCK MAPSMEASURES: BEDROCK MAPS

MAP SCORING – RANK ORDER BASED ON:

• Correct ID of units• Accuracy of contacts• Accuracy of thickness• Correct structural

interpretation

s. rho = -.47, p = .01

IMAGE REMOVED DUE TO ONGOING RESEARCH

RESULTS: BEDROCK MAPSRESULTS: BEDROCK MAPSCORRELATIONS:• Map rank and GCI: significant correlation• Map rank and WMC (general and geologic): correlation• Map rank has no correlation with spatial visualization• Map performance mainly driven by domain content knowledge

r = -.49

(without these possible outliers)

Spatial WMC Composite

Map

Ran

k

s. rho = -0.55, p=0.002

MEASURES: GPS TRACKSMEASURES: GPS TRACKSPARAMETERS• Total time, distance, no. stops• Mean speed, intersections• Up/down ratio, area seen

ANALYSIS• Cluster analysis based on track

characteristics to identifysimilar track types

• Visual inspection and qualitative analysis to identifysignature clusters

• Overlay tracks on maps

12

34

RESULTS: GPS TRACKSRESULTS: GPS TRACKS

RESULTS: GPS TRACKSRESULTS: GPS TRACKSSIX SIGNATURE CLUSTERS• Reflect different mapping strategies

Wandering path Looping coverage Back & forth

Linear Back & forth w /loops Linear w/ loops

RESULTS: GPS TRACKSRESULTS: GPS TRACKSMapping Expertise

Expert

NoviceIntermediate

Particip

ants

1 2 3 4

Back & Forth

Linear

Back & Forth w Loops

Linear w Loops

Looping Coverage

Wandering Path

#1

#2

#4

#3

#5

#29

#26 #28

#27

#25

RESULTS: GPS TRACKS RESULTS: GPS TRACKS AND MAPSAND MAPS

ANALYSIS (N=9)• Time spent within units• Time spent along contacts between units• Accuracy of map units and contacts (overlaid on key)

IMAGE REMOVED DUE TO ONGOING RESEARCH

RESULTS: GPS TRACKS AND MAPSRESULTS: GPS TRACKS AND MAPS

FINDINGS• Mapping rank is moderately correlated with # of intersections;

significant correlation with accuracy (Unit 1 and Unit 3)• Mapping expertise moderately correlated with area seen and

# of intersections; some moderate correlation with accuracy and time spent

Unit 1-2 contact

RESULTS: MAPPING TASKRESULTS: MAPPING TASKFINDINGS• Maps and tracks reflect individual strategies• Experts tend to make better maps but so do newly trained

novices• Experts tend to be more efficient with their route, and more

effective covering more area in shorter time • Experts tend to be more accurate and consistent with

placement – might be due to ability to orient themselves in the field

• Not one mapping strategy produces a good map, however some are better than others• Good – back & forth, linear• Bad – back & forth w/ loops

• Novices more likely to adopt poor strategy

OVERALL PRELIMINARY FINDINGSOVERALL PRELIMINARY FINDINGSEXPERTS:• Have more domain-specific

content knowledge• Have reduced cognitive novelty• Were not significantly better

spatial-visualizers than undergrads

• Do not seem to have greater geologic or general WMC?

• Produce better maps (though newly trained novices also produce good maps)!

• Overall, individual differences in strategies used to produce successful maps

IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHINGIMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING

• Domain content knowledge is critical

• Early instruction in spatial ability

• Purposeful movement in the field – physical instruction?

• No one “best” strategy for mapping success (but avoid “bad” strategies)