Late Holocene Caspian Sea Level Changes and its Impacts on...

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Late Holocene Caspian Sea Level Changes and its Impacts on Low Lying Coastal Evolution: a Multidisciplinary Case Study from South

Southeastern Flank of the Caspian Sea

Naderi beni, Abdolmajid1*; Alizadeh-Lahijani, Hamid,1 Pourkerman, Majid1;

Jokar, Rahman1; Djamali, Mortza2; Marriner, Nick3; Andrieu-Ponel, Valerie;

Mousavi Harami, Reza4 1- Iranian National Institute for Oceanography and Atmospheric Sciences (INIOAS), Tehran, IR Iran

2- Institut Méditerranéen de Biodiversité et d’Ecologie, Marseille, France 3- CEREGE, Aix-Marseille University, Marseille, France

4- Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, IR Iran

Received: January 2014 Accepted: May 2014

© 2014 Journal of the Persian Gulf. All rights reserved.

Abstract Caspian Sea is the largest land locked water body in the world and has been characterized by significant relative

sea-level changes since the Pliocene. The sea-level oscillations have strongly impacted the coastal areas

depending on geomorphological setting. This study aims to investigate the impacts of sea level oscillations on

low-lying coasts of the southeastern flank of the Caspian Sea using sedimentological, paleontological and

geophysical tools. The results show that barrier-lagoon development with overstepping migration of the complex

is the response of low lying coasts to the rapid sea level changes. Moreover, development of saline environments

is another response to sea level changes for more inland coastal areas. According to the radiocarbon dating

results, the area was subjected to Amudarya flooding around 1800 BP and high sedimentation rate in the second

half of the Little Ice Age, underpinned by higher precipitation rate and sea-level rise.

Keywords: Caspian Sea level change, Coastal evolution, Gomishan, GPR, Sedimentology

1. Introduction

Caspian Sea and its rapid sea level fluctuations

during the Holocene (Fig. 1) has been the subject of

increasing studies during the last two decades

(Mamedov, 1997, Rychagov, 1997, Kroonenberg et

al., 2000, Lahijani et al., 2009, Leroy et al., 2011,

Kakroodi et al., 2012b, Naderi Beni et al., 2013a,

Naderi Beni et al., 2013b). Climate is the main

pacemaker of long-term Caspian Sea level changes

(Kroonenberg et al., 2007, Naderi Beni et al., 2013a,

Leroy et al., 2013 ). These sea-level oscillations have

different impacts on coastal evolution depending on

the coastal setting (Naderi Beni et al., 2013b) that are

recorded in beach deposits (Tamura et al., 2008). The

stratigraphic architecture of coastal deposits is

influenced by a complex interaction of various

Journal of the Persian Gulf

(Marine Science)/Vol. 5/No. 16/ 2014/ / June 22 27-48

pro

clim

coa

sub

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199

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sub

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ocesses such

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astal morpho

bstrate gradie

g. 1: Caspian Sea

97). The present

e unknown sea l

To investiga

round Penetra

chnique that

bsurface and

vironments to

st (Jol et al.,

, 2003, Ponte

more approp

ope that are p

sponse to rapi

00). No indep

low-lying co

a to record th

this type of c

This study a

utheastern fl

e past rapid

vironment fo

Materials an

1. Geographi

The study ar

aspian Sea w

ackish water

N

h as relative s

hydrodynam

ology such

ent (Naderi B

a level changes

t sea level is sho

level is shown b

ate the subsur

ating Radar

provides c

d has been

o determine

1996, Neal

ee et al., 2004

priate for coa

prone to for

id sea-level c

pendent GPR

oastal environ

he impacts of

coasts.

aims to inves

lank of the C

sea level ch

or low-lying

nd methods

ical Setting

rea lies on th

which is ge

r with no as

Naderi beni et

sea level, sed

ic processe

as coastal o

Beni et al., 2

during the Hol

own as the hori

by discontinuou

rface sedime

(GPR) is a

continuous v

widely us

the coastal e

and Roberts,

4). However,

astal settings

rm distinctive

changes (Kroo

R study has b

nments of the

f the past sea

stigate the ev

Caspian Sea

hanges as a

areas of the

s

he southeaste

enerally cha

stronomical t

t al. / Late Hol

diment suppl

s as well

rientation an

013b).

ocene (Rychago

zontal dotted lin

s line.

entary deposi

nondestructiv

views into th

ed in coast

volution in th

, 2000, Neal

, this techniqu

with modera

e landforms

onenberg et a

been conducte

e south Caspia

a level chang

volution of th

in response

representativ

sea.

ern flank of th

aracterized b

tide. The lak

locene Caspia

28

ly,

as

nd

ov,

ne.

its,

ve

the

tal

the

et

ue

ate

in

al.,

ted

an

ges

he

to

ve

he

by

ke

level

chara

(Lero

contr

over

Rive

inpu

the m

(Lah

Th

Sea.

class

the b

1998

Casp

and

Albo

Mou

sedim

conta

sedim

G

by sm

berm

cusp

Th

the

(Fig.

level

(Am

delta

deve

Th

clim

less

in t

dram

Lo

direc

avera

spee

an Sea Level C

l lies 27 m b

acterized by

oy et al.,

rolled mainl

the catchme

er that provi

t (Arpe et al

main supplie

hijani et al., 2

he Iranian co

It is more

sified into fou

beach and n

8). The study

pian Sea is ch

near-shore (F

orz Mountain

untain at the e

mentary dep

ains igneous

mentary and v

eomorpholog

mall morpho

ms with low e

s (Khoshrava

he most prom

Gomishan b

. 3) which th

l changes cou

mini, 2012, Ka

a on the sou

eloped due to

he southeas

atically sem

than 250 mm

the coastal

matically land

ong-shore cu

cted toward

age speeds

d of 50–80 c

Changes and i

below mean

y long-term

2011). Sea

ly by precip

ent basin, es

ides more th

., 2000). How

ers of sedime

2008).

oast stretches

than 800 km

ur main morp

near-shore gr

y area on the

haracterized b

Fig. 2) which

n at the sou

east. Kopeh-D

posits while

and metam

volcanoclasti

gically, the st

dynamic form

elevations and

an, 2007).

minent landfo

barrier-lagoon

heir evolution

upled with th

akroodi, 2012

uthern limit

high sedime

tern flank o

mi-arid. Mean

m and the av

zone is a

dwards (Kak

urrents in th

ds the sout

of 20–40 c

cm s-1 (Abdi

its Impacts on

n sea level a

water level

a-level osci

pitation and

specially ove

han 80 % o

wever, Irani

ent into the

s along the so

m in length

phological zo

radient (Voro

southeastern

by gentle slop

ch is limited

uth and the

Dagh Mounta

the Albor

morphic rocks

ic formations

tudy area is c

mations such

d short wave

orms of the st

n and Hassa

n has been dr

he hydrodyn

2). Moreover

t of the stud

ent supply (F

of the Casp

n annual pre

verage relati

about 76%,

kroodi et al., 2

he study area

th and sou

cm s-1 and

et al., 2009).

n Low Lying…

nd has been

oscillations

illations are

evaporation

er the Volga

of the water

an rivers are

Caspian Sea

outh Caspian

and can be

ones based on

opaev et al.,

n flank of the

pes on beach

between the

Kopeh-Dagh

ain comprises

rz Mountain

s as well as

.

characterized

h as erosional

elength beach

tudy area are

angholi Bay

riven by sea-

namic regime

r, Gorganrud

dy area has

ig. 2).

pian Sea is

ecipitation is

ive humidity

decreasing

2012a).

a are mainly

utheast with

a maximum

.

n

s

e

n

a

r

e

a

n

e

n

,

e

h

e

h

s

n

s

d

l

h

e

y

-

e

d

s

s

s

y

g

y

h

m

Fig. 2: Topogrrectangle. The coastline since

Fig. 3: Generalcore samples an

Nazemi (

images from

to identify

on Gomisha

major sea c

in combina

formation o

raphy of the souelevation data then due to sea

l sketch map of nd the geophysi

(2005) studi

m 1967 to 1

the effects o

an wetland.

currents and

ation with se

of the Gomis

utheastern flankare extracted frlevel changes.

f the study area cal surveying pr

ied aerial ph

991 from th

of Caspian S

He conclude

d southward

ea-level chan

shan barrier-

Journal of

k of the Caspianrom 1:25000 ma

in southeastern rofiles are shown

hotos and sat

he Gomishan

Sea level cha

ed that north

d coastal cur

nges describ

lagoon comp

of the Persian

29

n Sea. The studyap of the Nation

flank of the Casn in the map.

tellite

n area

anges

hward

rrents

be the

plex.

sh

re

C

m

si

p

Gulf (Marine

y area lies in thnal Geographic

spian Sea and it

Instrumenta

helf show

esponsible fo

Caspian (Gha

morphology i

ignificantly

ower (Nader

e Science)/Vol

he northern part Organization o

ts main geomorp

al measurem

that long p

or the major

affari and Ch

is determinan

different de

ri Beni et al.,

l. 5/No. 16/Jun

t of the map whof Iran (1976). N

phological featu

ments from th

period wav

rity flow fie

hegini, 2009

nt in exposin

egrees of w

, 2013a).

ne 2014/22/27

here is marked bNote the change

ures. The positio

e south Casp

e currents

eld of the so

) whereas lo

ng the beach

wind and w

7-48

by a es in

on of

pian

are

outh

ocal

h to

ave

Naderi beni et al. / Late Holocene Caspian Sea Level Changes and its Impacts on Low Lying…

30

2.2. Ground Penetrating Radar profiles

Four Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) profiles

perpendicular to the coastline have been surveyed

using a RAMAC/GPR system (Fig. 3). The GPR

system was equipped with an unshielded transmitter

and receiver antenna with a mean frequency of 100

MHz to provide a good trade-off between depth

penetration and resolution.

We used the Reflex2quick software to conduct

different standard processing steps on the GPR

reflection data including DC shift, static correction,

gain function, band pass filtering and running

average filter as well as topographic correction to

achieve the best subsurface images. The depth scale

was based on average near surface velocity which

varied between 0.051 m/ns to 0.070 m/ns and was

determined from common midpoint measurements.

The principles outlined in Neal (2004) have been

used to identify the radar facies, important bounding

surfaces and their interpretation.

2.3. Sediment core sampling

Six cores, between five to six meters in length,

were taken using a Cobra percussion system along

the GPR profiles to correlate the results with

geophysical measurement (Fig. 3).

2.4 Magnetic Susceptibility

All of the core samples were passing through coil

using a MS2C core logging scanner from Bartington

to measure their Magnetic Susceptibility (MS). The

diameter of the susceptibility meter loop was 10 cm

with a progression step of 2 cm. The sensitivity of

the meter was about 2x10-6 SI. The results were

plotted against sedimentological data to allow a

direct comparison between MS values along the

cores with observations. Moreover, we used the MS

logs as auxiliary data to identify the main bounding

surfaces of GPR profiles.

2.5 Fossil Content

Fossil content was identified to help determining

past depositional environments based on the atlas of

the invertebrates of the Caspian Sea (Birstein et al.,

1968).

2-6 Sedimentology

The core samples were split and sub-sampled

based on visual changes as well as MS log. The

subsamples were subjected to basic sedimentological

analyses, including grain size, organic matter and

carbonate content. To quantify organic matter and

carbonate content we used Nabertherm P330 furans

based on Heiri et al. (2001) outlined methods and

grain size data obtained by Horiba Laser Scattering

Particle Size Distribution Analyzer LA-950 in the

laboratory of the Iranian National Institute for

Oceanography and Atmospheric Science (INIOAS).

2-7 Radiocarbon Dating

Four articulated bivalve shells including

Cerastoderma lamarcki and Hypanis caspia were

selected and sent to Poznan Radiocarbon laboratory

for radiocarbon dating using 14C isotopes. Moreover,

we used the results of two dated horizons previously

published by Naderi Beni et al. (2013a). Calendar

ages were obtained from the CALIB Rev 6.0.1

software (Reimer et al., 2009) based on the method

outlined by Naderi Beni et al. (2013a).

3. Results

3.1. Sedimentology, Sedimentary Facies and

Environmental Interpretations

Grain size analysis revealed that the sediments can

be categorized into silt, sandy silt and silty sand

based on Folk’s (1980) classification in which the

sandy-silt is the predominant portion of the

sediments in

change betw

content vari

core sample

The foss

Fig. 4: Descripfrequent sedim

Fig. 5: Physica(TOM) and car

n the studied

ween 2.25 %

ies between

es (Fig. 5).

sil content o

ptive sedimentarments are sandy s

al properties of trbonate content a

d cores (Fig

% to 31 %

3.06 % to 65

of the sedim

ry classification ilt, silt and silty

the sediment coralong the sedime

Journal of

. 4). TOM v

while carb

5 % in the stu

ment sample

of the studied ssand categories,

re samples incluent core samples

of the Persian

31

values

onate

udied

es are

su

sp

as

w

en

samples in south, respectively.

uding grain size s.

Gulf (Marine

ummarized

pecies, three

s well as C

were identifie

nvironments

heastern flank of

and Magnetic S

e Science)/Vol

in Table 1

bivalve spec

Charophytes,

ed. These re

(Table 1).

f the Caspian Se

Susceptibility (M

l. 5/No. 16/Jun

1. Ten diffe

cies, two fora

Ostracods a

epresented d

ea based on (Fo

MS) as well as T

ne 2014/22/27

erent gastrop

aminifera spec

and Trichopt

different coa

olk, 1980). The m

Total Organic M

7-48

pod

cies

tera

astal

most

Mater


32

Table 1: The fossil content of the sediment samples and their habitat

Fossil Class Fossil Species Habitat in the Caspian Sea B

ival

ve

Cerastoderma lamarcki Open lagoons and marine environment

Dreissena polymorpha Open lagoons and river mouths

Hypanis (Monodacna) caspia Marine environment

Gas

trop

ods

Anisus kolesnikovi Lagoons and shallow marine water

Horatia marina Lagoons, shallow to intermediate waters

Pyrgohydrobia clyindrica Lagoons

Pyrgohydrobia curta Lagoons

Pyrgohydrobia eichwaldiana Lagoons

Pyrgohydrobia gemmata Lagoons and shallow marine waters

Pyrgohydrobia grimmi Open Lagoons

Pyrgohydrobia dubia Lagoons and shallow marine waters

Pyrgula kovalewskii Lagoons and shallow marine waters

Theodoxus pallasi Lagoons and River mouths

For

amin

ifer

a Ammonia beccarii All environments with more than 5 PSU of salinity

Elphidium littorale All environments with more than 5 PSU of salinity

Ostracods Was not identified All environments

Charophytes Was not identified Fresh water

Trichoptera Was not identified Very shallow aquatic environments

Based on the physical properties of the sediments

and their fossil contents, six distinctive sedimentary

facies were identified that occasionally could be

classified into sub-facies.

Facies A: this facies contains silty-sand and

sandy-silt sediments that are laminated in some

horizons, with little or no fossil content. Gypsum

minerals are scattered through the sediment facies

and occasionally are coexistent with Trichoptera

remains. Based on Total Organic Matter (TOM) and

fossil content this facies could be classified as two

sub-facies (Table 2).

Facies B: this facies is distinguished by

accumulation of shell and shell fragments (dominantly

Cerastoderma lamarki) and coarser grained sediments.

The value of carbonate content increases dramatically

in this facies while TOM content decreases (Table 2).

Facies C: the facies is grey to dark grey in color and

is characterized by rich fossil content including

gastropods, bivalves and foraminifera as well as

ostracods. The sediment content is mainly categorized

into sandy silt and silty - sand. In some horizons

articulated bivalve fossils are accumulated. The TOM

content reaches up to 30 % in some horizons. Some

sub-facies were identified in this facies (Table 2).

Facies D: The most prominent feature of this

facies is the presence of a high amount of evaporates

that are distributed through the facies or accumulated

in some horizons as thin layers. Usually the facies

has low fossil content but shell fragments and

Trichoptera remains were occasionally observed.

Facies E: this facies could only be found at the top of

the cores where soil and plant roots are found.

Facies F: The facies has some characteristics of

Facies C and B, simultaneously. However, this facies is

distinguished from other facies by the presence of the

Anisus kole

(Monodacna

Accordin

the coring si

Table 2: Se

Facies

A

B

C

D E F

Fig. 6: Verticalunderstand the

esnikovi gas

a) bivalve.

ng to Fig. 6 an

ites (Fig. 3), t

dimentary facvalues used

s Sub-FacieA1 A2

-

C1 C2

- - -

al and horizontalposition of the c

stropod and

nd comparing

the Facies A,

cies, their distid as auxiliary

es DistinctivWithout FFew foss

AccumulGastropoGypsum Gastropo

PresenceSoil Marine fo

l distribution of coring sites.

Journal of

Hypanis c

g to the positi

C and E (top

inctive featuredata to interp

ve feature Fossil contentils & Trichopte

lation of shell aods but without minerals

ods with articula

of evaporative

fossils

six identified se

of the Persian

33

caspia

ion of

p soil)

ex

h

in

fo

es and the envpret the sedime

era

and shell fragmearticulated biva

ated bivalve

e layers

edimentary facie

Gulf (Marine

xist in all sed

alf of the stu

n the landwa

ound in Core

vironmental inentary environ

ents alve and

es (A to F) in th

e Science)/Vol

diment cores.

dy area wher

ard part, spec

3.

nterpretation. Mnment (Ghilar

MS (SI) >3X10-4 >3X10-4

<2x10-4

≤3x10-4 ≥3x10-4 -1x10-4 to <3x10-4 - >1x10-4

he sediment core

l. 5/No. 16/Jun

. Facies B lie

reas Facies D

cifically. Fac

Magnetic Susrdi et al., 2008

EnvironmeInterpretatiFluvial FluviodeltaBeach FaceRidge/chen

Closed LagOpen Lago

Salina Top Soil Marine env

es of the studied

ne 2014/22/27

es in the seaw

D could be fou

cies F was o

ceptibility (M8).

ental ion

aic e (Beach nier)

goon oon

vironemt

d area. See Fig.

7-48

ward

und

only

MS)

3 to

of

mi

top

du

al.

bee

Ca

et a

suc

(Ta

cri

Sta

sp.

a

env

An

sho

con

by

lam

for

env

of

ma

lag

et a

lag

sus

lag

con

fac

sca

env

Facies A is

Kakroodi

inerals in th

pography of

ring the dry

, 2013a).

Facies B is r

en reported

aspian Sea (K

al., 2013b).

The fossil

ccession co

aylor and S

iteria for p

apor, 1971).

Facies C, w

., Theodoxus

high amoun

vironment (B

ndreeva, 199

ow that the

nnected to th

streams. For

marcki, Dre

raminifera co

vironment (B

Charophytes

agnetic susce

goon that was

al., 2006, Ghi

On the other

goonal gastro

sceptibility v

goon.

According t

ntaining the F

cies with fr

attered gypsu

vironment (W

N

equivalent t

(2012). Th

his facies co

f the region a

y season in th

related to bea

for differe

Kroonenberg

accumulat

ould be link

tone, 1996)

aleo-beach

with mollusk

s pallsi and D

nt of TOM

Birstein et al

94). Howeve

lagoon env

he open sea a

r instance, co

eissena poly

ould be inter

Birstein et al.

s, lagoonal g

eptibility valu

s fed by stream

ilardi et al., 2

r hand, the p

opods coeval

values could

to the positi

Facies D (Co

requent thin

um minerals

Warren, 2006

Naderi beni et

to the fluvio

he presence

ould be relat

and intensiv

he region (N

ach face dep

ent coastal

g et al., 2000

tion in a

ked to che

and might

positioning

species such

Dreissena po

is typical

l., 1968, Star

er, the fossi

vironment wa

and/or was oc

oexistence of

ymorpha, o

rpreted as an

, 1968), whil

gastropods w

ues, could b

ms (Dearing,

2008).

presence of e

l with decrea

be interprete

ion of the s

ores 5 and 6

layers of e

s was linke

6).

t al. / Late Hol

odeltaic faci

e of gypsu

ted to the fl

ve evaporatio

Naderi Beni

osits that hav

areas of th

0, Naderi Be

sedimenta

enier deposi

be used as

(Tanner an

h as Hydrob

olymorpha an

for a lagoo

robogatov an

il assemblag

as periodical

ccasionally fe

f Cerastoderm

ostracods an

n open lagoo

le the presen

with increasin

be linked to

1999, Djama

evaporates an

asing magnet

ed as a close

ediment cor

in Fig. 3), th

evaporate an

ed to a salin

locene Caspia

34

ies

um

lat

on

et

ve

he

eni

ary

its

a

nd

bia

nd

on

nd

ges

lly

fed

ma

nd

on

nce

ng

a

ali

nd

tic

ed

res

his

nd

ne

Fa

mari

magn

shall

3.2. R

Th

Tabl

dated

whic

Late

Ex

us th

core

A

sedim

500

AD.

has i

Fig. 7

radioc

an Sea Level C

acies F with

ne environm

netic suscep

low marine e

Radiocarbon

he results of

le 3. Accord

d materials r

ch refers to t

Holocene in

xistence of th

he opportunit

(Fig. 7).

According to

mentation w

AD and the

According

increased aga

7: Age-depth m

carbon dating o

Changes and i

h representati

ment (Birstein

tibility value

nvironment.

n Dating and

f radiocarbon

ding to the T

ranges betwe

the date of s

n the studied

hree dated h

ty to plot the

Fig. 7, it

as high (5 m

en declined t

to Fig. 5, th

ain since 160

model for Cor

of three articula

its Impacts on

ive fossils o

n et al., 196

es could be

Age-depth M

n dating are

Table 3, the

een 253 to 2

sea level rise

area.

horizons for C

e age-depth m

seems that

mmy-1) from

to 1.1 mmy-

he rate of se

00 AD.

re 3 based on

ated shell mate

n Low Lying…

of a Caspian

68) and high

linked to a

Model

presented in

e age of the

2143 ca. BP

es during the

Core 3 gives

model for the

the rate of

m 200 AD to

-1until 1600

edimentation

the results of

erial (Table 3).

n

h

a

n

e

P

e

s

e

f

o

0

n

f

Journal of the Persian Gulf (Marine Science)/Vol. 5/No. 16/June 2014/22/27-48

35

Table 3: AMS radiocarbon dating of the sediment cores. The calibrated age ranges are based on the Marine09 curve with an average ΔR=26±69 14C yr (Olsson, 1980 , Kuzmin et al., 2007). For core location, see Fig. 3.

Core No.

Depth (cm) Bivalve sp. Faccies Fossil Assemblage Age 14C BP

Calibrated age 2 sigma range (BP)

3 145 Cerastoderma Lamarcki Lagoon - 665 ± 35 253-412

3 332 Cerastoderma Lamarcki Lagoon

ostracod, foraminifera, gastropods, Chryptophytes 1875 ± 30 1335-1509

3 445

hypanis angusticostata polyphorma Marine shell layer 2145 ± 30 1627-1824

6 459 Cerastoderma Lamarcki Lagoon 2410 ± 35 1936-2143

2 100 Cerastoderma Lamarcki Lagoon Shell Frag. + Foraminifera 790 ± 30 350-493

2 562 hypanis caspiaa caspia Lagoon - 2210 ± 30 1711-1891

3.3. Ground Penetration Radar

3.3.1. Radar Facies

The first step in GPR studies is the recognition of

radar facies (Jol et al., 1996). According to the

methods outlined in Neal (2004), four main radar

facies were recognized that are illustrated in Table 4.

Due to the flat topography of the region, differences

in radar facies are gradual and distinguishing the

bounding surfaces is difficult.

The radar facies BR comprises wide mound-

shaped packages with complex internal structure

that gently slope towards the sea. The reflectors of

other radar facies have onlap terminations on this

facies. With respect to the flat topography of the

region and special hydrodynamic condition of the

coastal area, it seems that this radar facies could be

linked to beach ridge (chenier) deposits (Neal and

Roberts, 2000).

The sedimentological results relevant to this facies

revealed that it contains coarser grained materials

and shell deposits which are characteristic of

cheniers (Otvos, 2000, Hesp et al., 2009). The BR

radar facies are distributed in GPR profiles on the

seaward side of the study area. Parallel semi-

continuous to discontinuous reflectors generally

slope towards the sea. The sediments are composed

of silty- sand and sandy-silt containing lagoon and/or

shallow marine fossil assemblages. This radar facies

have formed relatively thick units in all profiles.

The FD radar facies has a variety of reflector

patterns changing from continuous to discontinuous

and parallel to semi-parallel reflectors that gently

slope towards the basin. The sediments are

characteristic of fluviodeltaic facies. It seems the

various patterns of the radar reflectors could be

linked to different direction of streams. The FD radar

facies makes thick and widespread units in the

studied profiles.

The SL radar facies could be found as relatively

thin horizontal packages with intensive attenuation

of radar waves. The equivalent sedimentary facies

are salina facies with a high amount of evaporates.

This radar facies could be found in landward areas,

across half of the study area.

3.3.2. Radar Profiles

Due to the flat topography of the study area, we

had to survey long GPR profiles to be able to detect

the major buried landforms. The length of the

profiles varies between 700 m to more than 3000 m.

Here, some segments of long GPR profiles are

presented.

GPR 1:

The profile, are more than 3000 m in length, and

are segmented into three parts to obtain a better

im

sho

un

att

wh

sur

Co

mage of the s

own in Fig. 8

its were ide

enuation zon

hich is boun

rfaces (Fig.

ore 1 con

Radar Facies

Raw

BR

LG

FD

SL

N

subsurface.

8. Six bound

entified in th

ne in the m

nded by the

8 B). This z

ntaining gyp

Table 4:

w Image

Naderi beni et

The landwa

ding surfaces

his area. Th

middle of the

surfaces BS

zone was cor

psum mine

Radar facies a

t al. / Late Hol

ard segment

s and six rad

here is a cle

e GPR profi

S-3 and BS

rrelated with

erals in th

and their inter

locene Caspia

36

is

dar

ear

ile

S-4

h a

he

sedim

decre

Th

with

seem

erosi

sedim

rpretations. Se

Interpreted

an Sea Level C

mentary colu

ease dramati

he RF-4 rada

the lagoon

ms the uppe

ional surfac

ments (Fig. 9

ea is in the left

Image

Changes and i

umn. Moreo

cally in this

ar unit (Fig.

al deposits

er contact o

e that is ov

9).

t side in all pr

its Impacts on

over, the va

layer.

8 C) could b

of Core 7.

of the RF-4

verlaid by f

rofiles.

Interp

Beach

Lagoo

Fluvio

Salina

n Low Lying…

alues of MS

be correlated

However, it

4 unit is an

fluviodeltaic

pretation

h Ridge

on

odeltaic

a

S

d

t

n

c

Fig. 8: GPR-sedimentologiwe used Magn

Fig. 9: Interpr

GPR-2:

The prof

long. Five b

recognized

sedimentolo

erosional

termination

All of th

1 radar profileical data of Conetic Susceptib

retation of GPR

file depicted

bounding sur

based o

ogical data.

surface th

s end to this

he units slop

e (A), main boore1 which is shbility (MS) logs

R1 radar profile

d in Fig. 10

rfaces and six

on radar

The BS-4

hat downla

surface (Fig

pe towards th

Journal of

ounding surfachown in the prs. AZ indicated

e based on sedi

is around 7

x radar units

properties

4 surface i

ap and to

g. 10 B).

he sea. The

of the Persian

37

ces (B) and rarofile. To get bd the attenuation

imentological d

50 m

were

and

is an

oplap

RF-5

u

ar

ri

se

to

is

la

Gulf (Marine

adar units (C) better interpretan zone in the p

data of Core1.

nit contains

rrows in Fig

idge facies.

According

eems that the

o an open la

s followed

agoonal depo

e Science)/Vol

based on stanation of radar urofile.

at least two

g. 10 B) that

g to the se

e RF-5 unit

agoon/shallow

by a succes

osits (Fig. 11

l. 5/No. 16/Jun

ndard GPR prounits and main

dome shaped

t could be r

edimentolog

(Fig. 10 B)

w marine en

ssion of flu

1).

ne 2014/22/27

ocessing steps bounding surfa

d packages (

related to be

ical results,

could be link

nvironment t

uviodeltaic a

7-48

and faces

(BR

ach

, it

ked

that

and

Figsedwe

Fig

bee

sub

sea

sho

g. 10: GPR2 radimentological

used Magnetic

g. 11: Interpreta

GPR-3:

The profile

en divided in

bsurface. Th

award and l

own in Fig. 1

According t

N

adar profile (Adata of Core2

c Susceptibility

ation of GPR2

is more than

nto three par

he profile is

landward seg

12.

to Fig. 12 B

Naderi beni et

A), main bounwhich is show

y (MS) logs. AZ

radar profile ba

n 2800 m in

rts to better u

s generally

gments of th

B and C, ei

t al. / Late Hol

ding surfaces wn in the profileZ indicated the

ased on sedime

length. It h

understand th

concave. Th

he profile a

ight boundin

locene Caspia

38

(B) and radar e. To get better

e attenuation zo

entological data

has

he

he

are

ng

surfa

slope

are d

surfa

were

that

and F

an Sea Level C

units (C) basr interpretation

one in the profil

a of Core2.

aces and nin

e towards th

downlap surf

aces (Fig. 12

e correlated

are surround

Fig. 13).

Changes and i

ed on standardn of radar unitsle.

ne radar unit

he land. BS-2

faces that are

2 B). The ti

with evapor

ded by lagoo

its Impacts on

d GPR process and main bou

its were reco

2, BS-4, BS

e interpreted

iny units of

rative layers

onal deposits

n Low Lying…

sing steps andunding surfaces

ognized that

-6 and BS-8

as erosional

RF-3, RF-5

s of Core 3

s (Fig. 12 C

d s

t

8

l

5

3

C

Fig. 12: The processing stemain boundin

Fig. 13: Interp

The land

with gentle

with Core 4

fluviodeltai

fingering re

seaward por

GPR-4:

The ea

perpendicul

seaward segmeeps and sedime

ng surfaces we u

pretation of sea

dward segm

slope towar

4 that contai

c and evapor

elationship

rtion of profi

asternmost

lar to the e

ent of GPR3 raentological datused Magnetic

award segment

ment of the

ds the sea co

ins a succes

rative deposi

changes to

file.

profile wa

eastern coast

Journal of

adar profile (Ata of Core3 whSusceptibility

of GPR3 radar

profile (Fig

ould be corre

ssion of lago

its and with

the units o

as carried

t of Hassan

of the Persian

39

A), main boundhich is shown (MS) logs. AZ

r profile based

g. 14)

elated

oonal,

inter-

of the

out

ngholi

B

1

b

M

ca

th

d

su

Gulf (Marine

ding surfaces (Bin the profile.

Z indicated the

on sedimentolo

Bay (Fig. 3).

270 m (Fi

oundaries in

MS log (Fig.

Seven surf

an be identif

he attenuati

ownlap surf

urfaces (Fig.

e Science)/Vol

B) and radar uTo get better

attenuation zon

ogical data of C

The length

igs. 16 to

n the profile a

16 B).

face bounda

fied (Figs. 16

on zone w

faces that ar

16 B).

l. 5/No. 16/Jun

units (C) basedinterpretation

ne in the profil

Core2.

of the profi

19). The

are well corr

aries and sev

6 B and C). T

while BS-6

re interprete

ne 2014/22/27

d on standard G

of radar units e.

ile is more th

main surf

related with

ven radar un

The BS-1 lies

and BS-7

ed as erosio

7-48

GPR and

han

face

the

nits

s in

are

onal

Fig

pro

bou

Fig

g. 14: The land

ocessing steps a

unding surfaces

g. 15: Interpretat

N

dward segment

and sedimentolo

we used Magne

tion of landward

Naderi beni et

of GPR3 rada

ogical data of C

etic Susceptibili

d segment of GP

t al. / Late Hol

ar profile (A), m

Core4 which is

ity (MS) logs. A

PR3 radar profil

locene Caspia

40

main bounding

shown in the p

AZ indicated the

le based on sedi

an Sea Level C

g surfaces (B) a

profile. To get

e attenuation zon

imentological da

Changes and i

and radar units

better interpret

ne in the profile

ata of Core4.

its Impacts on

s (C) based on

tation of radar

e.

n Low Lying…

standard GPR

units and main

R

n

Fig. 16: The se

steps and sedim

we used Magn

Fig. 17: Interp

is shown along

eaward segment

mentological da

netic Susceptibil

pretation of seaw

g the core sampl

t of GPR4 radar

ata of Core5 whi

lity (MS) logs.

ward segment of

le.

Journal of

r profile (A), ma

ich is shown in t

f GPR4 radar pr

of the Persian

41

ain bounding su

the profile. To g

rofile based on

Gulf (Marine

urfaces (B) and

get better interp

sedimentologic

e Science)/Vol

radar units (C) b

retation of radar

cal data of Core

l. 5/No. 16/Jun

based on standa

ar units and main

e5. The un-calib

ne 2014/22/27

ard GPR proces

n bounding surf

brated dated hor

7-48

ssing

faces

rizon

Fig

pro

bou

Fig

is s

g. 18: The land

ocessing steps a

unding surfaces

g. 19: Interpretat

hown along the

N

dward segment

and sedimentolo

we used Magne

tion of landward

e core sample.

Naderi beni et

of GPR4 rada

ogical data of C

etic Susceptibili

d segment of GP

t al. / Late Hol

ar profile (A), m

Core6 which is

ity (MS) logs.

PR4 radar profi

locene Caspia

42

main bounding

shown in the p

ile based on sed

an Sea Level C

g surfaces (B) a

profile. To get

dimentological d

Changes and i

and radar units

better interpret

data of Core6. T

its Impacts on

s (C) based on

tation of radar

The un-calibrate

n Low Lying…

standard GPR

units and main

d dated horizon

R

n

n


43

4. Discussion

4.1. Sedimentary Environment

The southeastern flank of the Caspian Sea has been strongly influenced by rapid sea-level changes due to its flat topography (Kakroodi et al., 2012a) and river input (Lahijani and Tavakoli, 2012) that are reflected in different sedimentary facies. The rate of sedimentation in the study area during the late Holocene could be related to an interaction between sea-level changes and river input. According to Fig. 7, the rate of sedimentation since the 17th century has increased. This is correlated with second half of the Little Ice Age (LIA). During this period, precipitation over the south Caspian region increased dramatically (Leroy et al., 2011) and the sea level rose up to 21 m below mean sea level (Naderi Beni et al., 2013a).

In many Caspian Holocene studies based on un-calibrated radiocarbon dating e.g. Rychagov (1997), a distinctive sea level fall was reported around 1500 BP which is known as the Derbent Regression. If we calibrate previously reported radiocarbon results based on the methods outlined in Naderi Beni et al. (2013a), we find that, during the Derbent Regression, the rate of sedimentation on the southeastern flank of the Caspian Sea were reduced and the evaporative sedimentary facies developed. This condition was more or less dominant in the region until the 17th Century. It seems that during the first half of the LIA the southeastern flank of the Caspian Sea was not as humid as the second half of the LIA. This finding is supported by historical documents (Naderi Beni et al., 2013a).

The high sedimentation rate around 1400 to 1900 BP in the study area could be related to Uzboy flooding (Leroy et al., 2007) in which the salinity of the Caspian Sea reduced and the sea level rose. According to isotope studies, they concluded that the Uzboy flooding was triggered by ice melting in high latitudes and melt water discharge into the Caspian Sea, via the Uzboy waterway, north of the study area. The accumulation of the same marine fossils (Anisus kolesnikovi gastropod and Hypanis (Monodacna) caspia bivalve) as Facies F could

support this suggestion.

4.2. A model for the Coastal Evolution

The sedimentological and radar study showed that the study area could be divided into two eastern and western parts as beach ridges/cheniers are more developed in the western half of the study area and the evaporative units are more developed in the eastern part of the region.

The sedimentary sequence of the coastal setting depends on the geometry of coastal zone, the accommodation space, sedimentation rate, sea level, tectonics, wave, tide and currents and biological activities (Anthony and Héquette, 2007). As no astronomic tide occurs in the Caspian Sea (Ghaffari and Chegini, 2009) and as the vertical movement of the southeastern flank of the sea is negligible for the late Holocene (Naderi Beni et al., 2013a), the sedimentary sequence of the study area is mainly determined by sea level changes and the geometry of the coastal zone while sediment supply and the hydrodynamic conditions shape different landforms in the study area.

Past sea level positions can be interpreted by the presence of beach ridges/cheniers and the relevant landward lagoons (Kroonenberg et al., 2000). According to Taylor and Stone (1996), in low-energy, low-lying areas, such as southeastern flank of the Caspian Sea, the emergence of an offshore bar is critical to develop barrier-lagoon complexes. Low wave-energy conditions is required for the enlargement and emergence of the bar above sea-level (Taylor and Stone, 1996). On the other hand, rapid sea-level changes tend to transgress the sand bar (Storms et al., 2008) (Fig.20) in the western half of the study area. According to the topography of the region (Fig. 2), a hill with a height of more than 10 m (absolute elevation of 16 m below mean sea level) separates the Hassangholi Bay from the sea. The hill prevents the waves from reaching the bay and consequently makes a calm area behind the hill to form an extensive salina environment in the eastern half of the study area during the sea-level fall and a lagoon environment during Caspian Sea level rises (Fig. 21).

Figcomthe bar Ma

FigcoaHasevaThe

g. 20: Coastal remplex was form

barrier lagoon r probably was earine sediments

g. 21: Coastal evastal evolution ssangholi Bay aporative basin ae bay inundated

N

esponse to the Cmed. 2) Gradual

complex migraeroded. 4) In racovered the lago

volution of the (see Fig. 14 anwas inundated and seasonally f

d and acted as a l

Naderi beni et

Caspian Sea levesea level rise te

ated seaward anapid sea level rioon deposits an

southeastern flnd 15). A hill by sea water

feed by freshwalagoonal enviro

t al. / Late Hol

el changes in sond to developm

nd the former laise, the barrier l

nd a new barrier-

lank of the Casseparates the H

and streams feater. 3) Sea leveonment. 4) The p

locene Caspia

44

outheastern flanment of the compagoon was covelagoon complex-lagoon comple

spian Sea. The Hassangholi Ba

eed the bay by el rose and few bpresent day situ

an Sea Level C

nk of the sea: 1) plex and increasered by fluvial dx overstep landwex was formed in

GPR-3 profile ay from the sefresh water. 2)

barriers might bation of the coa

Changes and i

in low-lying flasing the height odeposits. Due toward and the sen new position.

was selected asa. 1) Water lev) In regression e formed in seastal area.

its Impacts on

at coastal area aof the bar. 3) wio wave action, teaward former b

s the representavel was in hig

n stage the bay award portion of

n Low Lying…

a barrier lagoonith sea level fallthe former sandbar was eroded.

ative profile forghstand and the

changed to anf the study area.

n l d .

r e n .


45

5. Conclusion

1- The southeastern flank of the Caspian Sea is

characterized by fine-grained sediments and a flat

topography that is sensitive to rapid Caspian Sea

level changes.

2- Formation of barrier-lagoon complexes is the

most prominent response of the coast to sea-level

changes.

3- According to the flat topography of the coast

and dry climate of the region, formation of salina

environments and development of evaporative

sediments in the area has occurred repeatedly during

the Late Holocene.

4- This study has demonstrated that during the

second half of the Little Ice Age, the area was

subjected to high sediment supply consistent with

higher precipitation and more riverine input.

5- We have found some evidence of Uzboy

flooding in the early stages of the Late Holocene in

the area that could be a subject of more detailed study.

Acknowledgement

The authors are grateful for the support of the

Iranian National Institute for Oceanography and

Atmospheric Science (INIOAS).

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Journal of the Persian Gulf

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