Latvian Ethno Past e Present

Latvian Ethnomusicology: Past and PresentAuthor(s): Martin BoikoSource: Yearbook for Traditional Music, Vol. 26 (1994), pp. 47-65Published by: International Council for Traditional MusicStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/768243 .

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LATVIAN ETHNOMUSICOLOGY: PAST AND PRESENT

by Martin Boiko

Since the collapse of the Soviet empire - foreshadowed by the Singing Revolution of the Baltics' - and Latvia's regaining independence on May 4th, 1990, no sphere of the public and intellectual lives of that country has been left unchanged. Ethnomusicology is no exception. At present this field is faced with rapidly changing circumstances and perspectives. This therefore seems to be a good time for retrospective reflection on the experience collected to the present and for an analysis of our current condition. Through such reflection and analysis we should be able to define our actual position, outline new orientations and recognize our limitations as well. This article contains an overview of the history of Latvian folk music research and some remarks on folk dance research in that country as well.

Earliest Latvian Folk Music Research2 The first period of Latvian folk music research dates back to the late 1860s,

to the time called the "National Awakening."3 During this period folklore and folk music were recognized as the basis of a national style in the arts and as such became subjects of considerable interest in the Latvian community. 1870 marked the beginning of the systematic collection of folk music, organized by the composer and music teacher Janis Cimze (1814-1881). His idea was to collect folk tunes in order to use them in arrangements for the national repertoire of the choral movement. This was a mass movement of Latvian choirs which now for more than 130 years has been an important factor in national consolidation and identity. Cimze himself published about 350 arrangements for choirs.

In 1879 the first scientific contribution regarding Latvian folk music was published, an article by the composer, organist and theorist Andrejs Jurjdns (1856-1922) entitled "Latvian Folk Music." This study presents a short survey of folk instruments and music, defining the latter as an expression of the national mentality and the essential source for national art music. The author establishes the main goals for the first period of folk music research as collection, systematization and publication. Jurjdns himself became the main executor of this program and the most important name in Latvian folk music study of that time. In the 1880s he developed a large network of informants and correspondents and conducted his first field trips in the summers of 1891 and 1892.

The result of Jurjdns' activities is the six volumes entitled Materials of Latvian Folk Music (1894-1926), which contain more than 1,100 items and remain up to the present one of the most significant sources for Latvian folk music. Materials provides descriptions of customs and traditional contexts together with field observations and comments. Each volume is devoted to a specific genre or group of genres. The first begins with an essay on the tunes of the summer solstice songs. Here Jurjins expounds his theory of three historical strata. (This theory is based on the idea, widespread at that



48 / 1994 YEARBOOK FOR TRADITIONAL MUSIC

time, that historical development follows a path from a narrow to a broad melodic range and from modality to functional harmony.) Jurjans' publications give a clear idea of the genre system of Latvian folk music and of musical life in the countryside during the late nineteenth century. One of the features that make this work especially valuable is the high quality of the transcriptions. We can indeed make the generalization that Jurjans set a solid and promising course for future Latvian folk music research.

Noteworthy research into folk musical instruments was made by the writer on music and conductor Jnis Straume (1861-1929) and the Baltic-German ethnographer August Bielenstein (1826-1907). Straume's study On Latvian Folk Music and Ancient Musical Instruments (1904) is an attempt to combine ethnographic and folkloristic data within organological research. He developed a theory that divided instruments into categories of ancient, autochtonic and late, or borrowed (non-Latvian), instruments. This subdi- vision had a puristic background and reflected the search for a genuine strata of national culture that was so characteristic of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The second volume of a fundamental work by Bielenstein called Die Holzbauten and Holzgerdite der Letten, published in 1918, contains a chapter on wooden instruments. It would have been the most thorough and profoundest organological investigation of that time, if not for the thematic limitation indicated in the title of the work.

First Era of Independence, War and Immediate Post-War Years A second period in Latvian folk music research comprises the 1920s and

1930s - the first era of Latvian independence - as well as the 1940s. An important event marking the beginning of this period was the foundation of the Latvian Folklore Repository (Latvielu folkloras krdtuve) in 1925. The collection of materials organized by this archive and research institution was mainly carried out by enthusiastic, voluntary local collectors. The majority of the collectors who sent transcribed items to the Repository were teachers and students, but in some cases the collection was taken up by boy scouts and even by some military organizations. Particular attention was paid to folk song texts, beliefs, riddles, and similar verbal lore. Folk music was not counted among these priorities, although 155 wax cylinders and a number of discs were recorded from 1926. By 1941, 16,271 transcribed musical items had been archived in the Repository. Particular mention should be made of Emilis Melngailis (1874-1954) as the most productive collector, having contributed more than 3,000 tunes to the Repository. He is one of the most contradictory as well as impressive personalities in the history of Latvian music.

An outstanding composer, writer about music and folk music collector, Melngailis alone managed to carry on with his ethnomusicological activities more or less undisturbed under three different political and ideological forces: the Russian empire, the first Republic of Latvia and the Soviet Union. His interest in folk music began with the notation of 120 Jewish tunes in the Lithuanian village of Keidanai in the summer of 1899. Melngailis' most active period of collecting was the 1920s and 1930s, but he continued collecting until 1941, by which time he had about 4,500 tunes at his disposal. In addition to about 4,350 Latvian tunes, he had also collected music of



BOIKO LATVIAN ETHNOMUSICOLOGY / 49

the Russian, Belorussian, Lithuanian, Estonian, Jewish, Gypsy and Liv minorities living in Latvia.4

As a writer on music Melngailis left behind a large number of articles describing his collecting trips which are exciting literature, though not exactly scholarly studies. They lack a sense of distance between the observer and the subject, methodicalness and thematic purposefulness. Folk music was one of the most important sources of Melngailis' own compositions and the signpost in his search for national identity in music. His approach to collecting was therefore that of an artist. Moreover, he considered himself a member of the folk culture and his own attitudes and knowledge as a continuation of those of the people. This self-perception can perhaps explain why he sometimes ventured to "improve" the tunes he transcribed. From 1951 to 1953 three large volumes of Melngailis' Folklore Materials of Latvian Music, containing thousands of items, were published.5 Material is arranged according to geographic principles. In general, the transcriptions by Melngailis lack the quality of those made by Jurjins. Nevertheless, thanks to him we are able to know something about the folk music of different regions within Latvia in the first half of the twentieth century. Especially significant is his contribution to the collection of the folk music of Latgale (in southeastern Latvia), which was almost untouched by Jurjdns.

During this period one can trace the development from sporadic, short articles in the 1920s and early 1930s to the more extensive contributions of the mid-1930s to 1940s. In relation to this development in scope, I should mention the composer and scholar Jekabs Graubii' (1886-1961). From 1933 to 1950 he wrote a number of contributions on different subjects: overview studies of a general character showing the basic features of Latvian folk music and giving evidence of the progress made in research (e.g., 1935a), studies on metrics and rhythmics (e.g., 1935b) and others. Graubii is the author of the first investigation on a distinct local style, Folk Songs of the Talsi Area (1935c).6 His most important and last work, The Song Nest of Grievalta, was written from 1949 to 1950. The author himself has unpretentiously described this book as "folk songs collected in Grievalta, with comments" (Berziga 1989: 114). In fact, this is a large collection and multi-dimensional study based on the repertoire of a single area, giving detailed historical background about the songs and their variants and describing both genres and the use of folk tunes in art music. Graubipg pays special attention to the biographies and characteristics of the singers. This is connected to one of the main concepts behind his work: the investigation of the influence of human individuality on style, personal repertoire and change in music. This anthropocentric emphasis in The Song Nest was a new feature in Latvian folk music research and a completely strange and unacceptable trait for the Soviet music folklorists of that time. They after all denied the role of the personality and defined folklore and folk music simply as the products and expressions of a collective or social class. The Song Nest was the first significant investigation based on immediate, in the field observation - something new in the context of the oppressive predominance of armchair studies. This work, like several others written by Graubid, remains unpublished. His other significant achievement was the institutionalization of folk music as a subject of study at the Latvian Conservatory in 1938, also becoming the first




professor of this subject. Little is known about his style as a teacher; there are some indications that he has made references to the Kulturkreislehre in his lectures, but his writings do not reveal a serious influence of this theory.

The third outstanding representative of this epoch is the scholar and composer Jfilijs Sprogis (1887-1972), who was influenced by the Finnish school of folklore study. This can be seen in both of his works (1941, 1943), especially in Tunes of the Summer Solstice Songs, the first monograph devoted to a single genre in the history of Latvian folk music research. It gives structural characteristics of the ligo-tunes (melodies of the summer solstice songs), describes the contexts of performance and - also a first in Latvian folk music study - contains a chapter on comparative aspects. Sprogis believed that he had found in the ligo-tunes many traces of the "travelling melodies" of different centuries: popular Catholic hymns, some old French and German folk songs, Russian biliny, etc. His second work, Ancient Musical Instruments and the Melodies of Work and Ceremonial Songs in Latvia, was never published and is only known in some proof copies. (The publication was suppressed by the German occupation powers.) This book actually contains two different studies, including the first modern contribution on Latvian folk musical instruments. Descriptions of their construction and use is accompanied by accounts of the early written sources, history of the instruments, their international contexts, mythological backgrounds, and transcribed examples of repertoire.

In the mid-1930s the first scholarly edition concerning folk dance appeared: Latvian Folk Dance (in four volumes) by Johanna Rinks (1893-1982) and Janis O's (1890-1937) (Rinks and O's 1934-1936). This edition contains a theoretic introduction, a collection of 33 dances described in detail and with piano accompaniment, and an explanation of the principles of classification and the creation of periods in the fourth volume. The book by Elza Siliga (1895-1988), Latvian Dance (1939), examines the early written sources, folklore and ethnographic materials concerning dance, giving descriptions as well of their traditional contexts. The author offers a general division of Latvian folk dances into three basic classes: 1) dances connected with (heathen) cults and/or having mythical backgrounds; 2) ritual dances of the human life cycle (christening, wedding, funeral); and 3) dances of the annual cycle. The book does not contain detailed descriptions of any dances.

The 1940s were a time of political and social disaster. For Latvian folk music study it was a decade of deformation in its course of development. Torpidity set in and, after 1945, a period of transition to the Soviet style of research began.7 However, because the same scholars and collectors are active during this decade as the preceding two, I put them all together as one period. The main task of the communist regime in science and research after 1945 was the introduction of Marxist methodology. According to this methodology, almost the only accepted aspect of study was the class character of traditional culture, folklore and folk music. A subject of special support in the second half of the 1940s and 1950s was the collection of something that did not exist: so-called "Soviet folklore," namely, the "folk songs" about Stalin and Lenin, communism, revolution, one's happy life under communism, etc. Collectors were forced to create falsifications in order to




fulfil this task and because of their fear of repression. Another trend of this time was a selection process among scholars in order to isolate those who refused to follow the communist ideology or who simply seemed to be ideologically suspect. Let us trace the fates of the three above-mentioned representatives of the second generation of Latvian folk music researchers.

Melngailis was chosen to be the favourite of the Soviet regime. His field tours (1940 and 1941) and publications received considerable financial and other support. Of course, Melngailis was expected to express his loyalty to the communist powers. The regime had made the right choice: arrogance and ambition hindered the elderly man from truly comprehending the situation. In 1945 Melngailis was awarded the title of "Folk Artist of the Latvian SSR." On the other hand, one must realize that resistance to the support of the regime would have cost Melngailis much: he could have been repressed or ousted and his collection forgotten or perhaps even destroyed.

Graubij, the most talented of the three scholars, experienced an unlike fate. He became one of the more than 200,000 Latvians who were repressed by the regime. In the spring of 1949 the composer and scholar was dismissed from the Conservatory. He was arrested in the spring of 1950, condemned by a troika and deported. Graubips' returned from Siberia in 1955 and was rehabilitated, since "Khrushchev's Thaw" had set in by this time. But, as was characteristic of the regime, in spite of his rehabilitation, access to research and a professorship remained closed to him forever.

Sprogis was not deported but managed to remain in Latvia. However, he was considered ideologically suspect and, until his death in 1972, was excluded from research projects.

The Later Post-War Period From the early 1950s until 1977 the foremost authority in the field of folk

music scholarship was JEkabs Vitolipvs (1898-1977). From 1938 to 1962 he was a professor at the Latvian Conservatory and from 1946 until his death a researcher at the Folklore Department of the Academy of Sciences. There are two main directions in Vitolipg' work. First, he attempts to define in a comprehensive way the general characteristics of Latvian folk music. His studies cover all the basic aspects: rhythm, form, melodics, genres, the relationship between text and melody, the division of folk music into historical or stylistic strata, polyphony, and others (e.g., Vitoligpv 1959, 1960, 1972). The second direction of his activities lay in the publishing of collected folk music. All five volumes of the series Latvian Folk Music that have been published to the present were compiled under his guidance. Every volume is devoted to a single genre or group of genres: Work Songs (1958; 757 items), Wedding Songs (1968; 1,475 items), Children's Songs Cycle. Funeral Songs (1971; 901 items), and Traditional Songs of the Annual Cycle (1973; 1,492 items). In 1986, nine years after the death of Vitolip's, the fifth volume of the series was published, Matchmaking Songs (1986; 1,756 items), which had been completed by him in the 1970s. Together, these volumes represent the largest edition of Latvian folk music and are indispensable for its study. They are based on the collections of Jurjins and Melngailis and much of the other material archived in the Folklore Department. Each volume begins with a general introduction in Latvian and Russian that gives insights into the




traditional contexts, performance, local variety in tunes, sources, analysis of tonal structures, form, and other factors. Vitolig' is also the author of what is up to now the most thorough work on a single local style (Vitolig's 1955). His article "Die lettischen Hirtenlieder" (1967) presents the characteristics and a typology of this genre and, for the first time in Latvian folk music research, includes as a special subject of study the vocal signaling used by shepherds. His book Folk Song in Latvian Music (1970) examines the role and influence of folk music in Latvian art music from a historical point of view.

The comparative trend of the 1950s to 1980s is represented by the composer, musicologist, and professor of the Latvian Conservatory from 1948 to 1991, Max Goldin (b. 1917). He published a number of studies between 1958 and 1983 that were devoted to contacts between Latvian folk music and folk music of the neighbouring countries of Russia, Byelorussia, Lithuania and Estonia (e.g., Goldin 1961, 1965, 1972). His articles and books can be easy used as a list of borrowings and descriptions of similarities and common features. They do not expose the forms and manners of interaction between the styles and lack the historical and social contexts of the borrowings.

Another researcher at the Folklore Department at the Academy of Sciences, Vilis Bendorfs (b. 1941), has published a series of short, elegant essays based on field observations. His significant article "The Influence of Latvian Language Prosody on Folk Song Melodics" appeared in 1977. In his work Bendorfs has discovered some of the basic principles involved in the interaction between phonetics and melodics in Latvian recitative songs.

The archaeologist Vladislavs Urtdns (1921-1990) published in 1970 the first purely music-archaeological study, The Oldest Musical Instruments in the Territory of Latvia, which examines all the music-archaeological discoveries that were at the disposal of the researchers of that time.

A significant achievement in folk dance research was marked by the appearance in 1966 of the volume Latvian Folk Dance Accompanied by Singing by Harijs Stina (b. 1923). This elaborate work contains an investigation on elements and constructions of the folk dance, a collection of 65 dances and commentary to them. Each of the dances is accompanied with its versions and variants (all together 3,412 choreographic items).8 Suina, the foremost authority in Latvian folk dance for more than three decades and researcher at the Department of Folklore since 1959, has still been actively researching in recent years. His book Latvian Traditional Choreography appeared in 1991, which deals with the historical and stylistic stratification of folk dance while proposing a typology for dance as well. In the early 1960s Suina developed an original dance notation, fixing dance movements in horizontal and vertical projections (see 1966 and 1979). From the beginning his idea has been to develop a notation suitable for use in the computer. Several times he has returned to this subject to improve his notation.

The central institution of this period is the Department of Folklore of the Institute of Language and Literature, which was a substructure of the former Academy of Sciences of the Latvian SSR.9 This institution has carried out folklore expeditions with the task of collecting folklore and folk music since 1947. This work, with the exception of an interruption between 1980 and 1985,




has been continued to the present.'0 Between May 1945 and 1990 about 14,000 newly transcribed musical items were archived; the total number of transcriptions has now reached more than 30,000. A large collection of recordings has also been built up by the Department. From the early 1950s to 1972 about 3,000 items were recorded on tape, and from 1973 to 1980 an average of ten to fifteen hours of new recordings were added to the collection each year. Since 1985 290 hours of audio recordings and about 60 hours of video recordings have been made. The series Latvian Folk Music mentioned earlier is a publication of the Department.

It is not easy to exactly define the end of this period. At any rate, it is clear that from the death of Vitoliglp in 1977 until 1983 almost no important publications, new ideas or names appeared," whereas after 1982 a new situation began to develop.

In retrospect, one must recognize that this post-war period, despite the unfavourable conditions, can on no account be called unsuccessful. During this time, after all, several major publications appeared concerning folk music and dance, and institutional work continued. On the other hand, one has to acknowledge that even the studies of the 1970s still show many features of early ethnomusicological research. Still of importance, for instance, are both the opinion that folk music is only a stage in the general development of music - a stage that is already nearing an end - as well as the belief in the existence of a universally predetermined scheme or direction of development. Another feature is the priority of the transcription over the recording: recordings (if made at all) are mere supplements to the transcriptions. Of course, one can imagine that such attitudes deeply influence the style of research and documentation. Furthermore, we can still observe in this period the tendency to collect items without paying enough attention to the terminological, anthropological and other contexts of the collected music. Striking is the predominance of such collecting over field work (in the sense of modern anthropology and ethnomusicology), as well as the absolute predominance of armchair studies.

The answer to the question of why this was so is quite easy. First of all, the more than 40-year-long isolation from Western ethnomusicology played an important role. The basic ethnomusicological literature - books by Merriam, Nettl, Hood, Blacking and others - remained unknown in Latvia until the mid-1980s. Latvian folk music research was prohibited from developing alongside worldwide ethnomusicology since the 1940s, and this was a purposeful policy of the Soviet regime. The isolation of Latvia, as well as Estonia and Lithuania, was especially thorough because of the ticklish history of the incorporation of the Baltic States into the Soviet empire in 1940, and because these states were never recognized by the democratic world to be a legitimate part of the Soviet Union. So until the mid-1980s ethnomusicology in Latvia, like many other fields in that country, was simply excluded from developing international contacts. Another reason lies in the insufficient recognition of folk music research as an independent field of study in Latvia; it has always been considered only a subsection of either general musicology or folklore studies. The result was an oppressive methodological, intellectual and institutional dependence upon these disciplines. At the same time, anyone who knows something about the history of European ethno-




musicology also knows very well that the above-mentioned criticisms also can be easily applied to folk music study in many countries where conditions were much more favourable between 1940 and 1980 than in Latvia.

Before we review the research that has taken place since 1982, we should examine two earlier factors that are important for understanding developments in the 1980s. The first is a strong, extra-scholarly factor, the folk music revival movement. The historical roots of this movement date back to the late nineteenth century. In the late 1970s, exactly during the afore-mentioned standstill in Latvian ethnomusicology, this revival movement experienced a sudden and strong boom. 12 The new impulse to the movement derived from the idea that folk music in its original forms had a distinct value per se, and should not be considered as merely a stage in the general development of music or as simply a source for art music.13 At the same time the movement was an initially latent, then later open protest movement against Soviet political policies of Russification and assimilation; the assertion of national identity and its preservation became an associated issue. A large number of small folk music groups appeared which tried to copy precisely the styles used by folk singers in the countryside: "authenticity" and "back to the roots" were the catchwords of the movement from the late 1970s to mid-1980s. The regime watched this movement with astonishment and guardedness, for it was the first spontaneous mass movement to appear in Latvia since the Soviet occupation and attempts to bring it under state control were unsuccessful. The government began to recognize the movement as its enemy, and in this it was not mistaken. During the era of perestroika and the subsequent Singing Revolution, many participants of the folk music revival movement played leading roles in the liberation process, and the movement's meetings and festivals were highly significant events in this process. To a great extent it was thanks to this movement that the revolution became a singing one. New public attitudes and the growth of interest towards folk music were a significant impetus for the further development of ethnomusicology. There is hardly a Latvian ethnomusicologist of the younger generation who has not "gone through" this movement.

The second important factor to influence later work is the parallel existence after World War II of Latvian ethnomusicology developing in the West.14 Of course, research conducted by Latvian scholars living in exile had many handicaps. During the Soviet era such people could not visit Latvia, work in its archives, conduct field work or contact colleagues there. Nevertheless, several scholars living abroad made some important contributions to the study of Latvian music. In 1956 the composer Volfgangs Darzins (1906-1962) published an article on the typology of Latvian vocal folk music called "The Types and Peculiarities of Latvian Folk Songs." This study marks the beginning of Western Latvian folk music research. Some years later "Die lettische Volksmusik aus der Sicht der kulturhistorischen Gegebenheiten des baltischen Raumes" (1959) by Longins Apkalns (b. 1923) appeared, which is an attempt to view Latvian folk music in a broad historical, cultural and geographical context. Karl Brambats (b. 1924), a specialist in Baltic folk music who had moved to Hamburg after World War II and had been a student of H. Hickmann, began in the late 1960s to publish articles on Latvian folk music and instruments. His work Die lettische Volkspoesie in




musikwissenschaftlicher Sicht (1969) represents a new approach to the ethnomusicological information contained in the dainas, the texts of Latvian folk songs.

Particularly since 1982, we can perceive greater activity in Latvian ethnomusicology abroad. In that year the study Einfriihes Zeugnis livliindischen Singens by Brambats was published, which concerns early written sources of Latvian folk music. The doctoral thesis of Irana Dunkele (b. 1916), Zur Struktur der lettischen Volkslieder "Put, vfjirgi. " Ein Lied in Tradition und Expansion seit 1800, appeared in Stockholm in 1984. This is a unique book in Latvian ethnomusicological literature, since it is devoted to a single song and its versions (both text and melody) and examines them from many synchronic and diachronic aspects. The article "The Problem of Classifying Latvian Folk Music" by Andrejs Jansons (b. 1938) was published in 1983 and is a summary of his doctoral thesis."5

Joachim Braun (b. 1929), now Director of the Musicological Institute of Bar-Ilan University (Israel), met an original fate. In the 1950s and 1960s he developed an elaborate and innovative approach to the early history of musical instruments and instrumental music, an approach combining data from archaeology, historical sources, linguistics (onomastics, etymology) and social history. This represented a new trend in organology and his first studies were published in Latvia (Braun 1962a, 1962b). When, in the summer of 1971, he declared his intention to emigrate to Israel, his most significant ethno-organological contribution, Die Anfiinge des Musikinstrumentenspiels in Lettland (German version: Braun 1972) was withdrawn from the already printed ninth volume of the series Latviesu mazika (Latvian Music). (The volume was destroyed and printed anew without the article of Braun; all his writings were subsequently removed from libraries.) In 1985 Braun and Brambats compiled a bibliography of Latvian musicology called Selected Writings on Latvian Music. The chapter "Ethnomusicology" lists 88 biblio- graphical items, while the chapter "Organology" comprises 16 items.

After 1982 This period is characterized by a pluralism of approaches and trends. Some

of the thematic trends of the mid- and late 1980s include: folk musical instruments, ancient folk music in the context of early ethnic history, folk songs of later origin, non-European music, the study of Jewish folk music, the history of folk music research and the role of folk music in culture.

During the previous period, folk instruments had been largely neglected as objects of study. This period of neglect was brought to an end in 1983 by the monograph of ethnographer Irisa Priedite (b. 1944) entitled What was Played in Ancient Times. "What were the most ancient instruments, what was their function in the peoples' lives and in their development? And what do we know about their constructors and players?" (1983: 5) - such are the main questions that the author addresses in her book. Priedite published in 1988 a complete catalogue that she had compiled of instruments collected in the museums of Latvia. Folk Musical Instruments comprises 653 items, including archaeological collections as well as cartograms showing every class of organological material.'6 The book by Valdis Muktuplvels (b. 1958), Folk Instruments in the Territory of the Latvian SSR (1987) gives an overview of types,




origins, development, construction, playing techniques and repertoire. His classification system is based on the principles developed by Ernst Emsheimer and Erich Stockmann for the project Handbuch der europdischen Volksmusik- instrumente. The study by Muktupdvels and Arnolds Klotipg (b. 1934) called Latvian Folk Instruments and the Semantics of Their Use in Kr. [Krijdanis] Barons' "Latvju Dainas'" (1985; Engl. version: Klotipi and Muktupdvels 1989) is the first computer-aided study of Latvian folk instruments. It continues and develops the topics and approaches initiated by Brambats in his 1969 article and partly the ideas of Braun as well. An important new element in this work is that it goes beyond mere ethno-organological information. As the authors write, this work

provides more than merely ethno-organological information. The contexts relating to narrative topics, mythology, and magic, the situations in which instruments are used, as well as the occasional poetic commentary on instruments and their application - all this helps . . . to gain insight into the world view of those who originated the dainas (1989: 206).

One of the most popular themes in the mid- to late 1980s was ethnohistorical aspects of an ancient style or ancient strata of folk music - the probable connections between musical phenomena, their distribution and processes of early ethnic history such as migration, inter-ethnic contact, assimilation, etc. In the 1970s and 1980s significant progress was made by Russian and Lithuanian linguists and archaeologists, together with Latvian anthropologists, in the investigation of the role of Old Balts (the ethnic ancestors of Latvians, Lithuanians and Old Prussians) in the early ethnic and cultural history of Eastern and Western Europe. The larger public enthusiastically received the results of these studies and parts of them were spontaneously reinterpreted into a form that could be called the contemporary Latvian mythology. This "mythology" is one of the factors in the redefinition of national identity that took place during the 1980s.

This ethnohistorical trend in folk music research was a response, on the one hand, to the progress made in linguistics, archaeology and other fields that offered exciting hypotheses regarding early migrations and contacts. At the same time the public interest in ancient times and old ethnic symbols still living in the contemporary culture also spurred such folk music research. Drone singing, the emblem of Latvian national cultural identity in music, was often chosen to be the subject of these studies and for good reason. Drone singing is considered one of the earliest forms of Latvian vocal polyphony, and it has interesting correlations in those European areas where there are indications of early ethnic contact with the Balts. This thematic trend was common during the 1980s for Latvian ethnomusicology in the homeland as well as abroad. In 1983 Brambats published the article, "The Vocal Drone in the Baltic Countries: Problems of Chronology and Provenance."17 He came to the conclusion that the Baltic, Balkan and Georgian drones are off- shoots of a very old common root. Bendorfs defines the question more broadly. In his article "On the Interrelation between Baltic and Balkan Areas of the Folk Polyphony" (1986) he concludes that not only Latvian drone singing but also other forms of Baltic vocal polyphony (that is, Lithuanian sutartines polyphony and Estonian polyphony of the Setumaa area) have direct




parallels in the Balkan. Thus we find correspondences of a complex nature that cannot be accidental and which most probably date back to the period of contact between ancestors of the Balts and the paleo-Balkanians, who at that time lived in neighbouring regions. Martin Boiko (b. 1960), lecturer at the Latvian Academy of Music, published a study called "Ethnohistorical Aspects of Latvian Drone Singing" in 1990 which dealt with similarities between different forms of Latvian vocal drone and those of South Byelorussia and Western Russia.

One of the characteristic features of Latvian folklore and folk music research since their beginnings is the idea of purism, namely a thorough segregation of vocal music into two parts: classic folk songs and zies, songs of later origin that for a long time were not considered to be folk songs at all. Ziqes (< Germ. singen) belong to a musical stratum common for several countries of the Baltic Sea area. Since the era of the National Awakening these songs have been reproached for triviality and lack of national character. They were excluded from the national cultural heritage and almost completely ignored by researchers. (The development of a zizes catalogue in the Latvian Folklore Repository in the late 1920s and 1930s is an exception.) Among researchers, only Graubips has paid attention to this phenomenon. In the 1980s ziqes became one of the main subjects of study by Zaiga Sneibe (b. 1949), a researcher at the Folklore Department. She is author of the first article published to the present on the later folk song, called "Zipe. The Origin and Development of Melodics" (1988). It deals with the definition of the notion of ziqe, the fate of this style in the history of Latvian culture, the influence of the classic folk songs on it and its influence on Latvian contemporary popular music. The study Latvian Musical Folklore of Late Origin, which is largely devoted to the origins, sources and development of zizges, was completed in 1987 by Goldin (1987b).

Serious interest in non-European music was awakened in Latvia during the 1980s largely thanks to the enthusiasm of Boris Avramets (b. 1949). From 1982 to 1986 and then again since 1991 he has given a general course in ethnomusicology and introductions to Indian, African, Southeastern Asian and American music at the Latvian Academy of Music. He earned his Ph.D. at the Vilnius Conservatory in 1990 with a thesis entitled The Main Traits of the Music Culture of Ethiopia, which was the first work devoted to non- European music in the history of Latvian ethnomusicology. It is the first attempt to investigate the music culture of Ethiopia as an integral system including different musical traditions. This work traces developments from the Aksum era to the transformation processes of the twentieth century. A special emphasis was placed on the music of the Ethiopian Monophisite Church. Avramets has prepared radio and TV broadcast series on the traditional music of the world's peoples and has published a great number of studies on Indian and African music, as well as methodological works. One example of his work is his article "The Main Stylistic Features of Dhrupad Performance in Dagar VWni Practice," which deals with essential factors of drupad performance and asserts its viability as an art form (Avramets 1988).




Goldin, a specialist in the folk music of East European Jews, published a series of articles during the 1980s dealing with the common features and connections between Jewish folk music and the folk musics of the Ukraine, Moldavia and Germany (see Goldin 1983, 1984, 1985). This appeared in 1989 in Massachusetts as the comprehensive work On Musical Connections Between Jews and the Neighboring Peoples of Eastern and Western Europe. His Anthology of Jewish Folk Song (completed in 1987) has been submitted for publication in St. Petersburg. This Anthology (1987a; 285 items with versions) is mainly based on already published sources, but contains about 50 new variants transcribed by the author from Latvian Jews. It includes an introduction and detailed comments on every song and variant.

The book of Vizbulite Birzipa (b. 1929), The Way of the Folk Song (1989), traces the role of the folk song in Latvian culture from the historical and synthetic viewpoints, namely the history of public attitudes toward folk music and the collection and use of folk music in art music. She provides an introduction to the development of the revival movement in the late 1970s and 1980s as well.

Of course, the traditional subjects of research have also not been forgotten since the 1980s. In addition to the above-mentioned thematic trends, a number of contributions deal with the chronology, structure and functions of Latvian classic folk song (e.g., Bendorfs 1992, Krfimipg 1988,

Sneibe 1991).

Thus the mid- and late 1980s brought new ideas, names and writings. And new contacts as well. The second half of the decade was already a time of change in the European political situation. Due to those changes, member- ship in the International Council for Traditional Music and the European Seminar for Ethnomusicology has become available to Latvian ethnomusi- cologists since the late 1980s. Since 1990, thanks to the support by Western institutions and colleagues, regular participation of Latvians at ICTM and ESEM conferences is now feasible. These new contacts have become a very important factor in the current development of ethnomusicological thought in Latvia. Of the former Soviet republics, Latvia is one of the best represented both in ICTM and ESEM. At the same time Latvians maintain good contacts with their Lithuanian and Estonian colleagues. The same can be said about the contacts with Eastern colleagues that were established in the 1980s, thanks to the Folk Music Board of the USSR Composers' Union (1972-1991) and its leaders Edward Alexeyev and Evgenija Andreeva.

In the final part of this article I would like to summarize a few characteristics of the current ethnomusicological landscape of Latvia in the early 1990s, particularly that country's folk music and the institutions that deal with it.

First of all I must stress that, in spite of wars, deportations, repressions, and so on, in some rural districts of Latvia the old work and wedding songs are still a part of the repertoire of the older singers and are occasionally still used in ceremonies. This is true of the southwestern and especially the southeastern regions of Latvia, where, due to various historical and social reasons, the folk traditions have been better maintained than in other areas.

Since the late 1980s significant changes have taken place in the folk song revival movement. It has lost its political significance. Common aesthetics




and a national protest ideology no longer exist - those very factors that had unified the movement. Life has become quite pluralistic now. Every ensemble has its own style. A broad spectrum of different synthetic phenomena have emerged, for instance, syntheses between Latvian folk music on the one hand and rock music, some styles of Lithuanian folk music and non-European music on the other. Pluralism and individualization of styles are not the only new features. One of the most important trends is that the movement has become multi-ethnic. This is the result of the new politics of cultural autonomy for our national minority groups.8" Their ethnic music is a very important factor in the identity of these groups and one can observe a great diversity in the ways different minorities use their folk music. For example, the pupils of the Russian Grammar School in Riga try to imitate the so-called authentic style: to do everything as the old Russian singers in the countryside. The Jewish children's and youth ensemble, "Kinnor," takes another path: Jewish folk songs are the source of inspiration for the arrangements and compositions of the conductor and composer Michael Leinwand.

The number of institutions dealing with folk music has increased considerably since the end of the 1980s - a rather surprising development considering the hard economic conditions of this period. The Collection of Folk Music Audio Recordings at the Music Department of Latvian Radio was developed by the ethnomusicologist and music editor Gita Lancere (b. 1965). Since 1989 special field work tours have been organized by this Music Department in order to record interviews and music and so far about 90 hours of audio recordings have been collected. (Since the mid-1980s several series on folk music have been broadcast and non-European music can be heard more or less regularly since 1987 on Latvian Radio.)

The Repository of the Folklore Recordings of the Krija-nis Barons Museum contains about 500 hours of audio recordings that have been collected since 1986. The Repository is managed by Valdis Jurkovskis (b. 1966) and has a computerized catalogue.

An independent Folk Music Center is led by Miris Jansons (b. 1962). In 1993 he began extensive collecting and his archives now contain more than 150 hours of audio and about 30 hours of video recordings. The Center produces musical instruments and folklore films. Special attention is paid to the collection and documentation of folk dance. The activities of the Center are oriented toward the popularization of folk music and dance among the general public and support of their inclusion in educational programs. Jansons also organizes practical courses of instrumental music and singing.

The Archives of Folk Music Recordings of the Latvian Academy of Music was founded in 1990 and was led until 1993 by Boiko. Emphasis was placed on the detailed research of traditional contexts and the anthropological dimension of folk music. To this end, lengthy interviews with singers and players were recorded. In the collaboration with Latvian Radio, 100 hours of audio and 50 hours of video recordings of Latvian, Russian and Byelorussian singers have been made.

Also founded in 1990, the Latvian Oriental Music Center was established to acquaint the general public with Asian and African music and dance and to promote scientific and educational activities in this field. The Center,




whose chairman is Avramets, arranges meetings, seminars, lectures and workshops on Asian and African music and dance.

The Center for Ethnic Studies of the Latvian University, founded in 1992, is led by ethno-choreologist Ernests Spiis (b. 1955). The Center works out guidelines for folklore education in schools oriented toward learning through action and participation. Traditional culture is interpreted as a syncretic unit; an approach integrating music, choreography, narrative genres, ceremonies, ornaments and symbols has been evolved. Ethnomusicology is represented by Muktupavels.

Developments of the 1980s and early 1990s offer promise: a new intensity and diversity of ethnomusicological activities has already been attained. At the same time ethnomusicology, like many other areas of the humanities and natural sciences, is suffering under the generally difficult conditions marking the transition to a free market economy. Much of the progress that has been recently achieved has been based on enthusiasm. And this experience shows that simple freedom in intellectual life can be just as or even more stimulating for research than favourable financial and economic conditions - particularly if previous eras have lacked this freedom. At the same time, one can expect that the general stabilization of the national situation, noticeable already since the summer of 1993, will be accompanied by the institutional and financial stabilization of Latvia's new centers and archives. Stabilization and the development of international collaboration are the basic ingredients necessary for further progress in Latvian ethnomusicology.

NOTES

1. The struggle of the Baltic peoples for independence from the USSR in the second half of the 1980s is often called the "Singing Revolution" because of the musicality of the non-violent political meetings and activities. Singing was an important form of demon-

strating the peoples' will. The international folklore festival Baltica 88, the 20th Latvian

Song Festival in 1990 (with 37,000 participants) and others became significant events on the way to the rebirth of the Latvian state.

2. The earliest information on Latvian folk music dates back to the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In the second edition of his Cosmographiae (1550), Sebastian Miinster relates some observations on singing made by the poet, musician and travellerJohannes Hasent6ter while in Livonia (Miinster 1550: 787). It contains early iconographic evidence of Latvian instrumental music as well, such as a picture showing a group of werwolves and musicians

standing around them playing a hurdy-gurdy and some other instruments which seem to be a bagpipe, a lute and a psaltery. A parson from Reval, Balthasar Russow, in his Chronica der Prouintz Lyffland ... reported in 1584 on the bagpipe music, singing and dancing that took place during the Summer Solstice Feast and other occasions (Russow 1584: 42-43). The first transcribed tune was published in Fridericus Menius' Syntagma de origine Livonorum

(1632), which also contained the first mention of Latvian drone singing (Menius 1632:

525-26). In the late eighteenth century a man of the Enlightenment, August Wilhelm Hupel, made some comments on improvised singing and drone, and published two first

transcriptions of this kind of Latvian vocal polyphony in the second and third volumes of his book Topographische Nachrichten von Lief- und Ehstland (1777-1782).

3. The "National Awakening" (tautiska atmoda) movement began as the larger Latvian community began to perceive national identity as a value that deserved special care and development. Arising with the formation of a strong middle class, the movement worked for a free press and the promotion of the national language, literature and art. One of the most important representatives of the movement was the folklorist, poet and mathe- matician Kriji*nis Barons (1835-1923). He devoted many decades of his life to the




collection of dainas, the Latvian folk song texts, and compiled them into the monumental edition of Latvju dainas, containing 217,966 items. The National Awakening movement began a process that ended with the founding of the democratic Latvian State in 1918.

4. The Livs are a small Finno-Ugric ethnic group. Their origins, like that of the Latvians, lie within the territory of Latvia. Already for many centuries Livs have been drawn into a mainly spontaneous process of ethnic assimilation. In 1937 about 2,000 Livs lived in several fishing villages on the northern coast of Kurzeme. At present there are only some few dozen people of Livian origin in Latvia who are still able to speak the Livian language.

Melngailis also had made a small collection of Turkmen and Uzbek folk music, which he collected between 1906 and 1920 while a teacher of German and English at the military school at Tashkent. This was unfortunately lost when he returned to Latvia in 1920.

5. These volumes were based on Melngailis' work of the 1920s to early 1940s and prepared in the late 1940s, so that they are mentioned here as a part of this period.

6. This genre of research has not been strongly developed in Latvian folk music study. Only a few examples can be listed in addition to those already mentioned: Graubi4s 1950, Kvelde 1955, Vitolipq 1955 and Beitine 1993.

7. After the occupation of the Baltic States by the Red Army in the summer of 1940, the rule of the Soviets was replaced in 1941 by the German occupation. The second period of Soviet occupation began in 1945 when that regime returned.

8. The Latvian Folklore Repository now contains more than 26,000 choreographic items. 9. The Institute of Folklore was founded in 1945 at the Philological Faculty of the Latvian

State University and was built upon the Latvian Folklore Repository. One year later it became a substructure of the newly organized Academy of Sciences of the Latvian SSR. In 1956 the Institute was reduced to the Department of Folklore of the Institute of Language and Literature within the same Academy of Sciences. Since 1992 the Department is again called the Latvian Folklore Repository.

10. One of the characteristic features of the collecting work organized by the Department in the 1950s and 1960s was the involvement of young composers. Pauls Dambis (b. 1936), Aldonis Kalnins (b. 1928), RomualdsJermaks (b. 1931), Edmunds Goldsteins (b. 1927) - all important names as composers of Latvian contemporary music - and several others were enthusiastic collectors and their contact with folk music left many traces in their work.

11. An exception is some publications that appeared in connection with the celebration of the 125th anniversary of the birth ofJurjans in 1981. At that time, for example, the facsimile of the first volume of his Materials was published with a lengthy introduction written by Klotip? and commentary by Bendorfs (Klotip? 1981b; Bendorfs 1981).

12. A similar process can be traced in this same period within Estonia and Lithuania, where folk music revival movements also throve.

13. The new aesthetic principles and aims of the movement were defined by musicologist Arnolds Klotipq (1978 and 1981a).

14. In 1944 about 240,000 Latvians were forced to seek refuge in the West, among them many of the intelligentsia. The nation and national culture thus was divided into two parts. The Soviet regime tried to prevent any contact between these two parts. Almost all branches of Latvian culture are represented in a strong Western immigrant community, ethnomusicology included.

15. Jansons defended his dissertation in 1986 at Rutgers University (New Jersey, USA). 16. The largest collection of folk musical instruments is that of the Latvian Ethnographic Open-

Air Museum (about 250 items). 17. This is an article summarizing a larger contribution from the mid-1970s (see Brambats

1973-1974). 18. Since independence, national minorities in Latvia enjoy broad cultural autonomy. They

have national schools (financed by the state), associations, newspapers, radio and TV broadcasts, religious institutions and political parties. There are many minorities living in Latvia: Russians, Ukrainians, Byelorussians, Jews, Poles, Lithuanians, Estonians, Livs, Armenians, Georgians, Gypsys and others. Together, they make up about 46% of the population.




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Lija Krasinska, 7-68. Riga: Liesma. 1973 Gadskirtu ierazu dziesmas [Traditional Songs of the Annual Cycle]. Riga: Zinatne. 1986 Precibu dziesmas [Matchmaking Songs]. Riga: Zinatne.



Latvian Ethno Past e Present

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