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Transcript of Leadership Theory 2
Leadership Theory 2: An introduction
BA Hons Business Level 6
Janette Bradnick
Contemporary leadership theory•Our focus now tends to be on:
▫What leaders do▫How they do it (styles)▫What sort of leaders (types) carry out these
activities and practice these styles and•And we look at any evidence of what
makes them effective leaders•Much recycles previous leadership
theories
What leaders do• Most convincing analysis: John Adair (1973),
Action Centred Leadership:• There are 3 essential roles of leaders:
▫Define the task▫Achieve the task▫Maintain effective relationships
• These translate into 3 areas of need, which areinterdependent
Action-centred leadership – Task functions
• Achieving the objectives of the work group
• Defining group tasks
• Planning the work
• Allocation of resources
• Organisation of duties and responsibilities.
Action-centred leadership – Team functions
• Maintaining morale and building team spirit
• The cohesiveness of the group as a working unit
• Setting standards and maintaining discipline
• Systems of communication within the group
• Training the group
• Appointment of sub-leaders.
Action-centred leadership –Individual functions
• Meeting the needs of the individual members of the group
• Attending to personal problems
• Giving praise and status
• Reconciling conflicts between group needs and needs of the individual
• Training individuals.
How they do it: Leadership styles• Leadership style = the approach leaders use when
relating to their followers (sometimes called management style)
• There is no one best style; the best approach is the one that fits the situation (aligns with situational and contingency theories) and will depend on:
• The type of organisation, the nature of the task, the characteristics of the followers and of the group as a whole, and the personality of the leader.
• Effective leaders can flex their style to meet the demands of the situation
Daniel Goleman’s Six Leadership Styles (2000)Style Characteristics Use when
Coercive Demands compliance
In a crisis or with problem people
Authoritative
Mobilises people When new vision/direction are needed
Affiliative Creates harmony To heal wounds and to motivate people under stress
Democratic Forges consensus To build agreement and get contributions
Pacesetting Sets high standards
To get fast results from a motivated team
Coaching Develops people To improve performance and develop strengths
DISCUSS:
Research suggests that four of Goleman’s leadership styles have a positive impact on organisational climate and performance.
But what factors in an organisational context would make the other 2 styles more effective?
(Break into groups of 3-5 and discuss and share your ideas and then will present your thoughts to the class – 10 minutes group discussion + 10 minutes presentations – each group 2- 3 min)
Leadership styles• Tannenbaum and Schmidt identified a continuum
of leadership styles based upon:▫The degree of authority used by the manager▫The area of freedom available to the manager
The four main styles:• Tells• Sells• Consults• Joins
Activity: Discover your own style• Which style do you think you tend to adopt?
• Now complete the questionnaire, score it and read about your style (your leadership style questionnaire)..\Your leadership style Questionaire.docx
• Is this what you predicted? Why do you think it is the same or different from your prediction?
• What will be the impact of your result?
Leadership style decisions•The choice of style is influenced by 3 main
forces:Forces in the
manager: incl. personality, background, experience
Forces in the subordinate: incl.
personality, expectations
Forces in the situation: incl. the specific situation
and pressures
Team Leadership - Historical Perspective of– 1920s-1980s
20-30s 40s 50s 60-70s 80s
• Human Relations movement
• Collaborative efforts at work
• Group dynamics
• Social science theory
• T group
• Leader’s role in T group
• Organizational development
• Team leader effectiveness
• Quality teams
• Benchmarking
• Continuous improvement
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Practice, Sixth Edition ©
2012 SPublications,
Inc.
Historical Perspective of Team Leadership – 1990s
90s
• Group dynamics
• Social science theory
• Team-based, technology enabled
• Global perspective
• Flatter organizational
structure
• Strategies for competitiveadvantage
Parker 1990
Effectiveness research The use of teams has led to:Greater productivity, more effective use of resources, better decisions & problem solving, better-quality products & services, increased innovation & creativity
BUT organizational culture needs to support employee involvement
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Northouse - Leadership Theory and Practice, Sixth
Edition © 2012 SAGE Publications, Inc.
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Northouse - Leadership Theory and Practice, Sixth
Edition © 2012 SAGE Publications, Inc.Hill’s
Model for Team Leadership
Team Leadership Model
•Model provides leader or designated team member with a mental road map to help ▫Diagnose team problems, and▫Take appropriate action to correct team problems
•Effective team performance begins with leader’s mental model of the situation
•Mental model reflects▫Components of the problem▫Environmental & organizational contingencies
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Northouse - Leadership Theory and Practice, Sixth
Edition © 2012 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Leadership Decision 1 Should I Monitor the Team or Take Action?
• Leaders can:▫Diagnose, analyze, or forecast problems (monitoring) or take
immediate action to solve a problem▫Focus on problems within the group (internal) or which
problems need intervention▫Make choices about which solutions are the most appropriate
• Effective leaders have the ability to determine what interventions are needed, if any, to solve team problems
• All members of the team can engage in monitoring
• Leaders differ in timing of taking action
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Northouse - Leadership Theory and Practice, Sixth
Edition © 2012 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Leadership Decision 121
Northouse - Leadership Theory and Practice, Sixth Edition © 2012 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Leadership Decision 2 Should I Intervene to Meet Task or Relational Needs?
Task Getting job
done Making
decisions Solving
problems Adapting to
change Making plans Achieving goals
Even more challenging in virtual teams
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Northouse - Leadership Theory and Practice, Sixth
Edition © 2012 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Maintenance Functions Developing positive climate Solving interpersonal
problems Satisfying members’ needs Developing cohesion
Leadership Decision 3 Should I Intervene Internally or Externally?
•Leader must:▫Determine what level of team process needs leadership
attention:▫Internal task or relational team dynamics, if:
Conflict between group members Team goals unclear
▫ External environmental dynamics, if: Organization not providing proper support to
team
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Northouse - Leadership Theory and Practice, Sixth
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Leadership Actions• Leadership Functions – performed internally
or externally
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Northouse - Leadership Theory and Practice, Sixth
Edition © 2012 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Task•Goal focusing•Structuring for
results• Facilitating
decision making•Training•Maintaining
standards
Relational•Coaching•Collaborating•Managing conflict•Building commitment•Satisfying needs•Modeling principles
Environmental•Networking•Advocating•Negotiating support•Buffering•Assessing•Sharing information
Internal Leadership Actions External Leadership Actions
Internal Task Leadership Actions
• Set of skills or actions leader might perform to improve task performance:▫Goal focusing (clarifying, gaining agreement)▫Structuring for results (planning, visioning, organizing,
clarifying roles, delegating)▫Facilitating decision making (informing, controlling,
coordinating, mediating, synthesizing, issue focusing)▫Training team members in task skills (educating,
developing)▫Maintaining standards of excellence (assessing team and
individual performance, confronting inadequate performance)
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Northouse - Leadership Theory and Practice, Sixth
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Internal Relational Leadership Actions
•Set of actions leader needs to implement to improve team relationships:▫Coaching team members in interpersonal skills▫Collaborating (including, involving)▫Managing conflict and power issues (avoiding
confrontation, questioning ideas)▫Building commitment and esprit de corps (being
optimistic, innovating, envisioning, socializing, rewarding, recognizing)
▫Satisfying individual member needs (trusting, supporting, advocating)
▫Modeling ethical and principled practices (fair, consistent, normative)
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Northouse - Leadership Theory and Practice, Sixth
Edition © 2012 SAGE Publications, Inc.
External Environmental Leadership Actions
• Set of skills or behaviors leader needs to implement to improve environmental interface with team:▫Networking and forming alliances in environment
(gather information, increase influence)▫Advocating and representing team to environment▫Negotiating upward to secure necessary resources,
support, and recognition for team▫Buffering team members from environmental
distractions▫Assessing environmental indicators of team’s
effectiveness (surveys, evaluations, performance indicators)
▫Sharing relevant environmental information with team
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Northouse - Leadership Theory and Practice, Sixth
Edition © 2012 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Strengths
•Provides answers to what constitutes excellent teams
•Provides a cognitive guide that assists leaders in designing and maintaining effective teams
•Recognizes the changing role of leaders and followers in organizations
•Can be used as a tool in group leader selection
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Northouse - Leadership Theory and Practice, Sixth
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Criticisms•Model is incomplete. Additional skills
might be needed •May not be practical as the model is
complex and doesn’t provide easy answers for difficult leader decisions
•Fails to consider teams that have distributed leadership, where team members have a range of skills, and where roles may change
•More focus required on how to teach and provide skill development in areas of diagnosis and action taking
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Northouse - Leadership Theory and Practice, Sixth
Edition © 2012 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Application
• Useful in leader decision making
• Can be used as a team diagnostic tool
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Team Effectiveness31
Northouse - Leadership Theory and Practice, Sixth
Edition © 2012 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Types of leaders1. Charismatic leaders2. Inspirational leaders3. Visionary leaders4. Transformational leaders5. Transactional leaders6. Authentic leaders7. Laissez-faire 8. Superleaders
1. Charismatic leaders
• Re-emergence of trait theory.• Rely on their personality to get people to follow them• Burns (1978) coined the term: suggested that charismatic
leaders were treated as being endowed with exceptional powers or qualities which inspire followers
• A process of formulating an inspiring vision of the future and then demonstrating the importance of that vision. Conger & Kanungo, (1998)
• Charismatic leaders operate as visionary and transformational leaders and may ▫ use unconventional behaviour▫ take risks▫ motivate by personal example
• But: charisma can be used to abuse trust for the self-interest of the leader and “the ability to inspire trust, not charisma, is what enables leaders to recruit others to a cause” Bennis (2010, p.4)
2. Inspirational leaders• Understands the spirit within.
• Connects with the led, appreciates the capabilities of others, and through trust unlocks the powers in others.
• Recognises and seizes the brief window of opportunity that acts as a powerful catalyst, inspiring the leader and the led.
Adair
A truly inspirational leader:
3. Visionary leaders•Inspired by a clear vision of an exciting
future and inspire their followers by successfully conveying that message to them
4. Transformational leaders• effective leaders raise people’s motivation and
sense of higher purpose• Are able by their force of personality to make
significant changes in the behaviour of their followers in order to achieve the leaders vision or goals
• involves motivating people to strive for higher goals (Burns, 1978)
• Emphasis is on generating a vision for the organisation, the leader’s ability to appeal to higher ideals and values of followers, and creating a feeling of justice, loyalty and trust
• Is about transforming the performance or fortunes of a business.
4.1 Transformational leaders•Yukl (1999) advised transformational
leaders to:▫Develop a challenging and attractive vision
together with employees▫Tie the vision to a strategy for its
achievement▫Develop the vision, specify and translate it
into actions▫Express confidence, decisiveness and
optimism about the vision and its implementation
4.2 Transformational Leadership: The Four ‘I’s
•Individualized consideration•Intellectual stimulation•Inspirational motivation•Idealized influence
Bernard M. Bass (1985)
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4.3 Individualized Consideration
• Showing concern for the individual• Identifying individuals’ abilities and
needs• Providing matching challenges• Providing opportunities to learn• Delegating, coaching and giving
developmental feedback…leads to a desire to improve and learn
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4.4 Intellectual Stimulation•Stimulating people’s intellect and
imagination•Questioning the status quo•Encouraging imagination and
creativity•Using and encouraging intuition
as well as logic…leads to a willingness to think
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4.5 Inspirational Motivation
• Inspiring people by articulating exciting possibilities
• Communicating a clear vision• Aligning organizational goals with
individual goals• Treating threats, problems and mistakes
as opportunities• Using appealing words and symbols
…leads to a willingness to exert extra effort
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4.6 Idealized Influence• Displaying charisma• Expressing confidence in the vision• Personally taking full responsibility• Displaying a sense of purpose, persistence
and trust• Emphasizing accomplishments• Gaining respect, trust and confidence by
personally demonstrating out-of-the-ordinary ability
…leads to trust, identification with the leader, and a desire to achieve to show
support
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•https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TrZHqZwXr-U
•https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=60O2OH7mHys
Stop and Think - Exercise- Considering senior business and political
leaders with whom you are familiar, either directly or through the media, which comes closest to the definition of transformational leader?
- Do you think that new, super, transformational leader looks like a ‘one best approach’?
5. Transactional leaders• A leader who treats relationships with followers in
terms of an exchange, giving followers what they want in return for what the leader desires, following prescribed tasks to pursue established goals
• Conforms to the stereotype of the manager not the leader
• Leaders can display both transformational and transactional leadership (Bass, 1985) and transactional leadership behaviour is used to some degree by most leaders (Tavanti, 2008)
• http://education-portal.com/academy/lesson/the-transactional-leader.html#lesson
5.1 Problems with Transactional Leadership
•Motivating and rewarding people with ‘carrots’ and punishing them with ‘sticks’ makes them feel like donkeys
•Lack of consideration for people’s ideas, needs and feelings
•Focuses only on planning, organizing, directing and controlling - and manipulation by reward
•Does not develop people to their fullest potential and contribution
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6. Authentic Leaders• Originally defined by George (2003, p12):
“Authentic leaders genuinely desire to serve others through their leadership. They are more interested in empowering the people they lead to make a difference than they are in power, money or prestige for themselves, They lead with purpose, meaning and values. They build enduring relationships with them. Others follow them because they know where they stand. They are consistent and self-disciplined”
• It’s about owning one’s personal experiences (thoughts, emotions, needs, preferences, beliefs) and behaving in accordance with one’s true self
• Based on positive moral and high ethical standards• They act in accordance with deep personal values and
convictions to build credibility and win the respect and trust of followers
7. Laissez-faire Leadership•Avoiding taking a stand•Ignoring problems•Not following up•Refraining from intervening
…leads to conflict and lack of achievement
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7.1 Research Findings• Transformational leaders achieve better
relationships, greater effort, more persistence, greater risk taking, more creativity and greater overall achievement among followers or subordinates
• Transactional leaders may achieve expected results but achieve less innovation
• Laissez-faire leaders are least effective• Transformational leadership can be developed
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7.2 Leadership Styles of Laissez-faire, Transactional and Transformational Leaders
•Effective leaders use different leadership styles in different situations
•Leaders may have one or more ‘natural’ or predominant styles
•Leaders perhaps rise and fall for this reason
•What styles are associated with laissez-faire, transactional and transformational leadership?
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7.3 Leadership Styles of Laissez-faire, Transactional and Transformational Leaders: Self-assessments
• Laissez-faire leaders use no particular style much• Transactional leaders use only the directive style
significantly, and do so strongly• The more transactional leaders use management
by exception, the less participative they tend to be• Transformational leaders actively use all four
leadership styles - directive, consultative, participative and delegative
Roger Gill (1999)
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8. The Superleader• A leader who is able to develop leadership capacity
in others, empowering them, reducing their dependence on formal leaders, stimulating their motivation, commitment and creativity. (Buchanan & Huczynski, 2010, p.618)
• The superleader idea uses past theories:The theory The new transformational
superleaderTrait-spotting Must have the right personality,
appearance, attributes, voiceStyle-counselling Must be caring, inspirational and
visionary, ethical, risk-takerContext-fitting/contingency
Style is consistent with rapidly changing environment, with the need to develop flexible organisational forms, motivate knowledge workers and develop a learning organisation
Commonalities and Differences in Transformational and Transactional Leadership across Hierarchies• Transformational leadership is displayed more at
higher levels than at lower levels• The effectiveness of transformational leadership
is the same at all levels• The use of both transactional leadership and
laissez-faire leadership is the same across the hierarchy
• The effectiveness of transactional leadership decreases above middle-management level
Gareth Edwards and Roger Gill (2003, 2005, 2009)
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Engaging Leadership
• UK model that focuses on ‘nearby’ leadership rather than ‘distant’ leadership in achieving employee engagement
• Engagement is the extent to which employees put discretionary effort into their work
• Entails aligning organizational and individual aspirations
• Measured by the Engaging Transformational Leadership Questionnaire (E-TLQ)
• High levels of reliability and validity reported
Beverly Alimo-Metcalfe and John Alban-Metcalfe (2001, 2005, 2007)
The Engaging Transformational Leadership Model (Alimo-Metcalfe and Alban-Metcalfe)
ENGAGING INDIVIDUAL
S
PERSONAL QUALITIES & CORE VALUES
Being Honest & ConsistentActing with
Integrity
Showing Genuine Concern
Being AccessibleEnabling
Encouraging Questioning
ENGAGING THE
ORGANISATIONSupporting a
Developmental CultureInspiring Others
Focusing Team EffortBeing Decisive
MOVING FORWARD TOGETHERBuilding Shared Vision
NetworkingResolving Complex
ProblemsFacilitating Change
Sensitively
Homework
For next week – watch the movie the Devil Wears Prada and answer the questions in the hand-out. We will discuss
the movie next week.
Review & Recap
Leadership in films: The Devil Wears Prada ( 2006)
1. Watch this movie2. Answer the questions3. Watch the whole film outside of class
and enhance your answers for next week
Recap from last class1. How many types of Leader’s were
discussed in class last week? Name them…
2. Contemporary Leadership theory focusses on?
Leadership in films: The Devil Wears Prada ( 2006)
1. Watch this movie2. Answer the questions3. Watch the whole film outside of class
and enhance your answers for next week,
4. Break in small groups of 3-5 and discuss the questions for the movie and prepare to present you ideas and thoughts to the class – 15 minutes + 20 minutes presentations
Other Contemporary Leadership Models
1. Visionary Leadership2. Charismatic Leadership3. Organic Leadership4. Centered Leadership5. Pragmatic Leadership6. Warrior Leadership7. Strategic Leadership8. Evolutionary Leadership Theory
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Problems with Transformational Leadership Theories
Useful contributions to leadership thinking, but…• Still incomplete explanations of leadership – each
one a single, different piece in the jigsaw puzzle• Methodological criticisms• Dubious construct validity• Ignore the situation or context of leadership• Fail to explain dysfunctional charisma• Fail to address or sufficiently explain vision,
sense of mission or purpose, values and ethics, and strategy
• A fragmented, confusing picture of disparate theories needs to be replaced by a more integrated paradigm
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Imas 2005-06
GENDERnone of the theories consider the role of women leaders
CROSS-CULTURAL DIMENSIONS culture has been neglected as the emphasis has been put on methods, structure and technology in organisation
NEGLECTED APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP
A ‘Meta-Model’ of Leadership:Six Core Themes and Practices
Based on a wide-ranging review of the academic and practitioner leadership
literature•Vision•Purpose or Mission•Values•Strategy•Empowerment•Engagement
Roger Gill (2012)
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A Model of Six Core Themes and Practices of Leadership (Gill, 2012)
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Shared Values
Identify, display and promote shared values that support the vision, purpose and strategies
Leadership
Vision
Engagement
Empowerment
Strategy
Define and communicate a valid and appealing
vision of the future
Influence, motivate and inspire people to want to do what
needs to be done
Develop, communicate and implement rational strategies that are
informed by shared values
Empower people to be able to do what needs to be done
Define and communicate avalid and appealing mission or purpose
Purpose
The reality of Leadership•Many first line managers will have no
appreciation of the leadership skills they will need.
•They will often see their role as being able to tell people what to do and then making sure that they do it, adopting a more transactional approach, focusing on getting the job done.
•=> leaders need to be developed… (how?)
Distributed Leadership- Leadership occurs at all levels of an organisation; it is a
widely distributed phenomenon- Leadership functions are best carried out by those who
have the interest, knowledge, skills and motivation to perform them effectively & much change occurs this way
- Self-managing teams with no formal leaders- Encouraged by flatter organisational structures,
teamwork, knowledge work, network organisation forms and the trend for employee empowerment and engagement.
- But formal, senior figures still continue to exercise leadership alongside distributed leadership.
Effective leaders• Work Foundation (Tamkin et al., 2010) research,
involving 260 interviews with 77 business leaders found that outstanding leaders:▫ View things as a whole rather than compartmentalising
them▫ Connect the parts through a guiding sense of purpose▫ Are highly motivated to achieve excellence and are
focused on organisational outcomes, vision and purpose▫ Understand they cannot create performance themselves
but are conduits for performance through their influence on others
▫ Watch themselves carefully and act consistently to achieve excellence through their interactions and their embodiment of the leadership role.
Leadership development• Are leaders born or made?• Yukl (2006) proposed that development programmes
must have the following if they are to be successful:▫ Clear learning objectives▫ Clear, meaningful content▫ Appropriate sequencing of content▫ Appropriate mix of training methods▫ Opportunity for active practice▫ High trainee confidence▫ Appropriate follow-up activities
• But the organisation must also provide the support and working conditions they need to carry out their role properly
Do we need leaders?•New leaders typically take up a new post
intoxicated with the prospect of transformation and radical revision
•This triggers an avalanche of transformation and hectic activity
•Repeated reorganisation leaves managers/ employees exhausted
•Blame for resulting chaos is sought but leader has already left to start the same elsewhere
•Really useless leaders kill enthusiasm, emotion, engagement trust
Breeds of leaders (adapted fr.Oxman et al. 2005)
BreedThe most common type of leader; self-focused, with a need to piss all over everything to mark territory
Well-meaning, but incompetent, and dangerous when aroused
Bureaucratic, commonly suffer from anal retentiveness, which makes them irritable
Ideological, focused on a specific peculiar aim derived from a specific peculiar way of looking at the world, to the exclusion of empirical evidence and common sense
Leaderless•Much debate•Little practice•A utopian desire?•Or simply informal/distributed
leadership?
In-class discussionIn groups of 3, think about a person that you consider a leader and list aspects of leadership qualities that you identify in this person. (10 minutes)
Present you ideas to the rest of the class.(20 minutes)
References• Buchanan, D.A. & Huczynski, A.A. (2010), Organisational
Behaviour, Prentice Hall
• Oxman, A.D. Sackett, D.L. Chalmers, I. and Prescott, T.E. (2005) A surrealistic mega-analysis of redisorganisation theories, Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 98 (12): 563-68