LateLateMedievalMedieval

(Proto-Renaissance)(Proto-Renaissance)

13th & 14th Century Italy• Fourteenth century Italy was divided into city-states.• Many of the city-states (including Venice, Florence, Lucca, and Siena) were republics – constitutional oligarchies governed by executive bodies, advisory councils, and special commissions. Others, such as Milan, were ruled by despots.• Although church services were still in Latin, vernacular literature became more commonly available.• Humanism – not a philosophy, as in ancient Greece, but rather a code of civic values: self sacrificing service to the state, participation in government, defense of state institutions, and stoic indifference to personal misfortune in the performance of duty. • The Humanist sought no material reward. The only reward for civic virtue was fame (“Cult of Fame”). • Replacement of reason with intuition, experience favored over logical argument. Lead to beginnings of early science.• During the fall of Constantinople to the crusaders in 1204, Byzantine artists fled west, bringing with them Byzantine artistic styles and techniques that influenced the art of Italy. Italian artwork influenced by Byzantine style in this period is referred to as maniera greca (“Greek Manner”).

Italy around 1400 CE

The Black Death• In 1347, an outbreak of the bubonic plague, that had originated in Asia, reached Europe. • The plague was spread by infected fleas that lived commonly on rats. Since merchant ships were typically infested with rats, it was these trade ships that brought the infection from the trade routes of Asia (i.e. the Silk Road) to the port cities of the Mediterranean. • As indicated by the map, the infections began along the coastal Mediterranean cities, then spread northward across Europe.• During this particular outbreak, approximately 40% of Europeans died. In urban areas, where the population was denser, the death rates were as high as 60-80%. • The disease killed quickly (within only a few days), and seemingly at random. The population of Europe was terrified, and many believed it was God’s punishment for sin.• The plague inspired new levels of religious fanaticism, and a heightened emphasis on death in artwork.• Ironically, the Black Death also indirectly caused the cultural turn towards the Renaissance. Because so many died so quickly, social institutions crumbled quickly. Poor laborers no longer faced competition, and were able to demand higher payment for their work, resulting in a broader middle class.

Spread of the Black Deathc. 1346-1353

The Great Schism• In 1305, the College of Cardinals elected a French pope, Clement V, who settled in Avignon. Subsequent French popes remained in Avignon, despite their announced intentions to return to Rome.• The Italians, who saw Rome as the rightful capital of the Church, resented the Avignon papacy. • As a result, in 1378, two popes (Clement VII and Urban VI) were elected, an event called the Great Schism (Clement, who resided in Avignon, does not appear on the Catholic church’s official list of popes). • Sometimes referred to as the Western Schism, to distinguish from the other Great Schism (the East-West Schism between the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church of 1054).• In 1417, the Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund convened a council that resolved this crisis by electing a new Roman Pope (Martin V), who was acceptable to all.• The pope’s absence from Italy for most of the 14th century contributed to an increase in prominence of monastic orders, such as the Augustinians, Carmelites, Servites, Dominicans, and Franciscans.

Allegiances to Rome v. Avignon

St. Francis• The Dominicans and Franciscans were a specific type of monastic order: mendicants (begging friars). Mendicants renounced all worldly goods and committed themselves to spreading Christianity, performing good deeds, and aiding the sick and dying.• The Franciscan order was founded by Francis of Assisi. Francis was born into an upper-middle class merchant family, but after several illnesses and visions as a young man, Francis renounced his worldly possessions and became a beggar. • Francis and his followers travelled throughout Italy, aiding the sick, helping to restore churches, and preaching. He modeled his lifestyle after Jesus’ own.• St. Francis is known for:-Creating the first nativity scene-Receiving the stigmata from a six-winged angel on a mountaintop-Admired the beauty of the natural world (preached to animals)-Attempting to resolve a standoff between crusaders and the sultan of Egypt.-Humanized religion by encouraging a more direct relationship with God.

Saint Francis AltarpieceBonaventura Berlinghieri

Artist’s Guilds and Contracts• Guilds protected members’ common economic interests against external pressures, such as taxation, but also provided them with the means to regulate their internal operations (for example, work quality and membership training). • Guilds were occasional patrons of the arts, funding the building of major churches and hospitals.• When an individual artist was commissioned to do an artwork, a legally-binding contract was signed between the artist and the patron. The contracts usually stipulated certain conditions:-Insistence on the artist’s own hand in the production of the work-The quality of pigment and amount of gold or other precious items to be used-Completion date and payment terms-Penalties for failing to meet the terms of the contract

Apprenticeships• Between the ages of 7 & 15, aspiring artists would take on apprenticeships with a master artist, after which they would join the appropriate guild. • New guild-certified apprentices would continue to work as assistants to a master artist, as they built their reputation.• Guilds regulated apprenticeships, to ensure only the best artists were selected, and to keep numbers (and competition) low.

Saint Francis Altarpiece• Artist: Bonaventura Berlinghieri of Lucca. • Berlinghieri was one of the leading painters working in the hybrid of Italian and Byzantine styles, known as maniera greca.• St. Francis is depicted wearing the coarse robes of his order, and bearing the marks of the stigmata.• Flanking him are two angels, whose frontal poses, prominent halos, and lack of modeling reveal the Byzantine roots of Berlinghieri’s style.• The use of gold leaf emphasizes the artwork’s flatness and spiritual nature.• This artwork was made only nine years after St. Francis’ death, and is the earliest known representation of the saint. • On either side of the saint are depictions of significant events in his life. These were included to make the miraculous events of the saint’s life seem credible and legendary, and to increase his fame and following.

Saint Francis AltarpieceBonaventura BerlinghieriPescia, Italy. C. 1235. Tempera and gold leafon wood.5’ x 3’ x 6’

Madonna Enthroned withAngels and Prophets

• One of the first artists to break from the Italo-Byzantine style that dominated 13th century Italian painting was Cenni di Pepo, better known as Cimabue (chee-ma-BOO-way, Italian for “Bull’s Head”). • Challenged conventional maniera greca in favor of a new naturalism (the close observation of the natural world).• Gold leaf background reveals Byzantine roots, but Cimabue also added gold leaf to the folds of Mary’s robes (not just as a decorative pattern, but to enhance their three-dimensionality).• What techniques is Cimabue using to create a sense of depth of space or volume of form?

Madonna Enthroned with Angels and ProphetsCimabue. Santa Trinità, Florence, c. 1280.Tempera/gold leaf on wood. 12’ 7” x 7’ 4”.

Rucellai Madonna• Siena and Florence were two of the most powerful Italian city-states, and served as banking capitals, ensuring a steady flow of money to be spent on arts patronage. • Duccio di Buoninsegna was a Sienese artist, known for fusing the Byzantine and French Gothic styles.• His depiction of Mary is flanked by six supporting angels, and emphasizes gracefulness of pose and gesture, and a color scheme rich in luminous pastels.• The drapery not only models his figures into convincing forms, it also falls into graceful lines and patterns, especially apparent in the golden edge of the virgin’s deep blue mantle.

Virgin and Child Enthroned (Rucellai Madonna)Duccio di Buoninsegna, c. 1285.Tempera and gold on wood.14’ 9” x 9’ 6”

Maestà Altarpiece• Duccio and his workshop is perhaps most famous for the Maestà Altarpiece (“maestà” means “majesty,” and is used to refer to images of Mary enthroned, holding the child Jesus. It is an extension of the “throne of wisdom” and seated “theotokos” of earlier periods). • The altarpiece was made of multiple panels that were bonded together before painting. Both sides are painted, as it could be seen from all directions once installed in the main altar at the center of the sanctuary.• The central panel depicts the Virgin and Child in Majesty, flanked by 20 angels and 10 saints (the 4 patron saints of Siena kneel in the foreground). • The images on the pinnacles above the central panel are scenes from the last days of Mary’s life.• The base on an altarpiece is called the predella, and usually depicts narrative scenes. The images on this predella depict scenes from the infancy of Christ.• Mary was important to the Sienese because they believed she had brought them victory over the Florentines at the battle of Monteperti in 1260.

Virgin and Child Enthroned with Saints,Maestà Altarpiece. Duccio di Buoninsegna.

Siena Cathedral, Siena, Italyc. 1311. Tempera/gold leaf on wood. 7’ x 13’

Predella

Maestà Altarpiece• Duccio derived the composition’s formality and symmetry, along with the figures and facial types of the principal angels and saints, from Byzantine tradition.• However, he relaxed the strict frontality and rigidity of the figures by having them turn to each other in quiet conversation.• From French Gothic style, Duccio borrowed the individualization of facial features, as well as the depiction of soft fabric folds.• At the time, Siena played a major role in importing luxurious Asian fabrics (such as silk) and reselling them throughout the rest of Europe. This painting shows Duccio’s study of the drapery and sheen of fine silk.• Duccio could not veer too much from tradition, because the altarpiece would be the focus at Siena’s main cathedral. Duccio knew his Maestà should be an object holy in itself – a work of splendor to the eyes, precious in its message and its materials.• Duccio thus recognized how the function of the altarpiece naturally limited experimentation in depicting narrative action and producing illusionistic effects.

Virgin and Child Enthroned with Saints,Maestà Altarpiece. Duccio di Buoninsegna.

Siena Cathedral, Siena, Italyc. 1311. Tempera/gold leaf on wood. 7’ x 13’

Predella

Maestà Altarpiece (Backside)• The back of Duccio’s altarpiece depicts narrative scenes from the passion of Jesus, beginning with the ride into Jerusalem at the bottom left, and ending with the visitation of Mary Magdalene in the top right.• The predella depicts scenes from the rest of the life of Jesus, with the Annunciation on the left and Resurrection on the right.• Duccio was more at liberty to experiment with naturalistic depictions of form and space on the back of the altarpiece. • In the detail shown, The Kiss of Judas, in which Judas marks Jesus as the leader of the Jews to the Roman soldiers, Duccio breaks away from the stiff frontal formality of Byzantine style.• The figures demonstrate action in their poses (the fleeing disciples, the stoicism of Jesus, and the attack of Peter). • The figures show different emotions (Judas – malice, Peter – anger, disciples – fear, Jesus – calm).

Life of Jesus,Back of Maestà AltarpieceSiena Cathedral, Siena, Italyc. 1311. 7’ x 13’.Tempera/gold leaf on wood.

Madonna Enthroned• Giotto di Bondone is considered by many to be the first Renaissance painter, due to his pioneering of a new, naturalistic approach to painting based on observation.• Taught by Cimabue, but abandoned Cimabue’s use of the maniera greca. • Although still portrayed on the traditional gold background, Giotto’s Madonna rests within her Gothic throne with the unshakeable stability of an ancient marble goddess. Her form is that of a queenly mother, rather than a fragile young woman.• The forms of Mary’s body are discernable beneath her robes, rather than shrouded by them.• Traditional Byzantine figures are wispier, giving the sense of spiritual immateriality. Giotto’s Madonna marks the beginning of figures being depicted as solid and statuesque, capable of reflecting light and casting shadows.

Madonna EnthronedGiotto di BondoneChurch of Ognissanti, Florence, c. 1310. Tempera/gold leaf on wood10’ 8” x 6’ 8”

Compare: Enthroned Virgins

Cimabue, Florence, 1280 Duccio, Siena, 1285 Giotto, Florence, 1310

Arena Chapel• The frescoes in the Arena Chapel form a narrative of biblical scenes, reading from top to bottom, on the north and south walls.• Along the bottom of the walls runs faux marble panels (plaster painted to look like marble), interspersed with grisaille (monochrome gray paintings, pronounced “grizz-EYE”) frescoes depicting personifications of Virtues and Vices. These grisaille frescoes were meant to resemble sculpture.• The narrative cycle of frescoes culminates over the west entrance, which depicts Christ’s last judgment.• The ceiling is painted blue, and dotted with stars to resemble the heavens.• The same shade of blue is used in the skies of the narrative panels. The color thus functions as a unifying agent for the entire decorative scheme.

LamentationInterior of the Arena ChapelGiotto di Bondone. Padua, Italy, 1305.

grisaille

Arena Chapel• This panel depicts the lamentation. • Giotto strove to create three-dimensional figures as well as a three-dimensional space for them to inhabit.• Where do you see the use of fore-shortening?• The steep, rocky slope in the background creates a setting for the figures, while also drawing the eye to the focal point (the area of most interest) in the bottom left corner.• The figures around Christ respond to the event with a variety of emotions and gestures. • The single dead tree in the background represents the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil, which withered after Adam and Eve’s original sin. It helps to counter-balance the cluster of figures in the bottom left.• The seated mourner in the bottom left, while not an important figure in the narrative, helps to stop the viewer’s eye from moving past Jesus and Mary. Starkly different from Byzantine frontality.• Giotto modeled his forms with light from a consistent (unseen) light source, helping to create volume and define one figure from another.

LamentationInterior of the Arena ChapelGiotto di Bondone. Padua, Italy, 1305.

Arena Chapel• This image depicts Judas marking Jesus for death. • What techniques is Giotto using in this composition to create a sense of depth?• In what ways is Giotto breaking from tradition?• The use of narrative became very popular in the late medieval era. Churches put on “mystery plays,” which were short, one or two scene plays that depicted biblical events. These plays were acted out as dramatically as possible. These plays were put on either at church portals or city squares.

Kiss of JudasInterior of the Arena ChapelGiotto di Bondone. Padua, Italy, 1305.

Annunciation• Artist: Simone Martini and his assistant, Lippo Memmi.• Martini was a student of Duccio (in Siena). • Martini worked for the French kings in Naples and Sicily and, in his last years, produced paintings for the papal court in Avignon, where he came in contact with French painters. • He adapted the insubstantial but luxuriant patterns of the Gothic style to Sienese art and, in turn, acquainted painters north of the Alps with Sienese style. In so doing, he was instrumental in spreading the International Style.• International Style: A style of 14th & 15th century painting begun by Simone Martini, who adapted the French Gothic manner to Sienese art fused with influences from northern Europe. This style appealed to the aristocracy because of its brilliant color, lavish costumes, intricate ornamentation, and themes involving splendid processions of knights and ladies. • The artist tooled the gold foil to create a texture. This technique, known as punchwork, was used to create the halos.

Annunciation altarpieceSimone Martini and Lippo MemmiSiena Cathedral, c. 1333. Tempera and gold leaf on wood.

punchwork

Annunciation• The Annunciation altarpiece Martini created for Siena Cathedral features elegant shapes and radiant color, fluttering line, and weightless figures… all hallmarks of the artist’s style.• The presentation was probably based on European chivalric court etiquette.• The gold of Gabriel’s gown and wings signal his divinity.• Gabriel kneels reverently, an appropriate act in the presence of royalty, while Mary draws back demurely.• A vase of white lilies sits between them, a symbol of Mary’s purity.

Annunciation altarpieceSimone Martini and Lippo MemmiSiena Cathedral, c. 1333. Tempera and gold leaf on wood.

Birth of the Virgin• Artist: Pietro Lorenzetti (another student of Duccio)• This altarpiece is an example of a triptych (3 part painting)• The figures flow naturally from one panel to the next, instead of being locked in three separate panels.• The painted background creates a box-like stage, where the event takes place.• Saint Anne (Mary’s mother) props herself up wearily as midwives wash off the newly born Virgin Mary. Other women bring gifts to the new mother. Mary’s father, Joachim, eagerly awaits news of the delivery in the next room. • Lorenzetti created the sense that the viewer had peeled off the walls of the house to peer inside.

Birth of the VirginPietro Lorenzetti, Altar of St. Savinus,

Siena Cathedral, Siena, c. 1342.Tempera on wood, 6’ 1” x 5’ 11”.

Effects of Good Government in the City and in the Country

• Painted by Ambrogio Lorenzetti (brother of Pietro)• This was a fresco cycle in the Palazzo Pubblico, or “public palace” (city hall). • During this time, Italian city-states were subject to attack from outside forces (other cities) as well as internal upheaval (feuding noble families or uprisings of the citizens against the governor). The Palazzo Pubblico was the center of defense.• Appropriately, the Palazzo Pubblico contained frescos addressing Sienese civic concerns, including the Allegory of Good Government, Bad Government, and the Effects of Bad Government in the City, and Effects of Good Government in the City and in the Country.• The turbulent politics of Italian cities called for solumn reminders of fair and just administration, and the city hall was just the place to display these allegorical paintings.

Ambrogio LorenzettiSala della Pace,Palazzo Pubblico, Siena c. 1338

Peaceful CityPeaceful City Detail from Effects of Good Government in the City and in the CountryAmbrogio LorenzettiSala della Pace,Palazzo Pubblico, Siena c. 1338

• Peaceful City is a panoramic view of Siena, with its clustering palaces, markets, towers, churches, streets, and walls. • Scenes from everyday life abound: traffic moves peacefully, guild members sell their merchandise, and maidens dance in a circle.• The architecture of the buildings gave the artist an opportunity to demonstrate his developing knowledge of basic perspective.

Peaceful Country• As the viewer’s eye traveled out the gate of the city, it passed into the next part of the mural. • Peaceful Country depicts a birds-eye view of the landscape of Tuscany (one of the earliest depictions of a landscape).• Although it is not intended to be a mimetic representation of the countryside on a specific day, it is clear that Lorenzetti did closely observe the countryside in order to paint this fresco with accuracy.• The image depicts the everyday tasks of rural life during different seasons of the year.• In the upper left corner, an allegorical figure of Security hovers over the hills, unfurling a scroll promising safety to all who live under the rule of law.

Peaceful CountryDetail from Effects of Good

Government in the City and in the Country

Ambrogio LorenzettiSala della Pace,

Palazzo Pubblico, Siena c. 1338

Pisa Baptistery Pulpit• Nicola Pisano (also known as Nichola d’Apulia or Nicholas of Apulia) was better known as Pisano after his adopted city.• Trained in southern Italy, during the reign of Frederick II, king of Sicily, who was a king nostalgic for the days of classical Rome, and who (like Charlemagne) encouraged a classical revival.• Nicola specialized in carving marble reliefs and ornamentation for large pulpits (raised platforms from which priests led church services). • The trefoil arches and lion bases are medieval, but the Corinthian-esque columns are classical Roman revival.• The arches around the trefoils are round (Roman) instead of pointed (Gothic). • The densely packed panels resemble the reliefs on Roman sarcophagi. • Within one panel are three scenes of the birth of Jesus, including the Annunciation, Nativity, and Adoration.• Mary appears twice• The drapery, hair, bulk/weight, and facial features are based on Roman sarcophagi figures, which Nicola had studied.

Pulpit of the BaptisteryNicola Pisano,

Pisa, Italy, c. 1260Marble, 15’ high.

AdorationAnnunciation

Nativity

Sant’Andrea Baptistery Pulpit• Nicola Pisano’s son, Giovanni Pisano, was also sought-after for his ability to carve relief panels for pulpits.• The pulpit at Sant’Andrea has a relief panel that, like his father’s, depicts the Annunciation, Nativity, and Adoration.• Stylistically, Giovanni’s is very different. • Giovanni arranged the figures loosely and dynamically.• They twist and bend in excited animation. The deep spaces between them suggest their motion.• The swiftly turning, sinuous draperies, the slender figures they enfold, and the general emotionalism of the scene are features pulled from French Gothic style.

• A synoptic narrative depicts a single scene in which a character or characters are portrayed multiple times within a frame to convey that multiple actions are taking place. Annunciation, Nativity, and Adoration of the Shepherds

Relief panel on the pulpit of Sant’AndreaGiovanni Pisano,Pistoia, Italy, c. 1300Marble, 2’10” x 3’4”.

South Doors, Florence Baptistery• Although the Baptistery of San Giovanni in Florence was built in the 11th century (Romanesque era), the bronze doors of the south entrance were not added until about 1335. • Sponsored by the guild of wool importers, who competed for business and prestige with the wool manufacturer’s association. • Andrea Pisano is NOT RELATED to Nicola or Giovanni.• Each panel was cast separately (unlike the doors on St. Michael’s, which were cast all together).• Twenty of the panels depict scenes from the life of John the Baptist, to whom the baptistery was dedicated.• The bottom eight panels depict personified Christian virtues.• The quatrefoil frames are the type used earlier for reliefs flanking the doorways of Amiens, suggesting a French Gothic origination. • The proportions and robes are similar to French sculpture, but their composition is based on Giotto.

South Doors of the Baptistery of San Giovanni, Andrea Pisano, Florence, Italy, c. 1335. Gilded bronze. 16’ x 9’