Le Huray, Schutkowski

Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 24 (2005) 135–147

www.elsevier.com/locate/jaa

Diet and social status during the La Tene period in Bohemia:Carbon and nitrogen stable isotope analysis of bone collagen

from Kutna Hora-Karlov and Radovesice

Jonathan D. Le Huray *, Holger Schutkowski

Department of Archaeological Sciences, University of Bradford, BD7 1DP, UK

Received 14 June 2004; revision received 17 August 2004Available online 9 April 2005

Abstract

Bone collagen carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios were obtained from three La Tene period inhumation cem-eteries in the Czech Republic (Kutna Hora-Karlov, Radovesice I and Radovesice II) and 16 Hallstatt period inhuma-tions in northern Austria. Results indicate that during the La Tene period in Bohemia, overall diet was based on animalprotein and plant foods following the C3 photosynthetic pathway, although d13C values for two individuals from KutnaHora-Karlov indicate at least some contribution from C4 plant foods, most likely millet. At Kutna Hora-Karlov, morepositive d15N values for male individuals buried with items of iron weaponry indicate the existence of a differential die-tary system within the male population based on individual ‘‘warrior’’ status. A comparison with data from a numberof Hallstatt period inhumations in northern Austria and a previously published study of a Hallstatt period site in Slove-nia [Murray, M.L., Schoeninger, M.J., 1988. Diet, status, and complex social structure in Iron Age Central Europe:Some contributions from bone chemistry. In: Gibson, D.B., Geselowitz, M.N. (Eds.), Tribe and Polity in Late Prehis-toric Europe: Demography, Production and Exchange in the Evolution of Complex Social Systems. Plenum Press, NewYork, pp. 155–176] enables an examination of the spread of millet as a major dietary component. This data will be ofuse to studies of diet in prehistoric Europe and provides evidence for dietary divisions relating to social stratificationduring the La Tene B–C, a period often seen as less complex than the preceding Hallstatt period.� 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Keywords: La Tene; Bohemia; Social status; Palaeodiet; Carbon; Nitrogen; Stable isotopes

The pyramids of Old Kingdom Egypt, the royal tombs of
3rd Dynasty Ur and the gold treasures of Iron Age Euro-pean graves testify to the marking of rank by the extre-mely expensive constructions, costly artefacts, and
symbolic exclusiveness of the graves—far in excess of

0278-4165/$ - see front matter � 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserve

doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2004.09.002

* Corresponding author.E-mail addresses: [email protected] (J.D. Le

Huray), [email protected] (H. Schutkowski).

typical expenditures among contemporary burials. Butthese unsystematised principles fail us in cases of moder-ate contrasts in wealth and grave expenditures. At whatpoint are we warranted in inferring hereditary inequal-

ity. . .are there other means for establishing the presenceof social rank in an ancient culture? (Brown, 1981, p. 25).

At the transition from the Hallstatt to the La Teneperiod (c. 450 BC), there is evidence to suggest majorchanges in social structure in the populations of central

d.

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136 J.D. Le Huray, H. Schutkowski / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 24 (2005) 135–147

Europe (Collis, 1984; Cunliffe, 1997; Diepeveen-Jansen,2001; Drda and Rybova, 1994; Filip, 1977; Parzinger,1995; Wells, 1980). This evidence includes the apparentabandonment of the large Hallstatt period hill-forts,seen as major centres of settlement, production andtrade, and the emergence of a system of small, dispersed,self-sufficient settlements (e.g., Kuna, 1990). Industrialand agricultural production becomes focussed on smallscale production for local use (Cumberpatch, 1995;Salac, 1993) and the specialised production sites of theearlier Hallstatt period, such as the amber processingsite at Porıcany in Bohemia, are abandoned (Ctverak,1986). By the middle La Tene there are no settlementsites equal in size or complexity to the earlier sites ofthe Hallstatt period, and where there is evidence for con-tinued occupation on a site, such as at Zavist in Bohe-mia, the period of La Tene B–C shows a markedreduction in concentrations of archaeological deposits,suggesting a major decrease in population density. Thischange in settlement patterns is accompanied by achange in burial rites with an end to the use of cremationburial and an end to the construction of elite tumulusburials (e.g., Pare, 1992). What emerges instead, is asystem of flat inhumation cemeteries with no obviousdifferences in grave construction and little difference inthe provision of grave goods between individuals (e.g.,see Waldhauser, 1999). The disappearance of the elitetumulus burials is accompanied by the disappearanceof luxury grave goods, such as the four- and two-wheeled �chariot� style vehicles (e.g., see Chytracek,1999, p. 360; Pare, 1992) and imported luxury itemsfrom the Mediterranean, and what emerges by themiddle La Tene (La Tene B), is a seemingly homogenoussociety with an almost standard grave good assemblageincluding items of bronze and iron jewellery, such aswrist and ankle bracelets, finger rings, fibulae, and torcsand occasional items of iron weaponry in male graves,including swords, shields, and spears.

In Bohemia, the archaeological evidence dating tothe La Tene B–C consists mainly of burial grounds, gen-erally of up to 50 individuals, and a large number ofsmall finds and single burials (e.g., see Waldhauser,1999, 2001). Settlement evidence is largely absent,although is beginning to emerge with the dramatic in-crease in levels of archaeological fieldwork in the CzechRepublic due partly to the recent explosion in residentialand industrial development since the �Velvet Revolution�in 1989. This, along with the recent economic develop-ment of the Czech Republic, has resulted in the intro-duction of modern techniques of both archaeologicalfieldwork and research to the field of archaeology andanthropology in the Czech Republic. Examples includethe increased use of aerial photography in the identifica-tion of potential sites of archaeological interest (e.g.,Gojda, 1997), and also the interest in utilising modernscientific techniques and applications to tackle questions

relating to the prehistory of central Europe (e.g., Smrckaand Jambor, 2000). The aim of this paper is to apply car-bon and nitrogen stable isotope analysis of bone colla-gen to human skeletal remains from the La Teneperiod in Bohemia to enable an examination of diet atboth the population and individual level and shed fur-ther light on the state of social fragmentation in La TeneBohemia to question the view that society during thisperiod was essentially homogenous and less complexthan the preceding Hallstatt period. As the first applica-tion of stable isotope analysis to human skeletal materialfrom this region, it is hoped that this study will alsohighlight the potential of this method to researchersworking in these areas.

Diet and social status

The presence and quantity of particular food items inan individual�s diet may be related to external factorsother than simple availability, such as the age, sex, andsocial status of an individual. As a result, studies of pastdiet can be used to make inferences about populationsubdivision and social stratification. In examining dentalhealth, diet, and social status in modern African pygmiesand Bantu, Walker and Hewlett (1990) observed signif-icant differences in the frequency of carious lesionsbetween men and women and between �leaders� and�non-leaders,� this was interpreted as the result of sociallyinduced differences in access to animal protein sincethose individuals eating more meat products consumedless carbohydrate rich plant foods. Hatch and Geidel�s(1983) study recognised a link between status groupsand stature in prehistoric societies of eastern Tennesseeand suggested that other forms of anthropological re-search, including the study of pathology, bone develop-ment and stress, and measures of body proportionsand musculature could provide additional comparativedata in studies of social status. Danforth (1999) providesa summary of work carried out in North America thatrelates subsistence roles with political systems notingthat:

the political structure of the group is highly integratedwith subsistence patterns in a complex feedback rela-tionship. Food production patterns have a direct impacton political systems: for example, no known state-level

polity has occurred within an environment unable toproduce a surplus (Danforth, 1999, p. 2).

It has been recognised that even in so-called �egalitar-ian� societies, all individuals do not have equal statusand a range of social differences may exist that all havethe potential to affect access to nutritional resources.

Since their introduction to the field of archaeology,methods of analytical chemistry have been applied toarchaeological bone material in an attempt to examine

J.D. Le Huray, H. Schutkowski / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 24 (2005) 135–147 137

these theories in past populations (e.g., Blakeley andBeck, 1981; Hatch and Geidel, 1985; Schoeninger,1979). Schutkowski (1995) and Schutkowski et al.(1999) examined trace element and stable isotope pat-terns in the Early Medieval period in southwest Ger-many and used cluster analysis to suggest thatdifferences in diet between individuals were related to so-cial variation, as indicated by the presence of specificgrave goods. The provision of specific grave objectswas used as an independent set of data to prove non-random relationships between social and dietary differ-ences within the population. Access to particular food-stuffs, especially milk and milk products, animalprotein and horticultural, and cereal products formedthe basis of this dietary differentiation. Richards et al.(1998) examined carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ra-tios in a skeletal collection from the Iron Age, Roman,and post-Roman periods at the Poundbury Camp Cem-etery site in Dorchester, England. Differences in dietwere observed between periods, but also, within the Ro-man period, dietary differences could be related to burialtype (whether an individual was buried in a wooden cof-fin, mausoleum or lead coffin). More recently, Ambroseet al. (2003) used carbon and nitrogen stable isotopeanalysis to suggest that differences in diet between indi-viduals at Cahokia Mound 72 in the Mississippian Rivervalley could be related to gender and social status asdetermined by an examination of grave goods and burialstyle. These examples demonstrate how stable isotopeanalysis can be used to provide an additional indepen-dent set of data to further understand patterns relatingto diet and social stratification in prehistoric societies.

Stable isotope analysis

Carbon and nitrogen stable isotope analysis of bonecollagen has been shown to be related to diet (Ambrose,1993; DeNiro and Epstein, 1978, 1981; Schoeninger andDeNiro, 1984). This method examines the isotopic ratiosof carbon and nitrogen (i.e., 13C/12C and 15N/14N) in thesurviving organic portion of bone (collagen) and com-pares the values obtained to the ratios of internationalreference materials. For carbon isotope ratios, this stan-dard is a marine carbonate (PeeDee Belemnite), whilefor nitrogen isotope ratios the standard is atmosphericnitrogen (AIR). Data are presented as delta values (d)and represent the deviation in parts per thousand (&)of the sample analysed to the relevant international stan-dard. This data can be used to examine the relative con-tribution of dietary components with distinct d13C andd15N values, since variation exists between specific die-tary components due to biological fractionation, a pro-cess which results in the preferential uptake of thelighter isotope in an attempt to conserve energy, thuscausing a change in the isotopic ratio. These values are

then passed along the food chain in a relatively predict-able pattern. Carbon stable isotope ratios can be used toexamine the relative importance of plant foods followingeither the C3 or C4 photosynthetic pathway. In dietaryterms, C3 plant foods represent the native European spe-cies such as wheat and barley, while C4 plant foods areadapted to more arid environments and include someof the imported tropical domesticated species, such asmaize, millet, and sorghum. Nitrogen stable isotope ra-tios can be used to examine trophic level, since there isan approximate shift of around +2 to 4& due to biolog-ical fractionation (Schoeninger and DeNiro, 1984) andas one moves up the food chain in a particular ecosys-tem, d15N values will increase. The contribution of mar-ine foods can also be examined, since d13C and d15Nvalues also vary between marine and terrestrial ecosys-tems (Chisholm et al., 1982; Schoeninger et al., 1983)with marine consumers having more positive d13C andd15N values than their terrestrial counterparts.

Site information

The La Tene period flat inhumation cemetery at Kut-na Hora-Karlov lies approximately 60 km southeast ofPrague (see Fig. 1) and was excavated in 1988–1989 bythe District Museum of Kutna Hora. The site contained49 inhumation burials and 1 cremation burial, the latterof which may be a later intrusive feature (Valentova,1991, 1993). Grave goods, especially the form of thebronze fibulae, have been used to date the site to theLa Tene B, with a possible continuation into the LaTene C. Human skeletal remains lay extended and su-pine with only subtle differences between burials, suchas slight variations in the position of the limbs. Individ-ual graves were orientated N–S, with the skull to thenorth, while discolouration of the grave fill, fragmentsof degraded wood, and the presence of associatedpost-holes suggest the possible use of wooden coffinsand above ground grave markers in some if not all buri-als. The La Tene period cemeteries of Radovesice I andRadovesice II are located in north western Bohemia (seeFig. 1), 6 km southwest of the town of Teplice. The siteof Radovesice I and the nearby settlement were exca-vated in 1974–1977 and the site at Radovesice II in1981, both by the Museum of Teplice (Waldhauser,1987, 1993, 1999). At a distance of only 950 m awayfrom each other, the relationship between the burialgrounds of Radovesice I and Radovesice II is unknown.There is the possibility that both cemeteries may repre-sent a single population, however Waldhauser (1999,p. 171) has argued that differences in the use of specificgrave goods between the two sites, for example in theuse of sapropelite bracelets at Radovesice I but not atRadovesice II, indicates two distinct populations. Dat-ing of grave goods at both sites to the La Tene B–C indi-

Fig. 1. Map of the modern Czech Republic showing the location of the La Tene period inhumation cemeteries of Kutna Hora-Karlovand Radovesice.


cates that at the very least, both burial grounds were inuse at the same time, but questions remain over howmany communities these sites represent. Stable isotopeanalysis may or may not reveal the presence of dietarydifferences between these populations, however DNAanalysis, and metric and non-metric analyses may pro-vide more information on the relationship between thesetwo cemetery populations. The 34 inhumation graves atRadovesice I and 23 inhumation graves at Radovesice IIare comparable to those at Kutna Hora-Karlov, withskeletal remains laid extended and supine and graveslaid N–S with the skull to the north. Again three crema-tion graves at Radovesice II may reflect later intrusivefeatures. Grave goods at Radovesice I and II are similarto those at Kutna Hora-Karlov, and are indicative of LaTene B–C finds. Discolouration of the soil, traces ofwood fragments, and associated post-holes again indi-cate the use of coffins and above ground markers.

Methods

The human skeletal remains from the La Tene periodflat inhumation cemeteries of Kutna Hora-Karlov andRadovesice I and II were examined for biological dataon sex, age, stature, and pathology. Bone samples ofapproximately 1 g were taken from either the rib or fe-mur. Animal bone samples were taken from three gravesat Kutna Hora-Karlov: a sample of cow metacarpalfrom grave 7, a sample of horse mandible from grave14 and a sample of pig mandible from grave 25. Thesamples from the Hallstatt period sites in northern Aus-tria were provided by Dr. Vaclav Smrcka of the Post-

graduate Medical School in Prague. All samples werecleaned using air abrasion with an aluminium oxidepowder to remove adhering soil particles, and then sub-jected to a modified Longin (1971) collagen extractionmethod. Samples were demineralised in 0.5 M HCl at2–5 �C for up to 14 days, and then gelatinised at 72 �Cfor 48 h in deionised water adjusted to pH 3, with0.5 M HCl. The resulting solutions were then filteredusing Ezee filter separators (Elkay Laboratory Products,Basingstoke) to remove insoluble materials and then fil-tered using Amicon Ultra-4 centrifugal filters (Millipore)to remove contaminants lower than 30,000 NMWL(Brown et al., 1988). Resulting solutions were lyophi-lised before a sub-sample of 0.4 ± 0.1 mg was com-busted and analysed by Isotope Ratio MassSpectrometry (Finnigan DeltaPlus XL). To examine theaccuracy and precision of analytical methods, a Methio-nine standard reference material, with known d13C(�26.6&) and d15N (�3.0&) values (Elemental Micro-analysis, Devon, UK) was analysed in tandem with sam-ples of bone collagen, while collagen yield, thepercentages of carbon and nitrogen, and the C:N ratiowere recorded to examine whether samples were affectedby diagenetic processes (Ambrose, 1993). In a study ofAfrican samples, Ambrose (1990) found that collagenwas only well preserved in samples with a total yieldabove 3.5%, however, Van Klinken (1999) examined arange of collagen preservation indicators in Europeansamples and found that collagen molecules were pre-served in samples with yields as low as 0.5%. As a result,environmental factors are recognised as important con-tributing factors to collagen preservation. For thisstudy, samples with yields between 0.5 and 1% were con-


sidered suspect and any samples with collagen yields be-low 0.5% were discarded from the analysis.

Results

The results of the stable isotope analysis are pre-sented in Tables 1–4 and Figs. 2–4. Tables 1–4 list car-bon and nitrogen stable isotope data in relation to thesex and estimated age at death of human skeletal mate-rial. Also presented is data important for assessing colla-gen preservation including the overall collagen yield, thepercentage of carbon and nitrogen in the collagen sam-ple, and the C:N ratio. Figs. 2–4 represent bivariate

Table 1Results of stable isotope analysis of bone collagen from Kutna Hora

Sample Grave Sex Age d13C & (PDB

KUT 01 1 Male 46+ �18.6KUT 04 4 Male 26–45 �19.3KUT 05 5 Male 26–45 �18.8KUT 06 6 Male 26–45 �19.1KUT 08 8 Female 26–45 �19.1KUT 09 9 Indeterminate 13–17 �18.6KUT 10 10 Male 46+ �19.0KUT 11 11 Indeterminate 46+ �18.5KUT 12 12 Male 26–45 �19.0KUT 14 14 Male 26–45 �19.2KUT 15 15 Male 18–25 �18.7KUT 17 17 Male 26–45 �18.9KUT 18 18 Male 26–45 �19.1KUT 19 19 Male 46+ �19.5KUT 20 20 Female 46+ �19.1KUT 21 21 Female 18–25 �19.0KUT 22 22 Female 46+ �19.1KUT 23 23 Male 46+ �19.7KUT 24 24 Female 26–45 �17.2KUT 25 25 Male 18–25 �18.5KUT 26 26 Female 26–45 �18.4KUT 30 30 Male 18–25 �18.7KUT 35 35 Female 26–45 �17.1KUT 36 36 Indeterminate 26–45 �19.2KUT 37 37 Indeterminate 26–45 �18.9KUT 38 38 Male 18–25 �18.4KUT 39 39 Female 26–45 �18.4KUT 40 40 Male 46+ �19.4KUT 41 41 Male 26–45 �18.8KUT 42 42 Male 46+ �19.4KUT 43 43 Female 26–45 �19.4KUT 44 44 Male 26–45 �19.6KUT 45 45 Female 26–45 �18.5KUT 46 46 Female 26–45 �18.2KUT 47 47 Female 46+ �18.8KUT 48 48 Female 18–25 �19.3KUT 49 49 Female 26–45 �19.3KUT 7 COW �21.0KUT 14 HORSE �21.6KUT 25 PIG �20.8

plots of the carbon and nitrogen stable isotope datafor each skeleton from each of the skeletal collectionsanalysed. Analytical precision is 0.2& for both carbonand nitrogen and is defined as the standard deviationof multiple analyses of the Methionine standard.

Collagen preservation

Collagen yields for the samples analysed range from0.6 to 13.4% (see Tables 1–4). It was expected that colla-gen yields would be somewhat lower than those typicallyobserved in traditional stable isotope studies, since theuse of ultra-filters lowers the overall yield by removingconstituents lower than 30,000 NMWL. This �cleaning�

-Karlov

) d15N % (AIR) %C %N C/N Collagen yield (%)

9.4 37.8 14.8 3.0 4.310.1 42.5 16.2 3.1 2.79.4 42.6 16.4 3.0 2.99.1 43.0 16.9 3.0 5.111.2 42.1 16.6 3.0 7.810.3 39.7 15.5 3.0 3.810.3 41.7 15.9 3.1 1.79.9 39.8 15.5 3.0 5.510.0 41.6 16.4 3.0 2.910.7 44.5 17.8 2.9 13.19.5 42.3 16.9 2.9 8.311.0 42.6 17.0 2.9 13.410.2 41.7 16.6 2.9 5.610.3 42.0 16.6 3.0 4.510.6 42.0 16.3 3.0 3.59.8 38.4 15.2 3.0 4.010.6 38.1 15.1 2.9 4.99.6 37.4 14.9 2.9 4.88.9 41.4 16.2 3.0 3.710.7 38.0 13.8 3.2 3.110.1 38.8 15.2 3.0 2.510.5 40.3 15.9 3.0 3.99.4 41.8 16.5 3.0 4.29.5 41.7 16.5 2.9 9.49.5 44.6 17.9 2.9 12.810.1 36.0 14.2 3.0 5.310.4 42.1 16.3 3.0 2.29.8 42.1 16.2 3.0 4.19.4 39.6 15.5 3.0 1.810.3 39.0 15.4 3.0 5.09.7 30.2 11.9 2.9 6.38.9 41.6 16.3 3.0 4.59.8 40.9 16.1 3.0 3.39.7 41.4 16.4 2.9 4.69.7 38.7 15.3 2.9 3.89.9 42.9 17.2 2.9 15.410.5 43.0 17.2 2.9 15.85.2 42.2 16.5 3.0 4.27.3 41.7 16.3 3.0 9.95.8 41.8 16.3 3.0 8.4

Table 2Results of stable isotope analysis of bone collagen from Radovesice I (x, no data)

Sample Grave Sex Age d13C & (PDB) d15N % (AIR) %C %N C/N Collagen yield (%)

RAD1 01 1 Male 46+ �19.1 9.3 42.9 15.6 3.2 4.3RAD1 02 2 Male 18–25 �17.5 10.2 42.6 15.0 3.3 5.2RAD1 03a 3 Female 26–45 �18.9 9.3 39.8 14.4 3.2 6.1RAD1 03b 3 Male Adult �19.0 10.4 43.0 15.8 3.2 6.5RAD1 05 5 Male Indeterminate �19.4 9.4 37.6 13.4 3.3 2.3RAD1 07 7 Indeterminate Adult �18.8 9.5 41.8 15.2 3.2 6.2RAD1 08 8 Indeterminate Adult �19.1 11.3 42.8 15.3 3.3 3.5RAD1 09 9 Indeterminate Adult �18.8 10.6 40.9 14.6 3.3 5.9RAD1 10 10 Indeterminate Adult �18.7 9.5 37.7 13.3 3.3 2.3RAD1 11 11 Indeterminate Adult �19.5 9.9 40.3 14.4 3.3 4.6RAD1 12 12 Indeterminate Indeterminate �19.3 10.0 43.1 15.6 3.2 6.5RAD1 13 13 Male 26–45 �19.2 10.9 43.7 15.8 3.2 6.9RAD1 14 14 Female 26–45 �19.7 10.3 37.5 13.4 3.3 0.7RAD1 15 15 Female Adult �19.1 9.2 33.5 11.4 3.4 0.6RAD1 16 16 Male 26–45 �18.9 10.0 44.0 15.9 3.2 8.6RAD1 17 17 Indeterminate Indeterminate �19.1 9.3 42.6 15.1 3.3 6.3RAD1 18 18 Indeterminate Indeterminate �18.1 9.8 41.8 15.5 3.1 9.1RAD1 20 20 Male Adult �19.3 10.0 42.9 15.2 3.3 5.8RAD1 21 21 Female Adult �19.2 10.3 42.8 15.6 3.2 4.2RAD1 22 22 Male 26–45 �18.9 9.9 44.3 16.3 3.2 6.7RAD1 24 24 Female 18–25 x x x x x 0RAD1 25 25 Indeterminate 26–45 �9.1 10.3 36.8 12.9 3.3 1.4RAD1 31 31 Indeterminate Indeterminate �18.5 9.6 43.5 15.6 3.2 9.0RAD1 32 32 Indeterminate Indeterminate �18.8 9.9 42.9 15.9 3.2 7.2RAD1 33 33 Female Adult �19.1 10.7 41.7 15.3 3.2 6.2RAD1 34 34 Female 26–45 �18.5 10.1 43.0 15.6 3.2 4.3RAD1 35 35 Indeterminate 26–45 �18.9 9.9 40.0 14.5 3.2 3.6RAD1 36 36 Female Indeterminate �18.0 8.7 41.9 14.9 3.3 7.3

Table 3Results of stable isotope analysis of bone collagen from Radovesice II

Sample Grave Sex Age d13C & (PDB) d15N % (AIR) %C %N C/N Collagen yield (%)

RAD2 01 1 Indeterminate Adult �19.0 9.3 42.6 15.0 3.3 11.8RAD2 02 2 Indeterminate Adult �18.4 9.1 43.7 15.6 3.3 13.1RAD2 03 3 Indeterminate Adult �18.7 9.0 43.1 15.1 3.3 12.2RAD2 05 5 Indeterminate Adult �18.7 8.9 39.7 13.7 3.4 10.2RAD2 06 6 Indeterminate 7–12 �19.0 9.1 40.5 14.0 3.4 8.2RAD2 07 7 Male 26–45 �18.9 10.5 43.1 15.0 3.3 10.1RAD2 08 8 Female 26–45 �18.9 9.4 38.5 13.4 3.4 6.8RAD2 09 9 Male Adult �19.2 9.7 43.1 15.1 3.3 11.4RAD2 10 10 Indeterminate 13–17 �19.2 8.4 42.7 15.0 3.3 10.7RAD2 11 11 Male 13–17 �18.5 8.4 43.8 15.4 3.3 11.4RAD2 12 12 Female Adult �19.0 9.2 42.4 14.7 3.4 10.8RAD2 13 13 Male 46+ �18.9 9.4 43.7 15.3 3.3 9.5RAD2 14 14 Male 18–25 �18.5 8.9 42.8 15.1 3.3 11.4RAD2 15 15 Male 46+ �19.0 9.3 42.6 15.1 3.3 11.7RAD2 16 16 Male 26–45 �18.9 9.3 43.7 15.4 3.3 11.9RAD2 17 17 Male 46+ �18.9 10.0 43.8 15.4 3.3 12.6RAD2 18 18 Male 26–45 �18.7 10.1 43.7 15.2 3.3 9.1RAD2 19 19 Male 46+ �18.8 9.3 42.9 15.6 3.2 11.2RAD2 20 20 Male 18–25 �19.0 8.5 43.7 15.1 3.4 9.9RAD2 21 21 Male 46+ �18.6 9.7 43.2 15.1 3.3 4.4RAD2 22 22 Male 46+ �19.1 10.0 43.2 14.9 3.4 9.7RAD2 23 23 Indeterminate 7–12 �18.9 8.5 43.4 15.3 3.3 6.5RAD2 A A Indeterminate Adult �18.7 10.2 42.7 15.1 3.3 12.4


Fig. 2. Carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios of human (+) and animal (s) bone collagen from Kutna Hora-Karlov, CzechRepublic.

Table 4Results of stable isotope analysis of bone collagen from selected Hallstatt period sites in northern Austria

Sample Site d13C & (PDB) d15N % (AIR) %C %N C/N Collagen yield (%)

HA 12162 Langelebarn �18.7 9.2 48.1 16.8 3.3 3.8HA 12163 Langelebarn �18.7 9.3 56.4 20.3 3.2 11.8HA 12165 Langelebarn �17.9 10.1 49.8 17.7 3.3 11.8HA 7691 Klein Rust �19.8 8.6 49.0 16.9 3.4 2.3HA 7690 Klein Rust �19.3 8.8 48.7 17.5 3.2 7.8HA 7693 Klein Rust �19.0 9.0 49.8 17.4 3.3 8.1HA 5789 Statzendorf �18.9 9.0 44.0 14.8 3.5 3.1HA 5795 Statzendorf �20.1 8.7 51.7 15.6 3.9 3.9HA 5493 Statzendorf �20.0 8.9 49.9 16.5 3.5 1.5HA 5798 Statzendorf �19.7 9.1 51.7 17.3 3.5 7.1HA 6305 Stadlau �14.8 7.7 50.6 17.8 3.3 8.4HA 21551 Gosinfurth bei Amstetten �17.3 8.5 44.2 14.8 3.5 3.2HA 944 Slemschek �17.8 9.1 51.1 18.1 3.3 4.7HA 9866 Mauer-Ohling �19.6 7.1 45.2 15.5 3.4 3.7HA 9868 Kuffern �19.2 10.1 47.4 16.1 3.4 3.5HA 21785 Rohrendorf �17.1 9.5 49.5 17.4 3.3 4.8


of the collagen sample may reduce overall yields by asmuch as 75% and as a result comparisons with yieldsfrom previously published studies should take this intoconsideration. The stable isotope data for samples�RAD1 14� with a collagen yield of 0.7%, and �RAD115� with a collagen yield of 0.6% should be consideredsuspect (see Table 2). Collagen could not be obtainedfrom one sample, �RAD1 24� and as a result, this samplewas discarded from the analysis. The percentage of car-bon in collagen samples range from 30 to 56% by weightwith a mean value of 43% (see Tables 1–4). These valuesare slightly higher than the mean values observed by theOxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit (34.8% ± 8.8,n = 2146) (Van Klinken, 1999, p. 691) but well within

the range accepted as representing collagen. Percentagesof nitrogen in collagen samples range from 11 to 20%with a mean value of 16% (see Tables 1–4), a figure com-parable to the 11–16% observed by Van Klinken (1999,p. 691). Carbon to nitrogen ratios range from 2.9 to 3.5,with the exception of one sample, HA 5795, with a C:Nratio of 3.9, suggesting contamination of this sample byorganic carbon (see Table 4).

Isotopic ratios of collagen

Carbon stable isotope ratios of the human bone col-lagen samples range from �20.1 to �14.8&, with amean value of �18.9& (r = 0.7&), while nitrogen stable

Fig. 3. Carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios of bone collagen from Radovesice I (·) and Radovesice II (n), Czech Republic.

Fig. 4. Carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios of bone collagen from various Hallstatt period inhumations in northern Austria.


isotope ratios range from 7.1 to 11.3& with a meanvalue of 9.7& (r = 0.7&). Although these mean valuesreflect an overall diet based on varying quantities of ter-restrial animal protein and plant foods following the C3

photosynthetic pathway, some of the more positive d13Cvalues reflect consumption of plant foods following theC4 photosynthetic pathway, most likely millet (Panicummiliaceum). The carbon stable isotope data for the cow(�21.0&), horse (�21.6&), and pig (�20.8&) samplesreflect a terrestrial diet based on plant foods followingthe C3 photosynthetic pathway, with no input from C4

plants, while the nitrogen stable isotope data for thecow (5.2&), horse (7.3&), and pig (5.8&) samples re-flect a herbivorous diet as would be expected. The valueof 7.3& for the nitrogen stable isotope value of thehorse sample is slightly higher than the cow and pig sam-ples, however, the fact that only one sample of each spe-cies was available and the lack of information regardingthe age at death of the horse analysed means that it isunclear whether this more positive value is the resultof a dietary difference, a suckling signal, or within thenormal variation of nitrogen stable isotope values of


horse samples for this region in this period. Analysis offurther faunal material is required to place this sampleinto context.

Discussion

Millet consumption

The carbon and nitrogen stable isotope data fromKutna Hora-Karlov, Radovesice I, and Radovesice II,indicate an overall diet based on animal protein andplant foods following the C3 photosynthetic pathway(see Figs. 2 and 3). Two individuals from Kutna Hora-Karlov (sample �KUT 24� and �KUT 35�) and one indi-vidual from Radovesice I (sample �RAD1 02�) with morepositive d13C values (i.e., greater than �18&) may indi-cate at least some contribution from plant foods follow-ing the C4 photosynthetic pathway, most likely millet.Consumption of plant foods following the C4 photosyn-thetic pathway can also be seen in the stable isotope datafrom the Hallstatt period inhumations from northernAustria (see Fig. 4). One sample in particular, �HA6305� from Stadlau, has a d13C value of �14.8& indicat-ing high levels of C4 plant food consumption. This sam-ple also has a low d15N value (7.7&), as does anothersample �HA 9866� from Mauer-Ohling (7.1&), both ofwhich are comparable to the d15N values of the animalspecies from Kutna Hora-Karlov. This may suggestlow levels of animal protein in the diet of these individ-uals. The overall range of d13C values observed can becompared to the data from a previous stable isotopestudy by Murray and Schoeninger (1988) for a Hallstatt

Fig. 5. Carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios of bone collagen frcemetery at Magdalenska gora, Slovenia (data from Murray and Sch

period site at Magdalenska gora in Slovenia (see Fig. 5)in which much more positive d13C values were seen in allhuman samples, suggesting that millet played a majorrole in the diet of this population. It is not clear whetherthe more positive d13C values seen at Kutna Hora-Kar-lov and Radovesice represent direct consumption of mil-let by the human population, or instead reflect theconsumption of animal protein originating from individ-ual animals which fed or grazed on C4 plant materialand then passed the C4 signal to the human consumersof these animals. Archaeological evidence, in the formof carbonised plant material, indicates that millet waspresent in the Czech Republic from the early BronzeAge (Zohary and Hopf, 2000, p. 220), although thelow quantities recovered do not suggest a large scale sys-tem of cultivation. This is supported by the isotopicdata. The stable isotope data from the three faunal sam-ples obtained from Kutna Hora-Karlov, suggest that di-rect consumption of millet is being seen, however, thelow number of faunal samples must be considered.The analysis of additional human and animal bone fromsimilar sites in the region, such as the La Tene periodsettlement and cemetery site at Sobesuky, will providefurther data to help resolve this (Le Huray, in prepara-tion) and may also reveal patterns relating to the spreadof millet as a major dietary component. It has beenshown that differences can be seen in the stable isotopedata between individual sites such as at Kutna Hora-Karlov and Magdalenska gora, and the inclusion ofadditional data may enable interpretations to be madeon the spread of millet in prehistoric Europe in the sameway that the adoption of maize has been studied inNorth America (e.g., Bender et al., 1981; Buikstra and

om human (}) and animal bone (·) from the Hallstatt periodoeninger, 1988).


Milner, 1991; Katzenberg et al., 1993; van der Merweand Vogel, 1978; Vogel and van der Merwe, 1977).

Diet and social status

Although no correlation appears to exist at the LaTene B–C cemeteries of KutnaHora-Karlov, RadovesiceI, and Radovesice II between sex, age at death, and dietbased on the stable isotope data, a difference in d15N val-ues can be seen within the male population at Kutna

Fig. 6. Carbon and nitrogen stable isotope data for males at Kutnaweaponry. Individual data points (A) and mean values ± 1 standard

Fig. 7. Carbon and nitrogen stable isotope data from Radovesice I (Awithout (s) items of iron weaponry.

Hora-Karlov (see Fig. 6). Male individuals buried withan iron sword, shield and/or spear (graves 10, 14, 15,17, 18, 19, 25, 30, and 38) and an individual of indeter-minate sex (grave 37) buried with a sword, shield, andspear appear to have more positive d15N values (with amean value of 10.3&, r = 0.5&) than the remainingmale population (with a mean value of 9.6&,r = 0.4&), suggesting that a dietary division may haveexisted in the male group based on social status as ex-pressed through the inclusion of items of weaponry as

´ Hora-Karlov buried with (�) and without (}) items of irondeviation (B).

) and Radovesice II (B) for male individuals buried with (d) and


grave goods. A Student�s t test reveals that this differenceis statistically significant in terms of both nitrogen stableisotope values (t = 3.24, p = 0.005) and carbon stableisotope values (t = 1.79, p = 0.091). Although the num-ber of samples at Radovesice I and Radovesice II ismuch smaller, a similar pattern does appear to beemerging (see Fig. 7). Higher d15N values for the ‘‘war-rior’’ burials may result from higher levels of animalprotein in the diet of these individuals, suggesting thataccess to meat and/or dairy products may have beensubject to factors other than simple availability. Thishas implications for studies of social stratification dur-ing the La Tene period, since although the extremeexamples of wealth of the Hallstatt period do not exist,an apparent ‘‘egalitarian’’ society may still exhibit a sys-tem of social stratification and dietary differences maybe one reflection of this stratification. No difference ineither d13C or d15N values could be seen in the femalepopulation from Kutna Hora-Karlov in terms of theprovision of grave goods such as bronze torcs andfoot-rings, items often used by archaeologists to suggestvariations in social status in the La Tene cemeteries ofBohemia (e.g., the �garniture� system of Waldhauser,2001). This suggests that if a system of social stratifica-tion existed in the female population as may be sug-gested by the differential provision of specific gravegood types, then this difference did not extend to thedietary components that can be examined through iso-topic analysis.

Conclusions

Carbon and nitrogen stable isotope analysis of bonecollagen is now an almost routine application in studiesof past diet and, when used in combination with tradi-tional archaeological evidence, can provide an indepen-dent set of data that can be used to examine subsistencestrategies and dietary divisions in past populations. Pre-vious work (Murray and Schoeninger, 1988) has shownthat major differences in d13C values in Iron Age centralEurope are likely to be related to the use of millet as amajor dietary component. This study reveals that differ-ences in d13C and d15N values can be seen between indi-viduals, sites, and periods of the Iron Age in centralEurope, suggesting differences in the reliance on milletas a major dietary component and differences in accessto animal protein that may relate to social status. Addi-tional work is underway, including the analysis of hu-man and animal skeletal material from similar sites inBohemia such as Jinonice, Ruzyne-Jiviny, JenisuvUjezd, Tisice, Makotrasy, and Sobesuky and it is hopedthat these data will reveal the prevalence of this patternand add further data to studies of diet and social strat-ification in prehistoric Europe. The analysis of addi-tional material from both the Bronze Age and Iron

Age in central Europe may reveal patterns that can beused to trace the spread of millet consumption throughprehistoric Europe in the same way that previous studieshave traced the spread of maize agriculture in NorthAmerica.

Acknowledgments

This work was carried out as part of an ongoing PhDproject at the Department of Archaeological Sciences,University of Bradford. Thanks to the Natural Environ-ment Research Council for funding this project (NER/S/A/2001/06105). Additional thanks to Dr. Mike Rich-ards, Ken Neal, and the Palaeodietary Research Groupat the University of Bradford for assistance with the sta-ble isotope analyses and constructive criticism. Access toskeletal material was arranged through RNDr. Milos-lava Dobisıkova and PhDr. Pavel Sankot at the Na-tional Museum in Prague, MUDr. Vaclav Smrcka atthe Postgraduate Medical School, Prague, and Prof.Maria Teschler-Nicola at the Department of Archaeo-logical Biology and Anthropology at the Natural His-tory Museum in Vienna, Austria.

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