Late Ottoman Politics, 1908-1917

Ottoman Political Ideology before 1908• Primarily dominated by Hamidian osmanlilik:

• Emphasis on unity through loyalty to the Ottoman caliph, ‘Ottoman nationalism’

• Islamist: unity among Muslims through the caliph and Ottoman state

• Generally pluralistic, but not westernized, society – orientated more towards Islam

• Other ideologies gained ‘underground’ followings:• Socialism, Anarchism, and other left-wing currents

• Anti-Hamidian Islamism (Wahhabism and Salafism) and Shi’i movements (Alevis)

• The nahda (Islamic reformists, modernists, and neo-Mu’tazilah)

• Constitutionalism, calls for increased representation or autonomy

• Early Turanism

• Although a new public sphere emerged, varying conceptualizations of the Ottoman state and political ideology were not debated at the highest levels of society until after the Young Turk Revolution (1908)

Turanism• Had origins in a number of pre-1908 Turkic writers• Essentially conceived of by Ziya Gokalp in 1909• Ziya Gokalp:

• Originally from eastern Asia Minor, probably a Kurd

• Was exposed to political and ideological turmoil during his early studies, attempted suicide in 1895 after an intellectual crisis

• Moved to Thessaloniki in 1909 as a representative of his local CUP branch, soon converted from osmanlilik to radical Turkism, and then his own Turanism

• “The people are the garden, we are its gardener”

• Founded on pseudo-historical principles• Advocated the genocide of Greek and Armenian populations,

the cultural eradication of Kurds in Anatolia• Devoted to a messianic, pan-Turkic state (‘Turan’)

Ottoman Political Ideology after 1908• The Revolution resulted in an explosion of political discourse

in Ottoman society, especially at the government level• The Assembly was exposed to various, competing doctrines:

• Reformist osmanlilik

• Islamist osmanlilik

• Imperial Turanism

• Republican Turanism

• Turanism offered a synthesis of Islamism and osmanlilik• Even the triumvirate could not agree on an ideological policy

“Speaking for myself, I am primarily an Ottoman, but I do not forget that I am a Turk, and nothing can shake my belief that the Turkish race is the foundation-stone of the Ottoman Empire. The educational and civilizing influence of the Turks cements Ottoman unity and strengthens the Empire, for in its origins the Ottoman Empire is a Turkish creation.

Look at the Arabs … immediately after Egypt deserted the Ottoman Union it fell under English domination. The moment Young Egypt protested against that domination England’s heavy fist descended upon them. The coast region of Syria and Lebanon are not enough for France. She wants to occupy the interior as well.

But the voice raised in Anatolia – that sacred land to the Turks – proclaims that the “Ottoman Empire” still exists, and her noble sons who dwell in Western Thrace – that little Turkish corner – have never ceased to strive for their union with the Empire. We appeal to all who wish to preserve the cause of Ottoman unity to realize their holy duty of encouraging the Turks, increasing their number, and giving them their place in the sun.”-Cemal Pasha, 1922

“Talaat Pasha and Enver Pasha adored Ziya Gokalp like a wali. They took every word from him as wonderful wisdom. In every topic, his scientific opinions made him predominant in the Central Committee.”-Enver Shapolyo, 1943

Ottoman Political Ideology after 1908• The Revolution resulted in an explosion of political discourse

in Ottoman society, especially at the government level• The Assembly was exposed to various, competing doctrines:

• Reformist osmanlilik

• Islamist osmanlilik

• Imperial Turanism

• Republican Turanism

• Turanism offered a synthesis of Islamism and osmanlilik• Even the triumvirate could not agree on an ideological policy• Talaat, Enver were oriented to Turanism, Cemal was ambiguous• The only pan-CUP consensus was the preservation of the

Ottoman state, a diluted osmanlilik

The Balkan Wars• Humiliating defeat came as a

shock to the Turkish public• Revealed both military and

political weaknesses• The ideological stakes were

dramatically heightened• Sharpened the triumvirate’s hatred of ethnic minorities• The CUP launched a coup against the Liberal Entente• The CUP takes control of an authoritative, single-party state• Power moves into the hands of the triumvirate and especially the

Turanists, namely Talaat Pasha and Enver Pasha

1908- Austria annexes Bosnia- Bulgaria declares independence- Crete unifies with Greece

1910- Revolts in Yemen and Albania1911- Italy annexes Libya1912- First Balkan War

World War I• War described in Islamist terms• Sarikamish was envisioned in

Turanist a context• Resentment against Greeks and

Armenians increased with military failures

• WW1 resulted in the intellectual death of osmanlilik; Islamism also declined in Turkey

• Imperative of Turkic survival culminated in Greco-Turkish war, genocide of Christians in Anatolia; Turanism survived

• Republican ultranationalism triumphed over other ideologies

An Ottomanist negotiates the period:“Between sleeping and waking I think of Greek and Bulgarian flags flying over the harbor of Salonika. I want to believe that this is a vision; I cannot consider it as a matter of fact. Is this the reason we strove to save this country from the foreigners’ yoke? Did we launch the constitutional regime to attain this conclusion? Where did the regime, instituted to save Rumelia, deliver us in the hands of the greedy and the betrayers? A Turkey without Rumelia, an Ottoman government without Salonika. How unbelievable and unbearable!”-Cavit Bey, July 1912

“[I am deeply appalled by the] monstrous murder and enormous dimension of brutality that Ottoman history had never known before, even in its darkest periods … [Talaat Pasha] managed to destroy not only the political existence but the life itself of a whole [Armenian] people.”-Cavit Bey, August 1915

• Cavit Bey was the CUP representative from Thessaloniki (‘Salonika’)• Of Jewish origin, he was devoted to reformist osmanlilik• His friend Talaat politically favored ultranationalists over reformists• Ataturk advocated Turanism largely because it was anti-Islam• Cavit Bey was executed by the Turkish republican government in 1926

Turanism after Ataturk• Turanism has moored modern Turkish political ideology

Kara-Khanids

Golden Horde

Ghaznavids

Khwarzmshahs

Avars

Uyghurs

Khazars

Mughals

Xiongnu

Western Huns

‘European’ Huns

Hephthalites

Seljuqs

Timurids

Gokturks

OttomansErdogan welcoming Mahmud Abbas to Ankara, 13 January 2015

• Erdogan has attempted to negotiate Turanism, osmanlilik, and Islamism• In 2013, he planned to demolish Gezi Park, an installation commissioned by Ataturk on top of an Armenian cemetery,

and replace it with Ottoman barracks; protests prevented the project• In 2018, he demolished the modernist Ataturk Cultural Center• In 2019, he demolished Istanbul’s opera house in Taksim Square and replaced it with a mosque• Also in 2019, he announced his support of plans to turn Agia Sofia into a mosque (Ataturk made it a museum)