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Latin AmericaLatin America
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Introduction Is comprised of 17 countries Share a history of Iberian colonization Multiethnic (Amerindian, Iberian, African) Export of primary goods (eg, coffee, petroleum) Heightened economic integration (eg. FTAA) 75% urban; prevalence of megacities World’s great reserves of biological diversity (eg. Amazo
n rain forest, Andes mountains)
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Environmental Geography
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Western mountains and Eastern shields
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The AndesThe Andes Created by collision of oceanic and continental Created by collision of oceanic and continental
platesplates Geologically young Geologically young volcanism, earthquakes volcanism, earthquakes Geologically complex Geologically complex rich in minerals rich in minerals Divided intoDivided into
Northern: Venezuela, ColombiaNorthern: Venezuela, Colombia Central: Ecuador, Peru, BoliviaCentral: Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia
Altiplano Southern: Chile, ArgentinaSouthern: Chile, Argentina
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Elevated plateau straddling the Bolivian and Peruvian Andes
Inhabited mostly by Amerindians
High-altitude lake (Titicaca, Poopó)
Altiplano (elevated plain)
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The uplands of Mexico and Central The uplands of Mexico and Central AmericaAmerica
The Mexican PlateauThe Mexican Plateau Mesa Central (southern end)Mesa Central (southern end)
Mexico’s breadbasket (eg. Mexico City, Puebla)Mexico’s breadbasket (eg. Mexico City, Puebla)
The Volcanic Axis of Central America The Volcanic Axis of Central America Stretches from Guatemala to Costa RicaStretches from Guatemala to Costa Rica Many active volcanoes Many active volcanoes rich volcanic soil rich volcanic soil bulk of t bulk of t
he agricultural land (produce beef, cotton, and coffee)he agricultural land (produce beef, cotton, and coffee)
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Fertile volcanic soils, ample rainfall, and temperate climate of the Guatemala highlands have supported dense populations for centuries
The Volcano Axis of Central America
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The ShieldsThe Shields
Paranã basalt plateau
Brazilian Brazilian shieldshield
Pat
agon
ia
Pat
agon
ia
shie
ldsh
ield
Large upland areas of exposed crystalLarge upland areas of exposed crystalline rockline rock
Remnants of the ancient landmass of Remnants of the ancient landmass of GondwanalandGondwanaland
Brazilian shieldBrazilian shield Human settlements: SHuman settlements: Sãão Paulo, Rio de Jao Paulo, Rio de Ja
neironeiro ParanParanãã basalt plateau: fertile red soils (te basalt plateau: fertile red soils (te
rra roxa) rra roxa) coffee, orange coffee, orange Patagonian shieldPatagonian shield
Open steppe country with few settlementOpen steppe country with few settlements s home to wildlife home to wildlife
Guiana Shield
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Brazilian shield Patagonia shield
Oranges are widely cultivated due to the fertile soil
Wildlife (Guanacos) thrives on the steppe
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Amazon basin Largest river system by volume and
area Year-round precipitation Sparse settlement
Plata basin Rivers: Paranã, Paraguay, Uruguay Grassland: Chaco, Pantanal, pampas Large-scale mechanized agriculture
Amazon Amazon basinbasin
Pla
ta
Pla
ta
basi
nba
sin
Orinoco Orinoco
basinbasinRiver Basins and River Basins and
LowlandsLowlands
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River Basins and River Basins and LowlandsLowlands
Orinoco basinLlanos
Tropical grasslandHas supported large cattle
ranchesNow becomes the area of
petroleum production
Amazon Amazon basinbasin
Pla
ta
Pla
ta
basi
nba
sin
Orinoco Orinoco
basinbasin
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Tropical, dry, temperate, and highland climates
Tropical humid climates
Mirror image of mid-latitude climates in the northern hemisphere
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Tropical climates Tropical lowlands in the east of
the Andes Support forest or savanna Average monthly temperatures
show little variation Unlike tropical wet climate (A
f), tropical savanna climate (Aw) has a dry season
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Dry climates
Can be found in The Pacific coasts of Peru an
d ChilePatagoniaNorthern MexicoBahia of Brazil
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Temperate climates
Humid subtropical (Cfa)Argentina, Uruguay, and pa
rts of Paraguay and Chile Mediterranean (Csb)
Around Santiago, Chile Marine west coast (Cfb)
South of Conceptión, Chile
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Altitudinal Zonation
Changes in temperature by elevation (-3.5 °F for every 1000 feet; also known as environmental lapse rate)
Changes in vegetation by elevation – plant communities common to the midlatitudes could thrive in the tropics at higher elevations
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Altitudinal Zonation
Tropical highland areas support a complex array of ecosystems
The Andes, the highlands of Central America, the Mexican Plateau
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El Niño
Warm pacific current that usually arrives along coastal Ecuador and Peru in December, around Christmastime
Occurs every decade or so Produces torrential rains Causes drought
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Natural HazardsNatural Hazards
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Environmental issues The Valley of Mexico
Air pollution thermal inversion layer traps pollutants in the high altitude
Water Shortage: water is overdrawn from valley’s aquiferContamination: pollutant run off into the soil, which leach
into the aquiferSubsidence reliance on ground waterWorsened by poverty and governmental inaction
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Air pollution in Mexico City
High elevation and immense size make management of air quality difficult
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Deforestation The Atlantic coastal forests of Brazil, and the Pacific fores
ts of Central America have nearly disappeared as a result of Agriculture/Settlement
Rather seen as an agricultural frontier Cleared to appease landless peasants
Ranching Grassification – conversion of tropical forest into pasture
Etc. Search for gold (Brazil, Venezuela, and Costa Rica) Coca leaf production (Peru, Bolivia, and Colombia)
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Degradation of farmlands
Agricultural productivity has declined in recent decades due to increased aridity and severe soil erosion
Modern agriculture is squeezing out indigenous crops
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Urban environmental challenges
Pollution, inadequate water, garbage removal Squatter settlements – more vulnerable to natural h
azards Industrial pollution
Eg. Cubatão 1984 oil pipeline explosion
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Environmental issuesEnvironmental issues
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Population and Settlement
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Sparsely populated, youthfulness of population, urbanized High variation between urban and rural countries
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The Latin American city Rural-to-urban migration since 1950
1950: 25% 2000: 75% Preference for urban life
Cultural: Under Iberian rule, residence in a city conferred status and offered opportunity
Economic: primary role in structuring regional economies
Urban primacy A country has a primate city three to four times larger than any other c
ity in the country Eg. Lima, Caracas, Guatemala City, Santiago, Buenos Aires, and Mexi
co City Decentralizing effort: Ciudad Guayana, Brasilia
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Latin American city model
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Latin American city model Reflects colonial origins and contemporary growth
Colonial origins - existence of CBD(Central Business District) Contemporary growth
Zone of Maturity, and In Situ Accretion are radiated out from CBD Residential quality declines as one move from core to periphery
Highlights the class divisions Elite spine – newer commercial and business strip that extends from t
he colonial core to newer parts of the city Peripheral squatter settlements – straddles the periférico (beltway high
way); limited services and infrastructure; resulted from (1) rapid inflow of migrants (2) inability of government to meet presseing needs
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CBD(central business district) Elite Spine (new commercial
center)
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Elite Residential Sector
Peripheral Squatter Settlements
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Informal sector Economic sector that relies on self-employed, low-wage jo
bs (eg. street vending, shoe shining, and artisan manufacturing) that are unregulated and untaxed
Often includes illegal activities such as drug smuggling, sale of contraband items such as illegally copies videos and apes, and prostitutions
Fundamental force that houses, services, and employs the inhabitants of squatter settlements
Effort of the urban poor to make a place for themselves
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Patterns of rural settlement Under the colonial rule
Colonial authorities granted land to the colonists Latifundia: practice of maintaining large estates Minifundia: peasants farmed small plots for their subsistence
Political turmoil in 20th centuryAgrarian reform – redistribution of landslandsCreation of agricultural frontiers
provides peasants with landTaps unused resourcesShores up political boundaries
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Population growth High growth rates throughout the 20th century
Natural increase Immigration Increasing life expectancy
Growth rates have weakened in the late 20th century TFR has declined (except for rural countries) due to :
Increased participation of women in the labor force Higher education levels of women State support of family planning Better access to birth control
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Migration to Latin America European migration
After gaining independence from Iberia (1870-1930), government attracted European peasants to populate
The Southern Cone countries (Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, Paraguay, and southern Brazil)
Italian, Portuguese, Spaniards, and Germans
Asian migration Mid 19th century: Chinese, and Japanese
Eg. Japanese in Peru, Japanese-Brazilian orange farms Latest: South Korea
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International migration in Latin America
Employment opportunities Venezuela’s oil wealth in 1960s and 1970s Argentina attracts Bolivian and Paraguayan laborers U.S. attracts Mexican laborers
Political turmoil Chilean intellectuals in the 1970s Nicaraguans in 1979 Civil war in El Salvador and Guatemala
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Transnationalism Phenomenon in which migrants maintain close contact
with their home country
Develop vital immigrant social networks in host countries
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Principal Latin American migration flows
Interregional To frontier zones
International within Latin America To Venezuela,
Argentina
International outside Latin America To U.S. To Europe
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Cultural Coherence and Diversity
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Cultural identity Precontact period: civilization in th
e central Mexico, and the Andes
Since 1500s: forced assimilation of European culture Religion, language, political organiza
tion Dominance of European culture is ex
plained by the demographic collapse of native populations
Machu Picchu, Peru – Inca
The Pyramid of the Sun, near Mexico City – pre-Aztec
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Demographic Collapse Dramatic loss of indigenous population
47 million (1500) 5 million (1650)cf. 42 million in western Europe (1500)
Causes are Epidemics of influenza and smallpox Warfare Forced labor Starvation due to a collapse of food production systems
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The Columbian Exchange An immense biological swap that occurred after Columbus cam
e; exchange of crops and animal between Old World and New World
Introduction of Old World crops wheat, olives, grapes; sugarcane, coffee
Introduction of New World crops potato, corn, tomato, squash eg, Europe’s rapid population increase in 18th century
Introduction of Old World animals Introduces Animal-borne disease; used for plowing; wool; diversity to
diet
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Indian survival Largest indigenous populations can be found in Mexico, G
uatemala, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia Occurs in isolated settings through the link to land Amerindians’ political control
Eg. Comarcas in Panama – areas of land set aside for indigenous Amerindians
Eg. The first Amerindian president in Peru
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Complex ethnic blend Racial mixing is the norm
Mestizo: Spaniard + Indian Mulattoes: European + African
Racial caste system under Spanish rule: Blanco (European ancestry) Mestizo (mixed ancestry) Indio (Indian ancestry) Negro (African ancestry)
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Languages 2/3 Spanish
1/3 Portuguese in Brazil
Indigenous languages in the Central Andes, Mexico, and Guatemala
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Religions
90% Roman Catholic
Syncretic religions Blends of different belief
systems Animist practices + Chri
stian worshipChurches are important religious and social centers in Latin America
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Machismo and Marianismo Cultural traits assigned to men and women Machismo
Honor, risk-taking, self-confident
Marianismo Patient, loving, gentle, willing to suffer in silence, keeper of hom
e, nurturers of childen, deferential to husbands
Fading stereotype
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Global reach of Latino culture
TelenovelasPopular nightly soap opera exported worldwide
National identitiesDance and music tradition
Tango (Argentina), Samba (Brazil), mariachi (Mexico)
LiteratureGabriel Garcia Marquez, Isabel Allende
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Geopolitical Framework
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Since 1500s Iberian rule has shaped political landscape profoundly
In 1900s, declared independence Political instability persists until recently
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Iberian conquest
Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)Division of New W
orld by Spain andand Portugal
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Iberian conquest (~1800s) Portuguese
Settled in the coast of Brazil since 1500 Brazilwood, sugar estates, slave trade (late 16th century) Gold in the Brazilian interior (17th century)
Spanish Silver in Central Mexico, Central Andes (mid 16th century) Cacao, sugar, and livestock
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Revolution and independence
Portuguese colony Became independent repub
lic (1808-89)
Spanish colonies Experienced fragmentation
in the 19th century Gran Colombia – led by Sim
on Bolivar United Provinces of Central
America
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Persistent border conflicts Sparsely populated interior became a source of border con
flicts War of the Pacific (1879-82): Chile, Bolivia Mexican War (1846-48): U.S., Mexico War of the Triple Alliance (1864-70): alliance of Argentina, Bra
zil, and Uruguay against Paraguay Chaco War (1932-35): Bolivia, Parguay Falkland (1981): U.K., Argentina Territorial claims to Antarctica
Antarctic Treaty (1959) – should be used for peaceful purposes
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Trend toward democracy Long independence, but political instability has been a
problem 250 constitutions have been written since independence Military coups are frequent
After 1980s Democratically elected governments Market-driven policy by free-market reformers However, problems still persist
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Trend toward economic integrationTrend toward economic integration Trade blocks are established to foster internal trade and redTrade blocks are established to foster internal trade and red
uce trade barriersuce trade barriers MercosurMercosur (1991) (1991)
Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, ParaguayBrazil, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay Chile, Bolivia as an associate memberChile, Bolivia as an associate member $19 billion interregional trade$19 billion interregional trade
NAFTANAFTA U.S., Canada, MexicoU.S., Canada, Mexico $700 billion interregional trade$700 billion interregional trade Impetus to the vision of Impetus to the vision of FTAA (Free Trade Area of the America) (Free Trade Area of the America)
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Free Trade Area of the America (FTAA)
Proposed in 1994 34 states (excluding Cuba) in the Western Hemisphere Pledges to establish free trade zone stretching from Alaska
to Cape Horn by 2005 Embodies the ideals of Neoliberalism
Increased trade and economic integration will improve the standard of living for people in the America
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Insurgencies, drug traffickers, and protest
Insurgency group Shining Path (Peru), FARC and ELN (Colombia)
Drug trade Often seen as the root of many of the regions’ problem Brings in currency, but damages judicial system
Eg. Colombia – highest crime rate
Protest Zapatista rebellion in Mexico – supported by Amerindian peasan
t; protest the consequences of globalization; how increased foreign trade and investment hurt rural peasant
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Coca-growing Coca-growing areas in South areas in South AmericaAmerica
Peru, Bolivia Peru, Bolivia Colombia Colombia
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Economic and Social Development
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Primary export dependency Entrenched informal sector Experimented with various development strategies
From import substitution to neoliberalism World “periphery”?
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Most Latin American countries are “middle income”, but extreme poverty exist
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Agricultural production ~1950s: commercial agriculture for export
Each country specializes in one or two commodities Costa Rica (Banana, coffee), Nicaragua (coffee, cotton), Brazil (coffee) Peru, Chile, and Colombia (coca)
1960s~: diversification/mechanization of agriculture Conversion of plains into fields Agricultural production increases while fewer people are employ
ed by it (eg. Agriculture labor force in Peru: 45% 7%)
1990s~: efforts to conserve the ecosystem
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Mining Oil
Venezuela, Mexico, Ecuador, ColombiaColombia Tin, Copper
Bolivia, ChileMechanized more production with fewer miners
GoldTropical regions of Venezuela, Brazil, Colombia, Costa RicaLabor-intensive offer employment
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Logging Exportation of boards and wood pulp Short-term infusion of cash into a local economy, but make
s the system of extraction unsustainable Plantation forestry
Brazil, Venezuela, Chile, and Argentina Eg. Chile’s booming export economy
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Entrenched informal sector Provides goods and services without the benefit of
government regulation, registration, or taxation
Estimated nearly 60% of the total non-agricultural employment in 1998
Reflects the inability of the formal economies of the region to absorb labor
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Development strategies Self-sufficiency policy since the 1950s
Import substitution - foster domestic industry by imposing inflated tariffs on all imports
State-run nationalized industries Agrarian reform
Neoliberalism emerges recently Privatization of industries; direct foreign investment (DFI) Establishment of trade blocks
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Industrial center Emphasized manufacturing since the 1960s National support
Growth poles (planned industrial center) Eg. Ciudada Guayana (Venezuela), Ciudad Juárez, Tijuana (Mex
ico)
Local investment Industrial sectors developed without direct state support Eg. Monterrey (Mexico), Medellín (Colombia), São Paulo (Brazi
l)
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São Paulo, Brazil Industrial giant of Latin America Financial center of Brazil The city of 18 million Began to industrialize in the early 1900s1900s
City’s coffee merchants started to diversitydiversity their investments Since then, industries have agglomerated Produce automobiles, aircraft, chemicals, process foods, and
construction materials within a 60-mile radius of the city center
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Foreign investment Realize the benefit of attracting foreign investment
taking advantage of relatively cheap labor, and lax government regulationeg. Maquiladoras
The Mexican assembly plants that line the border with U.S.Manufacturing systems in an increasingly globalized econom
yMexico’s competitive advantage is
Its location along the U.S. border Membership in NAFTA
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Maquiladoras – opportunities and challenges
Opportunities Between 1994 and 2000, 3 out of 10 new jobs in Mexico were in
Maquiladoras Account for nearly half of Mexico’s exports
Challenges U.S. workers lost jobs Industrial pollution due to lax government regulation Poorly integrated with the rest of the economy
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Latin America in the Global Economy
Why does Latin America’s economy suffer?Dependency theory (1960s)
Expansion of European capitalism created the region’s underdevelopment
For the developed “cores” of the world to prosper, the “peripheries” became dependent and impoverished
Support self-sufficiency policy, and agrarian reform
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Disproportionate flow of exports to the U.S. 80% of Mexican exports 40% of all Central Americ
an and Andean export 15% of Mercosur trade
Anyhow, increase in intraregional trade is recognized as a positive sign of greater economic independence for Latin America
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Argentina in early 2002from the view of dependency theory
Shows how dependent economies can be vulnerable to the fluctuation in a global economy
Financial crisis in the late 1990s (Asia, Russia) Reduction in DFI in Latin America Devaluation of currency Cheaper Brazilian products Trade instability with Argentina Worsened Argentina’s already unstable economy
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So do you think FTAA will benefit all (in the hemisphere) or benefit only U.S. eventually?
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Neoliberalism as globalization By the 1990s most Latin American political leader
s area embracing neoliberalism Neoliberal policies stress privatization, export prod
uction, direct foreign investment, and few restrictions on importsEg. Chile’s economic growth: 5.6% (1990s)
Social and environmental costs associated with neoliberal policies are not known yet
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Dollarization A process by which a country adopts the U.S. dollar as its
official currency To address the problems of currency devaluation and
hyperinflation Ecuador (2000), Panama (1904) No long has control of its monetary policy Political cost Indicator of the prominence of the dollar in a global
economy
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Social development
Social indicators have improved last three decades Lower than MDC, but higher than other developin
g countries despite economic downturns Role of grassroots and nongovernment organizatio
ns (NGOs) Extreme variations between rural and urban areas,
between regions, and along race and gender lines
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Race and inequality
The complex racial and ethnic mix fostered tolerance for diversity
More often than not, link between race and poverty can be foundSouthern Mexico(Indian), Northeastern Brazil(Black)
Race does not necessarily determine one’s economic standing, but it certainly influences it
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For the last three decades, the status of women has improved