Leadership Practices in Sales Managers Associatedwith the Self-Efficacy, Role Clarity, and Job

Satisfaction of Individual Industrial SalespeopleMary E. Shoemaker

This study examines the use of Kouzes and Posner's (1987) model of leadership practices by first linesales managers. This research explores key salesperson job perceptions of self-efficacy, role clarity,and job satisfaction in a sample of industrial field salespeople. Regression results indicate that all fivepractices are significantly associated with job satisfaction. Inspiring a Shared Vision, EnablingOthers to Acty Modeling the Way, and Encouraging the Heart are also associated with role clarity. Nosignificant relationship with any leadership practices and self-efficacy were found.

The role of the sales manager is evolving to fit therealities of the next century. The primary functionof the sales manager is being redefined by the in-creasing use of new technology (Cravens 1995), salesforce automation (McMahon 1994), and the greateremphasis on empowerment (Anderson 1996), teamselling, reengineering, quality management, cus-tomer focus (Wotruba 1996), and relationship andsolution selling (Keenan 1994). At some companies,sales administration, communication, call reports,support, forecasts and even training are now elec-tronic (Campanelli 1994; Columbo 1994), To be valu-able in the new environment, sales managers mustshift to new activities such as developing their peopleto manage themselves, empowering their sales-people, and envisioning and facilitating the entiremarketing process (Anderson 1996; Keenan 1994),

This new role requires a sales manager with lead-ership skills. Successful sales managers in the fu-ture will emphasize leadership behaviors over ad-ministrative and supervisory skills. Traditionally,sales managers have relied heavily on financial com-pensation to motivate salespeople, often substitut-ing money for real leadership (Rosenbloom andAnderson 1994), Cravens et al. (1993b) found thatbehavior-based control systems were equally or moreimportant than compensation-based control systemsfor sales.

Mary E. Shoemaker ( Ph.D., Drexel University) is an AssistantProfessor of Management, School of Business Administration,Widener University in Chester, Pennsylvania. ProfessorShoemaker's research interests are in sales management, leader-ship, business-to-buBinesa marketing and sales force automation.The author thanks Rolph Anderson, Joseph Seltzer, MarvinJolson, Cynthia Saltzman, the editor and the anonymous review-ers for their help on this research.

This study investigates the leadership practicesof sales managers and their impact on key job per-ceptions of salespeople. These perceptions, job sat-isfaction, role clarity, and self-efficacy, are all de-sired end values, as well as antecedents to perfor-mance and turnover.

Conceptual BackgroundLeadership that influences followers to perform

at the highest levels, transcending self-interest, hasbeen identified primarily as transformational lead-ership (Bass 1985; Burns 1978; Kouzes and Posner1987; Podsakoff et al. 1990). Similar concepts aretransformative leadership (Bennis 1985),superleadership (Manz and Sims 1989), empower-ment (Conger 1989; Vogt and Murrell 1990) andcharismatic leadership (House 1977) among others.Transformational leadership needs to be furtherexamined in a sales management setting (Jolson etal, 1993), Dubinsky et al, (1995) found, in an em-pirical test of the Bass model, while transforma-tional behaviors augmented the effects of transac-tional leadership behaviors in two salesperson workoutcomes, that transactional behaviors may havemore effect on salesperson responses. Similarly,Russ et al. (1996) found transactional leadershipexplained significant variance in salesperson per-formance, but transformational leadership did not.Also using the Bass model. Comer et al. (1995) ex-amined female sales managers' leadership styles.Their findings suggest that transactional behav-iors are more effective in sales managers. These

Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management,Volume XIX, Number 4 (Fall 1999, Pages 1-19).

Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management

extant studies suggest transformational style asdescribed by the Bass model may be less effectivefor sales managers than transactional behaviors.

The Leadership Practices Model(Kouzes and Posner 1987)

Kouzes and Posner created their model based onthe concept that leaders could be identified by theirability '*to get extraordinary things done in organi-zations" and that certain practices were common tosuccessful leaders, Kouzes and Posner explored whatindividuals did when those individuals personallyfelt they experienced leading, not managing, an or-ganization. The five practices that emerged ac-counted for more than 80 percent of the behaviorsand strategies described by the respondents (Posnerand Kouzes 1990). Conger and Kanungo (1987) hy-pothesize that leadership behaviors are an interre-lated constellation of components. Kouzes andPosner's model reflects this hypothesis because lead-ers do not select and implement a single supervi-sory practice; leaders continuously use all or mostof the practices. Fields and Harold (1997) concludedthat the transformational/transactional distinctionoverlays the five leadership practices identified byKouzes and Posner (1987).

The five practices used by leaders identified byKouzes and Posner are:

Challenging the Process^This practice involves1) seeking new solutions to problems,sefirching for opportunities, 2) encourag-ing innovation, and taking risks.

Inspiring a Shared VisionThis practiceinvolves 1) creating and communicat-ing a vision of the future and 2) en-listing others to share that vision.

Enabling Others to ActThis practice involves1) fostering collaboration and coopera-tion within a group and 2) strengtheningothers' capabilities to perform.

Modeling the WayThis practice involves 1)setting an example, behaving in waysconsistent with stated values and 2)planning small wins, enabling follow-ers to experience tangible success.

Encouraging the Heart^This practice involves1) rect^nizing contributions, holding andcommunicating high expectations, link-ing performance and rewards, and 2) cel-ebrating accomplishments.

First-line sales managers are an appropriategroup to use in studying the Leadership Practicesmodel as the model fits the environment and em-phasis of a sales manager well. Their subordinatesare boundary spanners, often isolated from theirpeers, who operate under inherently transactionaland highly uncertain conditions (Walker, Churchill,and Ford 1975),

Challenging the ProcessChallenging the Process, for example, is concep-

tually similar to Bass's Intellectual Stimulation;both consider new ways of looking at old problems.The Intellectual Stimulation concept stresses theuse of intelligence to overcome obstacles (Bass 1997),while the first dimension of Challenging the Pro-cess emphasizes implementing new approaches andtaking risks. Boundary spanners often are changeagents (Leifer and Delbecq 1978),

The second dimension of Challenging the Processencourages people to risk failure, which is inherentin overcoming call reluctance, continually seekingnew relationships, and trying new selling skills.This practice includes fostering hardiness, whichallows salespeople to deal with rejection, lost or-ders, and dissatisfied customers.

Inspiring a Shared VisionInspiring a Shared Vision is about 1) creating

and communicating a vision and 2) enlisting othersin reaching the vision. Bass's Charisma suggeststhat Charismatic leaders have unusual vision thatstems from their belief in the rightness and impor-tance of their mission. Leaders use their superiorintellectual abilities in Intellectual Stimulation tocreate an innovative vision. Corcoran et al. (1995)identifies "strategist" as a key role for top perform-ing sales managers. Quality sales training, led bymanagement, sells the vision of the organizationand teaches sales people how to implement thatvision (Cortada 1993). Inspiring a Shared Visionextends vision creation to include selling the visionand gaining commitment to the vision.

Enabling Others to ActThe practice of Enabling Others to Act has no

direct parallel in the Bass model, yet is especiallyrelevant for sales managers. The first dimension ofEnabling Others to Act is fostering collaboration,

Fall 1999

which is especially important for the highly inde-pendent salesperson. A sales manager must createa sense of teamwork, whether that is linking thesalesperson to the organization (Lysonski andJohnson 1983) or laying the foundation for teamselling (Cespedes 1992). Recently, many selling situ-ations tend to require cooperation, not competition,among salespeople (Cravens 1995; Wotruba 1996),

The second dimension is strengthening others,which relates to the needs of the boundary span-ning, possibly isolated salesperson. Boundary-span-ners lack formal authority in their situations andfrequently use information and expertise to gainpwwer (Leifer and Delbecq 1978). A salesperson usesshared information to enhance his or her expertstatus with the customer. Maximizing salespersondiscretion and autonomy can increase thesalesperson's value to his/her customer. A salesper-son who is poorly informed and not permitted tomake decisions has low credibility with the cus-tomer. Wotruba (1996) indicates that empowermentis particularly appropriate for positions involvingcustomer interaction.

Modeling the WayModeling the Way has two dimensions: 1) setting

the example, which is most similar to Bass's Indi-vidualized Consideration and 2) planning smallwins, which parallels some of Bass's ContingentReward. Setting the example, or role modeling, ispart of the mentoring process where the managerprovides an example to follow (Ragins 1997). Rolemodeling in sales often occurs when the sales man-ager accompanies a sales person on a sales call. Thesales manager models selling skills and customerrelationship building skills. Role modeling is moreimportant for development of interpersonal skillsthan technical skills (Kram 1985),

When the sales manager breaks "getting the sale"into a sales process from call planning to after-saleservice the manager enables the salesperson to plansmall wins. Account assignments become hard-to-revoke choices. These actions are the focus of Mod-eling the Way.

Encouraging the HeartThe first dimension of Encouraging the Heart is

similar to Bass's Contingent Rewards; both empha-size Unking rewards with perfonnance and settinggoals. Kouzes and Posner extend the concept withthe second dimension of celebrating accomplish-

ments. Sales forces often have very visible Winner'sCircles or President's Clubs, etc., for celebratingand rewarding high sales perfonnance (Jackson andTax 1995). As salespeople may crave a variety ofrewards. Encouraging the Heart includes intrinsicrewards and creating social support networks aswell.

Summary of ModelThe Kouzes and Posner model permits transac-

tional and transformational behaviors to coexistwithin the five practices (Fields and Herold 1997).Both types of leadership behaviors can occur simul-taneously, reinforcing each other. A sales managerwho delivers a commission check "while riding anelephant" links rewards (the check) with perfor-mance transactionally, while visibly celebrating (theelephant) accomplishments transformationally(Kouzes and Posner 1987), A salesperson conductstransactions daily on his or her own behalf, on be-half of the customers, and on behalf of the organiza-tion. Sales positions traditionally link performanceand rewards more expressly than other positions.Transactional behaviors are integral to sales andsaies management. When transactional behaviorsare a relatively independent concept, as in the Bassmodel, their prominence in the sales culture mayoveremphasize their significance. This may explainwhy Dubinsky et al, (1995), using the Bass model,found stronger relationships between salespersonjob outcomes and transactional leadership behav-iors than with transformational leadership behav-iors. Figure 1 is a comparison of the key dimensionsof the Kouzes and Posner model and the Bass model.

Critical Salesperson PerceptionsThe three perceptual outcomes selected for this

study follow from the Walker, Churchill, and Ford(1977) and the Bagozzi (1978) models of the ante-cedents of salesperson behaviors. Walker, Churchilland Ford (1977) developed a conceptual frameworkfor understanding the determinants of salespersonmotivation and performance. Empirical tests of thisframework concluded that salesperson behavior isa "function of the person, the interactions the per-son has with significant others in his or her role set,and the situation or environment in which the per-son must transact" (Bagozzi 1978, p.529). Sellingexperience, decision-making participation, close-ness of supervision (Teas 1980), consideration, ini-tiation of structure, and feedback (Teas 1983) were

Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management

Figure 1Leadership Modei Comparison

Kouzes and Posner (1987) Bass (1985)Challenging the Process Intellectual Stimulation

-Encouraging -Employing superior'ssubordinates' thinking intellectual capabilitiesand risk taking and risk taking

-Fostering hardiness

Inspiring a Shared Vision Intellectual Stimulation-Vision sharing -Vision creating-Relating vision benefits Inspirational Leadership

to subordinates -Motivational meetings-Inspiring a common purpose -i-ioiding pep rallies-Charisma Charisma

Expressing warmth and -inspiring unquestioninganiTTiation loyaity and devotion

Enabling Others to Act-Setting cooperative goals-Reaching integrative solutions-Building trusting

relationships-Sharing power and

information

Modeling the Way Individualized Consideration-Creating a basic -Developing subordinates

philosophy -Forming one-to-one-Sharing values relationships-Leading by example -Delegating

Contingent Reward-Breaking tasks into -Breaking tasks into

smalj_parts small parts

Encouraging the Heart Contingent Reward-Linking rewards with -Unking rewards with

performance performance-Recognizing contributions -Setting goals-Coaching -Clarifying goais-Celebrating accomplishments-Creating social networks Individualized Consideration_-Being_personally_involved -Mentoring

Non-Contingent Rewards-Management by exception-Negative feedback-Contingent aversion

reinforcement

FaU 1999

examined as predictors of role ambiguity and jobsatisfaction. Kohli (1985) developed a similar model,extended to include task-specific self-esteem, motiva-tion and supervisory behaviors proposed by Fulk andWendler (1982), Further evolution of the model (Kohli1989) included Stogdill's (1957) leadership behav-iors. These empirical tests of the WCF model indicatethat leadership behaviors, task-specific self-esteem,role perceptions, and job satisfaction are crucial vari-ables in understanding salesperson behavior. Thisstudy merges a leadership/supervisory model not pre-viously examined in the sales literature, with the keyfindings of previous tests of the WCF framework.

Self-EfficacySelf-efTicacy, part of Bandura's (1977) Social

Learning Theory, refers to a person's belief in his orher own capability to perform a specific task. Aperson's self-efficacy influences a person's choice ofactivities, avoiding tasks judged too difficult andembracing activities deemed manageable. Barlingand Beattie (1983) found self-efficacy to be signifi-cantly correlated with sales foree performance. Aparallel concept to self-efficacy found in the salesmanagement literature is task-specific self-esteem.Task-specific self-esteem has been shown to havesignificant positive influence on performance(Bagozzi 1978). Self-efUcacy has been found to af-fect several outcomes of interest to sales managers:performance (Harrison et al. 1997; Kirkpatrick andLocke 1996; Lee and Gillen 1989), negotiation out-comes (Brett et al. 1996), organizational commit-ment (Werbel et al. 1996), and burnout (Cordes andDougherty 1993). Self-efficacy has been identifiedas a key topic for improving theoretical frameworksin sales research (Bush and Grant 1994).

Role ClarityRole clarity is defined as the degree to which a

salesperson is certain about how he or she is ex-pected to do the job. In their meta-analysis of thedeterminants of salesforce performance, Churchill,Ford, Hartley and Walker (1985) found role percep-tions better predictors of performance than any otherpredictors. Sales supervisory behavior is related tosales force perceptions of role clarity (Teas 1983).Role ambiguity, the opposite of role clarity, hasbeen found to have a significant negative effect onsatisfaction with the work itself (Behrman andPerreaul t 1984; Fry et al. 1986; Johnston,Parasuraman and Futrell 1989; Teas 1980),

Job SatisfactionJob satisfaction is one of the most widely studied

constructs in the sales management literature andis well documented as a key job outcome for sales-people (Bagozzi 1978, 1980a,b; Behrmann andPerreault 1984; Churchill, Ford and Walker 1974,1976; Jaworski and Kohli 1991; Kohli 1985).

Transformational leadership behaviors have beenfound to affect follower's job satisfaction (Podsakoffet al. 1990), while Teas (1983) found traditionalleader behavior to be a significant predictor of salesforce job satisfaction.

HypothesesChallenging the Process

In Challenging the Process, the key behaviors areinitiating and fostering change and confronting andchanging the status quo. The process of innovation,of bringing new ideas, methods, or solutions intouse, requires leadership (Kanter 1983). Change re-duces a person's understanding of how to do his orher job because old routines and procedures are nolonger available. Leaders who encourage followersto try different ways of doing things create ambigu-ity (Podsakoff et al, 1990),

Hla: A salesperson's perception of a salesmanager's use of the leadership prac-tice Challenging the Process by the salesmanagers is negatively related to sales-person role clarity.

Challenging the Process also includes the specific be-havior of providing followers with a challenge that theyfind intrinsically motivating. EnoDuraging people to riskfailure gives people an opportunity to grow withintheir jobs, Berlew (1974) describes similar opportunitiesas the basis for meaning and satisfaction in work.

Hlb: A salesperson's perception of a salesmanager's use of the leadership prac-tice Challenging the Process by the salesmanagers is positively related to sales-person job satisfaction.

Inspiring a Shared VisionA well articulated vision conveyed so that follow-

ers can accept and understand that vision as theirown will enable followers to determine their ownrole in achieving that vision. Ideally, sales trainingcommunicates strategic visions to sales team mem-bers about their roles (Corcoran et al. 1995).

Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management

Figure 2Hypothesized Modei of Perceived Transformational Leadership Practices of Saies Managers and Their

Association with the Self-Efficacy, Roie Clarity, and Job Satisfaction of Saiespeopie

Chaiienging the Process

Inspiring a Shared Vision

Enabling Others to Act

Modeling the Way

Encouraging the Heart

Self-Efficacy

Role Clarity

Job Satisfaction

FaU 1999

H2a: A salesperson's perception of a salesmanager's use of the leadership prac-tice Inspiring a Shared Vision is posi-tively related to salesperson roie clarity.

The communication of a vision frequently gener-ates some of Berlew's (1974) value laden opportuni-ties which have been shown to produce higher jobsatisfaction. Employees of managers who effectivelycommunicate their vision report significantly higherlevels of job satisfaction (Kouzes and Posner 1987).

H2b: A salesperson's perception of a salesmanager's use of the leadership practiceInspiring a Shared Vision is positivelyrelated to salesperson job satisfaction.

Enabling Others to ActEnabling Others to Act emphasizes providing

people with the resources needed to use discretion:the training, materials, money, time, people, andinformation (Kouzes and Posner 1987). This affectsthe salesperson's belief that he or she can performtasks effectively. Task-specific self-esteem may beenhanced by greater participation in decision mak-ing (Teas 1980).

H3a: A salesperson's perception of a salesmanager's use of the leadership prac-tice Enabling Others to Act is positivelyrelated to salesperson self-efficacy.

The use of Enabling Others to Act should result inan individual salesperson's knowing more abouthis or her own work and other people's work. Greatersalesperson participation is directly associated withgreater role clarity for salespeople (Teas, Wackerand Hughes 1979). Greater communication andtrust reduces uncertainty in relationships (Morganand Hunt 1994).

H3b: A salesperson's perception of a salesmanager's use of the leadership prac-tice Enabling Others to Act is positivelyrelated to salesperson role clarity.

Job Satisfaction has been found to be affected byinfluence over standards, locus of control (Behrmanand Perreault 1984), and participation in organiza-tional decision making (Driscoll 1978), all similarto Enabling Others to Act's sharing power and in-formation. Allowing salespeople to manage them-selves (Sauers, Hunt and Bass 1990) and havegreater flexibility and control over their job assign-ments (Crawford and Nonis 1996) enhances job sat-isfaction. Cooperative relationships are similar tothe integration required that Behrman andPerreault (1984) found influenced job satisfaction.

H3c: A salesperson's perception of a salesmanager's use of the leadership prac-tice Enabling Others to Act is positivelyrelated to salesperson job satisfaction.

Modeling the WayModeling the Way emphasizes shared values

which have been shown to foster feelings of per-sonal effectiveness (Posner, Kouzes and Schmidt1985). One antecedent to a person's self-efficacy isBandura's (1982) vicarious experiences, seeing oth-ers complete a task successfully.

H4a: A salesperson's perception of a salesmanager's use of the leadership prac-tice Modeling the Way is positively re-lated to salesperson self-efficacy.

Modeling the Way occurs also when the leadersdetermine their own values and live them, settingan example of how goals should be achieved. Jointsales calls and account planning would provide thesalesperson the opportunity to experience the salesmanager's priorities and methods. Closer supervi-sion of salespeople results in decreased role ambi-guity (Teas 1980; Walker, Churchill and Ford 1975).People are more likely to guide their actions byobserving desired behavior than by relying on out-comes to define their roles (Bandura 1977).

H4b: A salesperson's perception of a salesmanager's use of the leadership prac-tice Modeling the Way is positively re-lated to salesperson role clarity.

Role modeling appears to have an influence onperformance and job satisfaction (Rich 1997). Sharedvalues result in positive work attitudes (Posner1992) as value congruence is an antecedent to jobsatisfaction (Locke 1976). Enabling Others to Actwas found to be a significant predictor of job satis-faction in a study of hospital managers (McNeese-Smith 1996).

H4c: A salesperson's perception of a salesmanager's use of the leadership prac-tice Modeling the Way is positively re-lated to salesperson job satisfaction.

Encouraging the HeartEncouraging the Heart emphasizes developing

high expectations. People tend to respond to others'expectations about them (Livingston 1969). The be-haviors and expectations of leaders have an impacton a person's self-efficacy (Gist 1987). Bagozzi(1980a) suggests that in order to influence perfor-

Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management

mance, management should enhance task-specificself-esteem by consistently providing positive rein-forcement through persona! recognition, monetaryrewards and socially visible acknowledgement ofgood perfonnance.

H5a: A salesperson's perception of a salesmanager's use of the leadership prac-tice Encouraging the Heart is positivelyrelated to salesperson self-efficacy.

Encouraging the Heart also emphasizes linkingrewards with performance. Greater performancefeedback provided to salespeople is directly associ-ated with greater role clarity among salespeople(Jaworski and Kohli 1991; Teas, Wacker and Hughes1979). Achievement-oriented supervisory behaviorswhich include 1) expecting high levels of perfor-mance and 2) expressing confidence that subordi-nates will meet those goals, are positively relatedto role clarity (Kohli 1985).

H5b: A salesperson's perception of a salesmanager's use of the leadership prac-tice Encouraging the Heart is positivelyrelated to salesperson role clarity.

Perception that performance is linked with re-wards has a direct relationship with job satisfac-tion (Crawford and Nonis 1996; Locke 1976). En-couraging the Heart emphasizes feedback, organi-zational support, compensation linked with perfor-mance, coaching, and personal involvement. Feed-back (Jaworski and Kohli 1991; Teas and Horrell1981), perceived organizational support, compen-sation (Babakus et al. 1996), individualized sup-port (Podsakoff et al. 1990), and contingent rewards(Podsakoff, Todor and Skov) have been found topositively affect job satisfaction.

H5c: A salesperson's perception of a salesmanager's use of the leadership prac-tice Encouraging the Heart is positivelyrelated to salesperson job satisfaction.

Research MethodSample and Data Collection

Survey questionnaires were mailed to 277 U.S.electrical/ electronic control component salespeoplefrom a single manufacturer. A cover letter prom-ised confidentiality and a stamped self addressedreturn envelope was included. Responses were re-ceived from 168 salespeople, representing all salesmanagers and most sales locations. Of those, tenwere unusable. This provided a response rate of 57percent. The sample is predominately white, 94 per-

cent male, and 96 percent college educated, with 10percent possessing a master's degree, representa-tive of industrial sales forces (Lucas 1996; Marchetti1996)in the U.S. The sample was highly experi-enced with low turnover and paid by a combinationof salary and commission. These salespeople per-form technical or consultative selling, representa-tive of industrial markets, requiring significant tech-nical knowledge of products and customer operations.

Measurement ScalesLeader Behavior. Leader behavior is measured

by the 30 item Leadership Practices Inventoiy (LPI-Observer) developed by Kouzes and Posner (1987).It consists of 6 behavior based items for each of thefive practices, summed for a single measure foreach practice. Internal reliabilities for the LPI Ob-server ranged from .81 to .92 for the five practices.

Kouzes and Posner tested their instrument ex-tensively. Their factor analysis yielded five factorsconsistent with a priori expectations (Posner andKouzes 1988). Also, the five factors of the LPI ex-plained nearly 55 percent of the variance aroundthe subordinates' assessments of their managers'effectiveness. Discriminant analysis indicated theLPI could group managers into low and high per-formers. Test-retest reliability was at .93 or above.Posner and Kouzes (1992) also tested the LPIObserver's sensitivity to individual differences ingender, functional field, culture and ethnic back-ground.

This current study employs Kouzes and Posner's30 items constituting the five leadership dimen-sions. Thus, six items comprised each leadershipdimension.

Self-Efficacy. In this study, self-efficacy is mea-sured by a slightly modified scale developed by Kohli(1989). The five dimensions of this scale are 1) salesobjectives, 2) technical knowledge, 3) providing in-formation, 4) controlling expenses and 5) sales pre-sentations. For the Sales Objectives and Sales Pre-sentations measures, Kohli combined the threeBehnnan and Perreault statements that had thehighest factor loadings for those dimensions. Whereappropriate, those statements were disaggregatedto modify this study, creating a nine item scale,summed for a single self-efficacy measure.

Role Clarity. Role Clarity is measured by theMULTIRAM scale (Singh and Rhoads 1991a). Thisscale specifically addresses the multidimensional-ity of the components of role ambiguity perceivedby boundary spanners in marketing-oriented posi-

FaU 1999

tions. King and King (1990) suggest that currentrole ambiguity measures are inappropriate forboundary spanners. Scale development primarilyinvolved salespeople and customer service repre-sentatives. MULTIRAM is reported to have accept-able discriminant, convergent, and nomological va-lidity (Singh and Rhoads 1991b).

Singh and Rhoads (1991a) suggest only using fac-ets of their measure that are relevant to the re-search undertaken. The current study focused onthe following facet-dimensions: Company-flexibil-ity, Company-work, Supervisor-support. Supervi-sor-demands, Customer-interaction, Customer-ob-jection, and Ethics. These dimensions were chosenbecause leadership behavior on the part of the salesmanager is expected to affect whether the rolessent by the company are clear, whether the super-visor communicates role expectations effectively,whether the salesperson understands how manage-ment prefers the salesperson to respond to rolessent by customers, and whether the salespersonknows what ethical conduct is expected. This re-sulted in a 23 item scale, summed for a single roleclarity measure. The scale was reversed scored foranalysis as the variable being examined was roleclarity, not role ambiguity.

Job Satisfaction. Job satisfaction was measuredby a version of INDSALES, originally developed byChurchill, Ford and Walker (1974) and designed toexamine the unique environment of industrial sales-people. The original INDSALES scale was reducedto a 28 item scale by Childers, Churchill, Ford, andWalker (1980) and Comer, Machleit, and Lagace(1989). Analysis of the scale by Lagace, Goolsby,and Gassenheimer (1993) indicates that the scalehas acceptable psychometric properties.

In INDSALES, the seven dimensions of salesper-son satisfaction are supervision, job itself, companypolicy, promotion, pay, fellow workers, and custom-ers. Measurement of job satisfaction by facets showedlarger effects by role perceptions than with globalmeasurements (Brown and Peterson 1993). For thepurposes of this study, the dimensions of supervisionand the job itself were examined. Specific leadershipbehaviors on the part of the sales manager can beexpected to have an effect on how satisfied a sales-person is with how he or she is supervised and onhow a person feels about his or her job. Compensa-tion, promotion and other company policies tend tocome from higher levels of management. This samplehas a flat management structure and few promotionopportunities. Satisfaction with customers and co-workers is extemal to relationships with sales man-

agers. This study uses the supervision and job di-mensions to create an 8 item scale, summed for asingle job satisfaction measure.

Data AnalysisMulticollinearity

The initial correlation matrix (Table 1) suggestssubstantial multicollinearity among the five lead-ership variables. Modeling the Way and Inspiring aShared Vision, and Inspiring a Shared Vision andChallenging the Process have bivariate coefficientsgreater than .80, which indicates highmulticollinearity (Berry and Feldman 1985; Lewis-Beck 1980). The Kouzes and Posner model incorpo-rates the concept that the five practices will be inter-related. A common solution, to delete entire vari-ables, would introduce specification error, a greaterproblem than multicollinearity (Pedhazer 1991).

To reduce the impact of the multicollinearity inthe original data, the factor scoresthe compositemeasure of the variables in each factor based on thefactor loadingswere used in the regression equa-tions (Rummel 1970). The regression results areshown in Table 2.

Regression AnalysisMultiple regression analysis was used to exam-

ine the strength of the relationship between theindependent leadership practices variables and eachof the dependent variables.

Equations for Regression ModelSelf-Efficacy = b, + b,ENABLE + b^MODEL +

Role Clarity =b^ + b^CHALLENGE +b,VISION + bgENABLE +

Job Satis.=bg+ b^CHALLENGE +

FindingsRegression of all three leadership practices on self-

efficacy resulted in an R^ of .001 and none of theindividual practices were supported (H3a, H4a, H5a).

The five leadership practices aggregated ac-counted for 33 percent of the variance in the

10 Joumal of Personal Selling & Sales Management

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.7.

8.

Challengingthe Process

Inspiring aShared VisionEnablingOthers to ActModelingthe WayEncouragingthe HeartSelf-EfficacyRole ClarityJob Satisfaction

Mean

20.71

20.47

23.23

21.14

21.51

36.8595.07

32.66

SD

4.9

5.14

4.86

4.84

5.694.07

11.93

5.17

Table 1Intercorrelations

Range

6-30

6-30

6-30

6-30

6-309-45

23-1158-40

1

0.85

.83* 0

.67*

.79*

.63*

.12

.37*

.62*

and

2

.87

.75*

.84*

.67*

.13

.46*

.67*

Reliabilities

3

0.86

.75*

.67*

.14

.47*

.71*

4

0.87

.61*

.15

.56*

.67*

5

0.92.12

.40*

.65*

6

0.81

.52*

.32

7

0.92.57*

8

0.84

*p

FaU 1999 11

salespeoples' role clarity. There was no support forthe hypothesis that Challenging the Process wasnegatively associated with Role Clarity (Hla), (Stan-dardized Beta Coefficient of .05, p

12 Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management

Figure 3Revised Model of Perceived Transformational Leadership Practices of Saies Managers and Their

Association with the Self-Efficacy, Roie Clarity, and Job Satisfaction of Saiespeopie

Challenging the Process

Enabling Others to Act

Inspiring a Shared vision

Modeling the Way

Encouraging the Heart

Role Clarity

Job Satisfaction

FaU 1999 13

people to risk failure, and innovate. Salespeopleseek challenges and often choose a sales positionbecause of the opportunity to innovate in an envi-ronment where risk taking is rewarded.

Inspiring a Shared Vision enables salespeople tosee the value of their own work in the future of thefirm. They also feel valued and possibly more se-cure when involved in the planning and discussionof the future. Salespeople perceive their work asmore meaningful and can relate its importance tothe success of the firm.

Enabling Others to Act provides salespeople witha sense of ownership of their work, permits signifi-cant discretion, allows involvement in planning, andcreates an atmosphere of mutual trust and dignityand respect. This trusting and empowering envi-ronment engendered by a sales manager appears toimpact the salesperson's job satisfaction.

A sales manager practicing Modeling the Waymay demonstrate his or her values by treating thesalesperson as a customer (Corcoran et al. 1995).Identifying salesperson needs, listening (Rich 1998),and offering solutions encourage customer (sales-person) satisfaction. Setting goals, establishing mile-stones, and breaking up tasks indicate to the sales-person that the sales manager values and supportshis or her success, thus promoting job satisfaction(Berlew 1974).

Encouraging the Heart emphasizes praise, recogni-tion, appreciation and support. These are traditionalmethods of rewarding and encouraging the sales force,frequently utilized to keep salespeople satisfied.

Managerial ImplicationsStudy results indicate that use of these five prac-

tices may enable the sales manager to positivelyimpact his or her individual salespeople. To Chal-lenge the Process, a sales manager should create aclimate of encouraging innovation and risk-taking.To Inspire a Shared Vision, a sales manager shouldcommunicate and involve salespeople in the visionof the future of the firm.

To Enable Others to Act, managers should viewsalespeople as partners in producing sales results.Managers need to involve salespeople in developingsales goals and need to continue to allow sales-people considerable discretion in achieving salesgoals. Sales managers must build a relationshipwith individual salespeople based on shared infor-mation and mutual trust.

A manager who succeeds in Modeling the Waycreates and communicates a basic philosophy that

defines how the sales task is to be performed andclarifies the values of the sales manager for thesalesperson. Sales managers should adhere to thevalues they espouse, as the sales manager is ex-pected to lead by example.

To use Encouraging the Heart, sales managersshould provide an arena for organizational recogni-tion of performance and a compensation plan thatrewards desired performance. Some less traditionalbehaviors associated with Encouraging the Heartare coaching and personal involvement in celebra-tions. These suggest the sales manager must com-municate with and support individual salespeoplepersonally as much as possible.

Limitations and Future ResearchLimitations of this study suggest avenues for fu-

ture research. First, the hypotheses need to be testedin a variety of sales force settings in order to begeneralizable. It could be expected that differentindustries, with varying compensation plans, dif-ferent hiring qualifications, and different types ofproducts might require other leadership behavior.All the sales managers and most of the salespeople aremen. Comer et al. (1995) showed men and women tohave different responses to leadership. This study maynot be relevant to predominately female sales forces.

Second, data were collected on only one level ofsales manager. Further research could examine ifhigher level managers are the source of vision andrisk orientation. As all the data were collected on asingle questionnaire, common method variance mayinfiate the strength of the relationships. The datawere also all collected at one time, so that the timesequence of the relationships is ambiguous. A lon-gitudinal study would indicate if leadership behav-iors and their impact vary over time.

Third, the use of perceptions of leader behaviors,rather than actual observations of leader behaviorsmay create some response bias. As is common inleadership studies, measurements may be affectedby prototypicality (Bass and Avolio 1989).Prototypical ity suggests that a salesperson hasformed implicit theories of how leaders behave fromprior investigation. The salesperson may be answer-ing the questionnaire based on those implicit theo-ries. General satisfaction, which is the tendency tobe satisfied with everything and anything in one'slife, may also create a response bias for the jobsatisfaction items.

Fourth, the level of multicollinearity found in theleadership practices limits the strength of the find-

14 Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management

ings. The multicollinearity may be due to the sampleor the theoretical construct. Using the question-naire with another sample or comparing resultsfrom this questionnaire with the results from an-other model of leadership, perhaps the Bass model,would strengthen the findings.

Finally, the self-efficacy results indicate a need tounderstand the consistently high responses in thissample. Is self-efficacy always high in salespeopleor could the self-efficacy results be attributed tospecification error, measurement error, respondentfatigue, or corporate culture? A well tested self-efficacy measure would be very useful.

The changing nature of the salesperson's and salesmanager's functions suggests it will be necessary tocontinue to study leadership behaviors and sales-person perceptions and outcomes in order to under-stand how the sales force can best provide value toan organization in the future.

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Fall 1999 17

Appendix AInstruments

Leadership Practices InstrumentObserverSource: Kouzes and Posner 1990Rarely (1) to Very Frequently (5)

Challenging the ProcessC1-Seeks out challenging opportunities that test his or her skills and abilitiesC6-Stays up-to-date on the most recent developments affecting our organizationC11-Challenges the way we do things at workC16-Looks for innovative ways we can improve what we do in this organizationC21 -Asks "what can we learn?" when things do not go as expectedC26-Experiments and takes risks with new approaches to his or her work even when there is a chance of failure

Inspiring A Shared VisionV2-Describes the kind of future he or she would like for us to create togetherV7-Appeals to others to share his or her dream of the future as their ownVI 2-Clearty communicates a positive and hopeful outiook for the future of the organizationV17-Shows others how their long-term future interests can be realized by enlisting in a common visionV22-Looks ahead and forecasts what he or she expects the future to be likeV27-IS contagiously excited and enthusiastic about future possibilities

Enabling Others To ActE3-lnvolves others in pianning actions that will be takenE8-Treats others with dignity and respectE13-Gives people a lot of discretion to make their own decisionsEl 8-Develops cooperative relationships with the people he or she works withE23-Creates an atmosphere of mutual trust in the projects he or she leadsE28-Gets others to feel a sense of ownership for the projects that they work on

Modeling the WayM4-Is clear about his or her own philosophy of leadershipM9-Makes certain that the projects he or she manages are broken into manageable chunksM14-Spends time and energy on making certain that people adhere to the values that have been agreed onMl 9-Lets others know his or her beliefs on how to best run the organization he or she leadsM24-IS consistent in practicing the values he or she espousesM29-Makes sure the work group sets dear goals, makes plans, and establishes milestones for the projects he or she leads

Encouraging the HeartH5-Takes the time to celebrate accomplishments when project milestones are reachedH10-Makes sure that people are recognized for their contributions to the success of our projectsH15-Praises peoplefor a job well doneH20-Gives the members of the team lots of appreciation and support for their contributionsH25-Finds ways to celebrate accomplishmentsH30-Makes it a point to tell the rest of the organization about the good work done by his or her group

LPI-Observer Copyright 1990 by Kouzes Posner ttitemational.lNC. Used with Permission.

18 Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management

Appendix A (continued)Instruments

Self-Efficacy(adapted from Kohli, 1989, performance dimensions from Behrman and Perreault, 1982)Low (1) to High (5)

Sales ObjectivesMeeting sales objectives such as market share, and dollar volumeSelling high profit margin productsIdentifying and selling to major accounts

Technical KnowledgeTechnical knowledge pertaining to your company's products, production processes, etc.

Providing InformationSubmitting timely, accurate, complete reports, records, and paperwork related to orders

Controlling ExpensesControlling expenses by saving the company money in general where possible

Sales PresentationsUnderstanding the real concerns of customersWorking out solutions to customers questions and objectionsMaking effective sales presentations

MULTIRAM-Role Clarity InstrumentSource: Singh and Rhoads, 1991Very Certain (1) to Very Uncertain (5)reverse scoredFacet-Dimensions

Company-FlexibilityHow much freedom of action I am expected to haveHow I am expected to handle non-routine activities on the job

Company-WorkThe sheer amount of work I am expected to doWhich tasks 1 should give priorityHow much work 1 am expected to doHow 1 should handle my free time on the job

Supervisor-SupportTo what extent my boss is open to hearing my point of viewHow satisfied my boss is with meHow far my boss will go to back me up

Supervisor-DemandsHow my boss expects me to allocate my time among different aspects of my jobHow to meet the demands of my bossHow I should respond to my boss's criticism

FaU 1999 19

Appendix A (continued)Instruments

What aspects of my job are most important to my bossThe level of professionalism my boss expects of me

EthicsHow top management expects me to handle ethical situations in my jobWhat I am expected to do if I find others are behaving unethicallyThe ethical conduct my boss expects of me

Customer-InteractionHow I am expected to interact with my customersHow much service I should provide my customersHow I should behave {with customers) while on the job

Customer-ObjectionHow I am expected to handle my customers' objectionsHow I am expected to handle unusual problems and situationsHow I am expected to deal with customers' criticism

INDSALES-Job Satisfaction InstrumentSource: Churchill, Ford and Walker, 1974Strongly Disagree (1) to Strongly Agree (5)

Supervision DimensionMy sales manager really tries to get our ideas about thingsMy sales manager has always been fair in dealings with meMy sales manager gives us credit and praise for work well doneMy sales manager lives up to his/her promises

Job DimensionMy work is satisfyingMy job is excitingMy work gives a sense of accomplishmentI'm really doing something worthwhile in my job