Lasciate ogni speranza voi ch’entrate. (All hopes abandon, ye who enter here.)

Dante

ARTICLE The use of the articles depends on the kind of noun

they modify. Below is the division of nouns into different classes which is relevant for the use of the articles.

NOUN

COMMON(denotes any object of a class)

PROPER(distinguishes an object or a person from other ones of the same class)

ABSTRACT(ideas, actions, processes, qualities)

CONCRETE(something tangible)

LIVING BEINGSe.g. John, Mickey Mouse, Putin, Dracula, Quasimodo, Britney Spears, James Bond, Aristotle

INANIMATE OBJECTSe.g. The Limpopo, Tuvalu, Manhattan, the Washington Post, the QE2, West Ham United, Zhelyabov Street, Alpha Centauri

CLASS NOUNS(objects or living beings belonging to a class) e.g. a student, a pithecanthropus, a cat, a cucumber,

MATERIALSe.g. whisky, plastecine, carbon dioxine, paper, snow

COLLECTIVE NOUNS

(denote groups of objects or living beings as undivided bodies)e.g. equipment, the bourgeoisie, cattle, the rich

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USE OF ARTICLES WITH CLASS NOUNS

MEANING OF ARTICLES WITH CLASS NOUNS

1. The indefinite article has the nominating, classifying, numeric and generalizing meanings. (As the indefinite article is used only with singular nouns, the absence of article before plural nouns has similar meaning, the only exception being the numeric meaning. Thus the absence of article is meaningful and is often called the zero article.)a) The nominating meaning: The indefinite article in this meaning denotes what kind of object (thing, person, etc.) the speaker has to do with. We give a name to an object we have in mind: I slept like a log. There is a piano in the corner. I could eat a horse now. A cloud passed across the sun.b) The classifying meaning: The indefinite article in this meaning assigns an object to a certain class or kind of similar objects. Nouns with the indefinite article in the classifying meaning are usually predicatives or appositions in the sentence: My dog is a chow chow. Mary has always been a good student. The defendant, a woman of 48, denies kicking the policeman.NOTE: The difference between the nominating and the classifying meanings becomes apparent if we turn the examples given above in the plural. In the case of the nominating meaning plural nouns may be preceded by words like some, several, a few, etc.: I could eat several horses now.c) The numeric meaning: The indefinite article in this meaning shows the oneness of the object. In this case it can be substituted by the word one:

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An apple a day keeps the doctor away. A million students were present at the grammar lesson.d) The generalizing meaning: The indefinite article in this meaning indicates that the following noun denotes a typical member of a class: A square has four sides. (=Every square has four sides.) A cat is a domestic animal. (=Every cat is a domestic animal.) A crocodile has a tail. (=Every crocodile has a tail, unless it is sick.)The generalizing meaning remains if we turn the nouns in the above-given examples into the plural. Plural nouns in the generalizing meaning are used with no article: Squares have four sides. Cats are domestic animals.

2. The definite article has the specifying and the generic meanings.a) The specifying meaning: The definite article in this meaning denotes that the following noun refers to a particular object (thing, person, etc.) or particular objects as distinct from all others of the same class: The cuckoo clock doesn’t cuckoo any more. Please take the letters to the post office. She hit him on the ear. The tin-opener has seen better days.b) The generic meaning: The definite article in this meaning shows that the following noun refers to a class of objects as a whole. The generic use of the definite article is typical of only certain semantic groups of nouns, namely, of scientific terminology, names of plants, living beings, etc: The cat is a domestic animal. Using the computer is as easy as falling off a log. The telephone was invented by Alexander Bell in 1876.

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NOTE 1: In the sentence The cat is a domestic animal. we can replace the cat by a cat or cats. However there is a difference in meaning. The cat is used in an abstract sense – reference is made to the whole class of cats as a whole, while by using a cat or cats we mean what is typical of any member of the class of cats. Therefore, replacement of the kind shown above is not always possible. For example, we can only say The cat was domesticated many centuries ago, but not *A cat was domesticated many centuries ago, since the statement is true of the class of cats and not of any individual specimen of the class.NOTE 2: The noun man has no article when used with generic reference; the noun woman is used either with the definite article or with no article: Man must change in a changing world. (The) Woman rarely loses heart in the face of financial straits.However in Modern English the words man and woman are more often generalized by using the indefinite article or in the plural: A woman without a man is like a fish without a bicycle. The game women play is men. (Adam Smith)

ARTICLES WITH COUNTABLE NOUNS MODIFIED BY ATTRIBUTES

Attributes may be divided into limiting and descriptive.A limiting attribute is used to point out a particular object or a number of objects as distinct from all other objects of the same class or kind. A noun with a limiting attribute is used with the definite article in the specifying meaning. There was a crowd of people in the principal street of the village.

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A descriptive attribute describes an object or a number of objects and does not affect the use of articles. The use of the article depends on the context in this case: He was holding a rusty old key. The rusty old key was heavy.Attributes modifying nouns may be expressed in different ways.a) Modification by adjectivesThere are adjectives that mostly have a limiting force because of their lexical meaning and therefore call for the definite article: same, only, very, main, principal, left. right, central, following, present, former, latter, utmost, ultimate, final, opposite, extreme, previous, proper, etc.NOTE 1: But when countable nouns modified by the above-mentioned attributes denote objects or notions without any indication of their specific features, when they are considered to be unknown to the speaker, these nouns represent the centre of new information, the rheme and they associate with the indefinite article: She applied a final match to the laurel. (Murdoch) At nine o’clock the lights were turned out by a main switch in the hall. (MacDonald)NOTE 2: The adjective only is used as a descriptive attribute in combination with the nouns daughter, son, child: Is he an only child?b) Modification by ordinal numeralsOrdinal numerals are usually limiting attributes: Mr Gutenmorgen was the first person to arrive. It’s the fourth room down the corridor.An ordinal numeral may mean “another”, “one more” and be preceded by the indefinite article: I hope you won’t need a second reminder. Take a third apple.

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NOTE: The numerals first, second, third enter set phrases, which may be used with the indefinite or definite article according to the context or situation: First impressions are very important.… I have never won a first prize but I won a second prize once. You will need a second pair of shoes. I have been invited to a first night at the theatre. A third party is a party in a case different from the two principals.Other set expressions are used with no article: At first sight it looked like a simple accident. John took first place in the history exam, I finished in third place. Our personal wishes take second place to the needs of the children. Mr Piggins plays second fiddle in the orchestra. I said I wouldn’t do it, but on second thoughts I think I will. I heard about it at first hand from Mrs Greengoose.

c) Modification by nouns in the possessive caseWhen an attribute is expressed by a noun in the Possessive Case the article or its absence mostly refers to the noun in the possessive case. e.g. the fellow's manners (= the manners of the fellow) a neighbour's daughter (= the daughter of a neighbour) a lion's teeth (= the teeth of a lion) Margaret's face (= the face of Margaret)When the Possessive Case has the descriptive meaning the article or its absence refers to the head noun. In these patterns the Possessive Case cannot be substituted by an of-phrase, as a rule.

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a children's hospitala doctor's degreewidow's weedsa women’s college

sheep's eyesa summer's dayraven's wings

In the example above raven's wings does not mean the wings of one particular raven, but a kind of wings. So, the zero article refers to the word wings.

NOTE : the adjectives with the Possessive Case are used in the following way: the old man's house (= the house of the old man) the man's old house (= the old house of the man)With the descriptive meaning the adjective refers to the head noun. e.g. a nice women's college (= a nice college for women, not a college for nice women)

d) Modification by nouns in the common caseWhen a head noun is modified by a noun in the common case the article refers to the head noun The National Geographic Society building A London Sunday paper

USE OF ARTICLES WITH COLLECTIVE NOUNS1. The definite article in the generic meaning is used with collective nouns denoting mainly social classes or groups as individual bodies (the proletariat, the bourgeoisie, the aristocracy, the nobility, the peasantry, the intelligentsia, the public (=people in general), the press, the clergy, the laity, the gentry, the police, the middle class, etc) The town gardens are open to the public. The minister invited the press to the meeting.NOTE 1: Some of these words can be used with the indefinite article in other meanings:

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Is there a public for that sort of book? (=a group of people considered in terms of its relation to a particular activity) Britain has an official aristocracy of titled people. NOTE 2: The nouns mankind and humanity, though used in a collective sense, take no article: Mankind lives on a wonderful planet.

2. Partially substantivized adjectives denoting groups of people as a whole class are used with the definite article in the generic sense: Fortune favours the brave. The rich get richer and the poor get poorer. The British drink a lot of tea.

3. The definite article in the generic meaning is also used with plural nouns which denote social classes, religious groups, nationalities only as undivided bodies: the Communists, the Republicans, the Tories, the Catholics, the Zoroastrians, the Anglicans, the Americans, the Germans, etc. The Conservatives are against state control of industry.

USE OF ARTICLES WITH MATERIAL NOUNS1. Names of substances are generally used with no article. The absence of the article has the nominating meaning: Yoghurt is usually thought of as a healthy food. Chlorofluorocarbon is now believed to be responsible for damaging the ozone layer. The box was made of cardboard.

2. The definite article is used with names of substances when the speaker has in mind specific (restricted) quantity of substance or substance situated at some

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particular place. This meaning of the definite article is called restricting: The tea I am drinking is green. Why aren’t you eating the porridge? The air was fresh.

3. Names of substances sometimes become countable when their meaning is changed. In these cases they follow the general rules of the use of articles with countable nouns. These nouns usually denote:a) a kind or a variety of substance: They don’t sell good coffees in the shop any longer. Several excellent beers are brewed in this district.b) a portion of food or drink:

I remember a friend of mine buying a couple of cheeses at

Liverpool. After seven beers I left the pub.c) if they have a different meaning: Australia won more golds than ever (=gold medals)NOTE 1: Sometimes countable nouns are treated as names of substances and are used in the singular with no article. This kind of use is often found in partitive constructions after the nouns patch, bit, scrap, piece, etc: The sky was clear of cloud. She went round the corner of the house to the patch of garden behind the kitchen.NOTE 2: Such countable nouns as a duck, a lamb, a turkey, a chicken, a lobster, etc. are used as names of substances when they denote meat used for food: Is there duck on the menu? We had cold turkey for supper.NOTE 3: Some collective nouns denoting a group of objects thought of as a whole, behave like names of substances: furniture, machinery, equipment, crockery, hardware, silverware, china, luggage, foliage, etc.:

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The police have found bomb-making equipment in the terrorist hideout. New machinery is being installed in the factory.

USE OF ARTICLES WITH ABSTRACT NOUNS

There are two groups of abstract nouns: countable (an idea, a fact, a word, etc.) and uncountable (love, fun, honesty, criticism, etc.)

Articles with countable abstract nouns are used in the same way as with countable concrete nouns (See Page 4).

A number of nouns may function both as countable and uncountable depending on the meaning. In the former case they follow the general rules for the use of articles with countable nouns. For example:

UNCOUNTABLE COUNTABLEnature everything that exists in the

world independent of people: We took a walk through the wood to observe nature.

a quality that makes someone or something different from others; character:I have a kindly nature.

decision quality of being able to make choices and act on them firmly:He is a man of decision who rarely changes his mind.

a choice or judgement:The committee expects to come to a decision.

experience knowledge or skill which comes from practice:Don’t correct him all the time – he’ll learn by experience.

something that happens to one and has an effect on the mind and feelings:Our journey by camel was a fascinating experience.

thought 1) the action of thinking:He sat there, deep in thought2) serious consideration:Give her offer plenty of thought.

something that is thought:I’ve just had a bad thought.

joy great happiness: a person or thing that causes

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I was filled with joy at the thought of seeing you again.

joy:She remained a staunch friend throughout all the joys and sorrows of life.

likeness sameness, resemblance:I cannot see much likeness between them.

1) a photograph or painting of a person esp. a good one that is really like the person:The portrait is a good likeness2) an instance of being alike:There is a family likeness to be seen in all of them.

talk 1) empty or meaningless speech:He’s all talk.2) a subject of rumour or gossip:There is talk of a new invention.

an informal speech or lecture:They had a long talk.

gossip idle talk about other people or events:She is too fond of gossip.

1) chat:They had a good gossip with the neighbours.2) a person who is fond of chatting:Our neighbours are such gossips!

pleasure 1) the state of feeling of happiness:Small gifts give me much pleasure. 2) doing things for fun:Are you here on business or for pleasure?

a cause of happiness:It’s been a great pleasure to talk to you.People who don’t go to football matches have few pleasures in life.

improvement the act of improving or the state of being improved:Your English is getting better, but there is still room for improvement.

something which is better:This composition is an improvement on your last one.

success succeeding:Nothing succeeds like success.

1) a person or thing that succeeds:The plan was a success.2) triumph:The army had numerous

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successes in this war.knowledge the state of being informed

about something; awareness:The matter was never brought to the knowledge of the minister.

the facts, skills and understanding that one has gained (also uncountable):She has a detailed knowledge of this periodBut: It’s common knowledge.

fantasy imagination:Stylistic analysis requires much fantasy.

a product of imagination:He wrote a fantasy about life on Mars.

silence stillness, absence of speech:I listened in silence.

a period of time characterized by absence of sound:There were long unexplained silences.

horror great fear mixed with disgust:The news filled us with horror.

1) a thing or person that causes great fear:The little horrors never stopped playing tricks on their parents.2) in the set expression to have a horror of…A good housewife has a horror of dirt.

sense good understanding and judgement:You should have had enough sense to turn off the electricity supply.

1) any of the five feelings that humans have:I’m afraid I don’t have a very good sense of smell.2) a feeling, esp. one that is hard to describe exactly:The incident left me with a sense of helplessness.

duty the force that compels one to act:It’s a call of duty.

a thing that one ought to do:My duties include taking letters to the post and making coffee.

inspiration the act of inspiring or state of being inspired:Poets often draw inspiration from nature.

1) something or someone which gives a person the urge to do something:His wife is a constant inspiration to him.2) a sudden good idea:I had an inspiration.

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aid support or help:Foreign aid has been reduced again.

something that provides help:A dictionary is an invaluable aid in learning a new language.

authority the ability, power, or right to control and command:They don’t have much authority.

a person or thing with the power or right:I quoted two authorities in support.

cover shelter or protection:The tree provided useful cover.

something that protects:Both covers were torn.

detail facts about something considered together:They didn’t go into much detail.

a single point or fact about something:There are three details I would add.

hate hatred; extreme dislike:She looked at me with hate in her eyes.

something that causes hatred:That’s one of my pet hates.

necessity the condition of being necessary:I see little necessity for change.

something that is necessary:Food and clothing are the bare necessities of life.

truth that which is true; sincerity; honesty:There’s some truth in what you say.

a fact or principle accepted as true:Bear these truths constantly in mind.

worry an uncomfortable feeling of fear and uncertainty:It’s a source of great worry to me.

a person or thing that causes this feeling:It’s a worry to me having to leave the parrot alone in the house.We have no money worries.

education the teaching and training of the young:No country can afford to neglect education.

the knowledge and abilities developed through teaching and training:He received a good education.

trade the process of buying and selling:The fall in the value of the pound may help to stimulate international trade.

1) a job, esp. one that needs special skills with the hands:Being a printer is a trade, being a lawyer is a profession.2) the stated level of business activity:

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Outside the castle he was doing a roaring trade in souvenirs.

control the power to direct or restrain something:A fool gives full vent to his anger, but a wise man keeps himself under control.

a method or system used for controlling (also uncountable in this meaning):The government has imposed strict controls on the import of luxury goods.

difficulty the fact of being difficult:She had great difficulty in understanding me.

something difficult:He’s having financial difficulties.

NOTE: Many of these words are concrete nouns when countable.

Some abstract nouns may be used both as countable and uncountable in the same lexical meaning: chance (possibility), change (the act or result of changing), effect (a result or condition produced by a cause), effort (something that needs the use of strength), talent (a special natural ability), reason (the cause of an event), etc. For example:

UNCOUNTABLE COUNTABLEchance You’d have more chance of

catching the train if you got a bus to the station.

You don’t stand a chance of winning the case.

change Many people find it difficult to cope with change.

We need a change of tactics.

effect The advertising campaign didn’t have much effect on sales.

Mr Barrymore was suffering from the effects of too much alcohol.

effort It took a lot of effort to lift the piano.

It’s quite an effort to lift the piano.

talent She has great musical talent.

He has a talent for drawing.

reason She just suddenly left without giving reason.

He didn’t tell us his reasons.

discussion The question of textbooks They held a discussion

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will come up for discussion. about their future plans.discrepancy There is much discrepancy

between these two descriptions.

How do you explain the discrepancies in the accounts.

conversation In today’s programme, three well-known artists are in conversation with the President of the Academy.

It’s impossible to carry on a conversation with all this noise in the background.

hope The situation looks bad, but don’t give up hope.

Hopes of reaching a peace settlement are now fading.

USE OF ARTICLES WITH UNCOUNTABLE ABSTRACT NOUNS

1. There is a group of nouns which are never used with the indefinite article: advice, assistance, bliss, cunning, control (the power to direct or restrain something), evidence, guidance, health, fun, information, luck, nature (everything that exists in the world independent of people), news, nonsense, permission, progress, weather: Farming on such bad land is a struggle against nature. Acting on information received, the police have arrested two suspects. I ask you for advice and perhaps for assistance. I’ve had bad luck all week! What nasty weather we are having today! No news is bad news. Swimming in the sea is great fun. Jane is still in hospital, but she’s making good progress. Did he give you permission to take that?

2. Other uncountable abstract nouns can be used with the indefinite article:a) The words pity, disgrace, pleasure, relief, comfort, disappointment, etc. in the sentences with formal it as subject when they are used as predicatives of the main clause:

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It’s a pity you didn’t think of that before. It’s a shame to waste such talent.NOTE: But It’s luck I met you. (See above)b) The words pity, disgrace, pleasure, relief, comfort, disappointment, etc. in exclamatory sentences after what: What a disgrace!NOTE: But What luck! (See above)c) When uncountable abstract nouns express a certain kind of quality, emotion, state, etc. This meaning of the indefinite article is called aspective: He was filled with a loathing he had never known. I was aware now of a sickness. (=a kind of sickness) She knew now why a softness had crept into the air; the sea was near. (=a kind of softness)d) If an uncountable abstract noun is modified by the adjectives certain and peculiar the indefinite article is obligatory: There is a peculiar tension about her. Of course, you had to admit that he had a certain shrewdness.e) The indefinite article may be used if an uncountable abstract noun is modified by some descriptive attributes (except for the descriptive attributes below) Looking back upon that luncheon now it is invested for me with a curious glamour.Besides bringing out a certain aspect of the notion denoted by the noun the indefinite article also has a stylistic effect making a description more vivid. Therefore, the use of the indefinite article with uncountable abstract nouns is characteristic of the belles lettres style.NOTE: The indefinite article is often omitted if an uncountable abstract noun modified by a descriptive attribute is used in the following functions: a) a predicative: It was gallant courage, and it had stood her in such stead during her mother’s long illness.

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b) an attribute expressed by a prepositional phrase (mostly an of-phrase): She was a woman of wonderful generosity and would give away everything she possessed.c) an adverbial modifier of manner expressed by a prepositional group (mostly with the prepositions with or in): She sang with such tragic beautiful anguish that my heart melted within me. He shouted at them in helpless rage.

3) The indefinite article is not used with uncountable abstract nouns:a) in general sense: It was obvious that Mr Low found marriage a very satisfactory state. The dog huddled close to Tamar’s feet for protection.b) if they are modified by certain semantic groups of descriptive attributes. These groups of attributes are as follows1:1) adjectives denoting nationality: Russian, French, Pakistani, Icelandic, etc.: French literature, Saudi architecture, Russian circus, Peruvian music, Zimbabwean art, Panamanian poetry2) adjectives denoting social characteristics: feudal, capitalist, proletarian, racial, religious, bourgeois, etc: bourgeois prejudice, racial segregation, feudal law3) adjectives denoting periods of time, often historical periods: contemporary, modern, ancient, Victorian, mediaeval, daily, further, etc.: modern art, ancient history, further discussion4) adjectives denoting authenticity or reliability: (true, authentic, solid, false, dubious, reliable, real, genuine, etc.: real freedom, genuine happiness, true friendship, solid harmony

1 Barmina L.A., Verkhovskaya I.P. Learning to Use Articles. Moscow, 1989. p.27-29.

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5) adjectives denoting degree or extent: perfect, great, sufficient, immense, sheer, utter, huge, tremendous, complete, absolute, infinite, considerable, etc.: immense joy, sheer foolishness, infinite power6) adjectives denoting various genres or trends in art: dramatic, theatrical, classical, romantic, detective, etc.: dramatic criticism, romantic prose, detective literature7) adjectives referring to man’s social and spiritual life: social, public, political, intellectual, spiritual, moral, immoral, mental, humane, personal, reasonable, etc.: humane philosophy, mental arithmetic, public recognition8) adjectives characterizing man’s manner and behaviour: polite, impolite, brusque, formal, informal, nervous, serious, etc,: nervous attitude, formal behaviour, brusque gesticulation9) adjectives denoting position or locality: outside, inside, inner, outer, local, internal, external, etc.: local distribution, inner vision, inside information10) adjectives characterizing phenomena as recurrent or going on without stopping: continual (i.e. occurring again and again with short breaks), continuous (i.e. going on without stopping), constant, incessant, etc.: constant displeasure, continuous showing of moving pictures11) miscellaneous adjectives: good, bad, free, critical, ordinary, plain, physical, human, consistent and some other: ordinary honesty, huge physical strength, human psychology12) nouns in the common case used attributively: family affection, science fiction, Greenwich time

The definite article is used with:

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a) abstract nouns modified by a limiting attribute or if the idea denoted by the noun is applied to a definite situation or object: The unexpectedness of our arrival left everybody speechless. In the darkness we could not see her face.b) partially substantivized adjectives denoting abstract notions are always used with the definite article: How womanly it is to ask the unanswerable at the moment impossible. “I am not Uncle Wilmer,” Ian stated the obvious as he dashed to the front door. “I don’t believe in the supernatural,” Sir Henry said. Muttering under his breath he surrendered to the inevitable and took the dogs with him.c) abstract nouns the present, the past, the future, the singular, the plural: I am certain nothing will happen in the near future.NOTE: Mark the difference between the expressions in future (впредь), i.e. from this time on, and in the future (в будущем), i.e. after a certain period of time passes: I hope in future you’ll be more careful. Everybody knew an enviable position awaited him in the future.The noun future may be used with the indefinite article when it is the focus of communication (the rheme of the sentence): It was an uncertain future.

The presence or absence of the indefinite article with abstract nouns can be illustrated by this table:

ABSTRACT NOUNS

COUNTABLE COUNTABLE

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ABSTRACT NOUNS

COUNTABLE(with A)

(an idea, a fact, etc.)

COUNTABLEor

UNCOUNTABLEUNCOUNTABLE

A(an idea, a fact, etc.)

orUNCOUNTABLE

with A1) it’s a …2) what a …3) curtain, peculiar4) aspective meaning5) modified by a descriptive attribute

can be used with A or not

without A1) in general sense2) modified by 12

groups of descriptive attributes

only without Aadvice, assistance, bliss, cunning, control, evidence, guidance, health, fun, information, luck, nature, news, nonsense, permission, progress, weather

USE OF ARTICLES WITH PROPER NOUNS

Articles with personal names

1. Personal names are normally used with no articles: John, Mary, Mr Brown, etc.

2. The definite article is used:a) when a personal name has the plural form to indicate a whole family: the Joneses, the Browns, etc.: One June evening I went to dine with the McDonalds.b) when a personal name is modified by a limiting attribute: It was the Jane I had known before. She was not the Mary of your youth.

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can be used with or without A

without A1) in general sense2) modified by 12 groups of descriptive attributes (See Page 18)

with A1) It’s a …2) What a …3) certain, peculiar4) aspective meaning5) modified by a descriptive attribute

c) when a personal noun is modified by adjectives. It is important to stress that a personal name with the definite article modified by an adjective is never the rheme of the sentence (it is never the focus of communication): “I am the celebrated Mortimer Ellis,” he said. The late Mrs Jones was a very nice person. The Talented Mr RipleyNOTE 1: No article is used with personal names modified by the adjectives old, young, dear, poor, little, tiny, honest: Old Anthony met us at the station. Poor John ran away. Little Willy found a machine-gun.NOTE 2: If the personal name modified by an adjective is the rheme of the sentence and conveys the most important part of the communication, it is used with the indefinite article. The adjectives usually denote the mood of the person described: The dinner was served by a silent Mrs Keats. I saw an infuriated Jennifer who started shouting at me the moment I opened the door.

3. The indefinite article is used:a) when a personal name indicates a member of a family: “The boy is a Benbow!” he replied hotly.b) when a personal name indicates one resembling somebody: His face always reminded Michael of a Lincoln grown old.c) when a personal name is modified by the adjective certain, or the meaning certain is implied: A certain John Smith is waiting for you. (=someone who called himself John Smith) He was engaged to be married to a Miss Smith. A Mr Drake phoned in the morning, but he didn’t leave a message.

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“Did a woman see you some time today? A Nelly Conway?” he asked anxiously.d) when personal names denote things associated with the names of certain persons. In this case personal names turn into common nouns and follow the general rules of the use of articles for common nouns: Every morning he drove out in a rickety old Ford. (=a car) “Has the museum a Petrov-Vodkin?” I asked. (=a picture) On one long wall hung a row of Van Goghs.

Articles with geographic names

1. The following geographic names are used with no article:a) Names of continents: Africa, North America, Southeast Asia, Eastern Europe, Antarctica, etc.;(But: the Antarctic, the Arctic)b) Names of countries: Barbados, Kiribati, Russia, French Guiana, Bhutan, Lesotho, Côte d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast), etc.NOTE 1: The exceptions are the Netherlands and the Gambia.NOTE 2: The article is used with names of countries occupying archipelagos: the Maldives, the Philippines, the Comoros.NOTE 3: The article is optional with (the) Congo, (the) Senegal, (the) Cameroon, (the) Sudan, (the) Lebanon, (the) Ukraine, (the)Yemen.NOTE 4: The article is used with names of countries including the words republic, states, kingdom, federation, etc.: The Democratic Republic of Congo, The Czech Republic, The Russian Federation, The United Arab Emirates, The United Kingdom, The United States of America, The Federated States of

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Micronesia, The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg [′lΛksəmbə:g], The Commonwealth of Dominica, etc.c) names of counties, states, provinces, territories, areas, etc,: Polynesia, Alabama, Nebraska, New Brunswick, New England, Quebec, Bavaria, Lower Saxonia, Montenegro, Cheshire, East Anglia, Lothian, Siberia, Flanders, Pohnpei, Chuuk, Uttar Pradesh, Kerala, Brittany, Provence, Rio Grande do Norte, Pernambuco, Queensland, Patagonia, Bophuthatswana [‚bOpu:tət’swa:nə], Ulster, Transylvania, Nunavut, etc.NOTE: The article is used with the Ruhr, the Saar, the Riviera, the Transvaal, the Highlands, the Lowlands, the Midlands, the Borders, the Wirral, the Lake District, the Peak District, the Costa Brava, the Cotswolds, the Côte d’Azur, the Yukon, the Klondike, The Tyrol, (the) Transkei, the District of Colombia, the Algavre, the Maghreb, etc.d) Names of cities and towns: Leicester [’lestə], Reading [’rediŋ], Slough [’slau], Berwick [’berək], Phoenix [’fi:niks], Ouagadougou [wa:gə’du:gu:], Thiruvananthapuram, etc.NOTE: The exception is The Hague [heig]e) Names of separate islands: Jamaica, Anglesey [‘æŋgəlsi], Great Britain, Java, New Caledonia, Zanzibar, Guam, Alcatraz, etc.NOTE: The article is used in names of islands containing the preposition of: The Isle of Man, The Isle of Wight, etc.f) Names of bays and gulfs: Hudson Bay, Manila Bay, Chesapeake Bay, etc.NOTE: The article is used in the names of bays containing the preposition of: the Bay of Biscay, the Gulf of Mexico, the bay of PigsRemember: the Persian Gulfg) Names of peninsulas and capes: Kamchatka, Yucatan, Labrador, Cape Horn, Cape Cod, Cape Canaveral, etc.

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NOTE: The definite article is used if the name contains the preposition of or the word peninsula: the Balkan Peninsula, the Hindustan Peninsula, the Cape of Good Hope, etc.h) names of mountain peaks: Everest, Fuji, Vesuvius, Elbrus, Hekla, Capital Hill, Popocatépetl [pOpəkætə’petl], Snowdon, Carrauntoohill [kærən’tu:əl], K2 (Mount Godwin Austen). NOTE: The article is used with the names of European mountains which have an article in the local language: Der Matterhorn=The Matterhorn, La Meije=The Meije. But the article is not used before Mont: Le Mont Blanc is called Mont Blanc.i) Names of lakes containing the words lake, loch or lough: Lake Baikal, Loch Ness, Lough Neagh [lox‘nei] , Lake Superior, Lake Michigan, Lake Seliger, etc.NOTE: The article is used if there is the preposition of or the word lake is absent: The Lake of Baikal, the Baikal.j) Names of some city areas: Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens, Chelsea, Westminster, Docklands, etc.NOTE: But The City, the East End, the West End, the Bronx, etc.k) Names of parks and zoos: Hyde Park, Regent’s Park, Central Park, Chester Zoo, London Zoo, Yosemite [jəu’semiti] National Park, Disneyland, Disney World, etc.l) Names of streets and squares: Baker Street, Oxford Street, Trafalgar Square, Piccadilly Circus, Fifth Avenue, 47th Street, Broadway, etc.NOTE 1: But (the) High Street, the Strand, the Mall (in London), the Strip (in Las Vegas), the Plaza Square, the Flinchly Road, the King’s Road, the Euston Road.NOTE 2: Some names of foreign streets and squares are used with the article: The Rue des Pyramides, the Place de la Concorde. (the) Red Square.

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Geographic names that are used with the zero article may take the definite or indefinite article under the following conditions:a). if a limiting attribute is used a geographic name may take the definite article: It was not the France of his youth.b). if a descriptive attribute is used a geographic name may have the indefinite article: It was a different Paris, unknown to him.c) the definite article is used in the following patterns containing the preposition of: The Bay of Biscay, The City of New York, The Mount of Olives, The Strait of Dover, etc.

2. The following geographic names are used with the definite article:a) Names of seas and oceans: The Pacific (Ocean), The Atlantic (Ocean). The Mediterranean (Sea), The Yellow Sea, the Caribbean (Sea) [kæri’bi:ən], etc.b) Names of rivers, channels and canals: the Volga, the Severn, The St Lawrence River, the Rubicon, the Lethe [’li:Θi], the Danube [’dænju:b], the St Lawrence Seaway, the English Channel, The Bering Strait, The Bosp(h)orus [’bOspərəs], the Dardanelles [da:də’nelz], the Suez Canal, the Bristol Channel, etc.c) Names of archipelagos: the Canary Islands, the West Indies, the Caribbean, the Bahamas, the Seychelles, the Windward Islands.d) Names of mountain chains: the Andes, the Rocky Mountains, the Cambrian Mountains, the Himalayas, the Cheviot Hills, etc.e) Names of deserts: the Sahara (Desert), the Gobi, the Atacama, the Mojave [məu’ha:vi:] Desert, the Kalahari, the Namib, etc.

Articles with names of astronomical objects

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1. Articles are not used with:a) the word space (Outer Space). But the cosmos.b) Latin Names of constellations (but the definite article is required with their English equivalents): Gemini (=the Twins), Saggitarius (=the Archer), Pisces (=the Fish), Cygnus (=the Swan), Ursa Minor (=the Little Bear, AmE the Little Dipper), Taurus (=the Bull), etc.NOTE: The definite article is used if the word constellation is present: the constellation Hydra, the constellation Cassiopea, etc.Exception: The Pleiades [’plaiədi:z] (=the Seven Sisters).c) Names of stars (but the definite article is used if the word star is present): Polaris (=the North Star), Sirius (=the Dog Star), Betelgeuse, Aldebaran, Mizar, Alcor, Deneb, Capella, Vega, Alpha Centauri, Proxima Centauri, etc.d) Names of planets and satellites: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto; Phobos, etc.

2. The definite article is used with names of galaxies: the Milky Way, the Large Magellanic Cloud, etc.But: Dwingeloo 1, Dwingeloo 2.

Articles with other semantic groups of proper nouns

1. Proper nouns of the following semantic groups take no articles:a) Names of universities and colleges: Tver State University, Oxford University, Yale, Brasenose CollegeNOTE: The article is used if the name contains the preposition of: The University of Oxford.b) Names of magazines: National Geographic, Punch, Private Eye, Newsweek, World Soccer, Time, Reader’s Digest, etc.

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NOTE: But The Economist, The New Yorker, The Lancet, etc.c) Some names of buildings, bridges: Buckingham Palace, Edinburgh Castle, Westminster Abbey, St Paul’s Cathedral, Carnegie Hall, Westminster Bridge, Tower Bridge, London Bridge, etc.NOTE 1: But: the Tower, the Old Bailey, the Regent Palace, the Albert Hall, the Canary Wharf Tower, the White House, the Capitol, the Empire State Building, the Sears Tower, the Pentagon, the Parthenon, the Acropolis, the Taj Mahal, the Kremlin, the Forth Bridge, the Clifton Suspension Bridge, the Golden Gate Bridge, the Brooklyn Bridge, etc.d) Names of stations, airports, airlines: Kings Cross, Victoria Station, Grand Central Station, Kennedy Airport, Heathrow, Gatwick, La Guardia, British Airways, Lufthansa, etc.e) Names of stadiums and football grounds if they do not contain the words stadium or ground: Wembley, Old Trafford, Anfield, Villa Park, Hillsborough, etc.NOTE: But The Victoria Ground, The Olympic Stadium, etc.f) Names of historical events and periods: the Renaissance, the Reformation, the Great Depression, the French Revolution, the Stone Age, the Tertiary period, the Cenozoic era, etc.But ancient times, mediaeval times, paleolithic times

2. proper names of the following semantic groups are used with the definite article:a) Names of theatres, museums, monuments: the

National Gallery,the Hermitage, the Louvre, the Prado, the Tretyakov Gallery, the Tate Gallery, the Bolshoi, the Old Vic, the Washington Monument, the Jefferson Memorial, the Cenotaph, etc

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b) Names of hotels, restaurants, clubs, cinemas: the Ritz, the Hilton, the Sheraton, the Odeon, the Carlton Club, etc.c) Most names of newspapers: The Times, the Sun, the Chicago Tribune, the Boston Globe, the Los Angeles Times, the Sentinel.NOTE: But USA Today, Pravdad) Names of vessels: the Titanic, the QE2, the Lusitania, the Kon-Tiki, the Sir Winston Churchille) Names of most political parties: the Conservative Party, the Democrats, the Republicans, the Likud, etc.NOTE: But Plaid Cymru [plaid ’kΛmri], Sinn Fein [ſin’fein]

Use of articles with abbreviations

1. No article is used if the abbreviation is pronounced as a word: NATO ['neitəu] (the North Atlantic Treaty Organization), UNESCO [ju'neskəu] (the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization), NASA ['næsə] the National Aeronautics and Space Administration), OPEC ['əupek] (the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries), ASEAN ['æsiæn] (the Association of South-East Asian Nations), FIFA ['fifə] (Federation Internationale des Football Associations), etc.

2. The definite article is usually used if the abbreviations is pronounced letter by letter: the CIA [si: ai ‘ei] (the Central Intelligence Agency), the FBI [ef bi: ‘ai] (the Federal Bureau of Investigation), the UN [ju: ‘en] (the United Nations Organization), the CIS [si: ai ‘es] (the Commonwealth of Independent States), etc.

SPECIAL DIFFICULTIES IN THE USE OF THE ARTICLE

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Articles with names of seasons

1. Names of seasons (winter, spring, summer, autumn) are mostly used without articles, though the definite article may be found even in general statements. The definite article may have a generalizing meaning denoting time in an abstract way: In London there are certain afternoons in (the) winter when the clouds hang heavy and low. “I hate (the) autumn,” Jane said.2. Names of seasons are used with no article in the function of a predicative: It was spring and the air was pleasant.3. If names of seasons are modified by limiting attributes or limitation is clear from the context or situation, the definite article is used: It happened in the autumn of 2007.4. The definite article is obligatory after the prepositions during, for, through: The family moved to the country for the winter. During the autumn he often came to see me in my office and one day asked me for a job. “He won’t last through the summer,” Cora repeated.5. When names of seasons are modified by descriptive attributes they take the indefinite article: It’s been a hard winter for me. (Cronin) And did you have a pleasant summer?NOTE: No article is used when names of seasons are modified by the adjectives late or early: It was late autumn.

Articles with names of times of the day and night

1. Names of times of the day and night (day, night, evening, noon, afternoon, dusk, twilight, midnight, nightfall, daytime, sunrise, sunset) are used with no article:

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a) when they denote “light” or “darkness”: Dusk fell without my noticing it. The sun set behind the hills and night came.b) after the prepositions at, after, before, by, till, until, towards, past (at night, by evening, past midnight, at dawn, at dusk, before noon, till morning, until midnight, etc.)c) in the function of a predicative: It was evening.d) when these nouns are modified by the nouns denoting days of the week or the words yesterday, tomorrow, late, early: We’ll meet tomorrow morning. By late afternoon the guests began to arrive.e) in the combinations of adverbial character: all day (long), all night (long), day after day, day in day out, from morning till night. night after night, day and night, from day to night: Quietly Dr Walker walked to his work day after day.f) in names of holidays containing the word day: Independence Day, Red Nose Day, etc.

2. Names of times of the day and night are used with the indefinite article if modified by descriptive attributes: It was a frosty night.

3. Names of times of the day and night are used with the definite article:a) when a specific night or day is meant: The rain had stopped and the night was starry.b) when these nouns are used in a generic sense:

He spent the morning eating and the evening sleeping.

c) after the prepositions in, during, through (in the morning, in the night, in the evening, during the night, during the day, through the night, through the morning, etc.)

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NOTE: After the preposition for both the definite and indefinite articles are possible depending on the meaning: I must go to Sheffield for the day. (the day is specified) I must go to Sheffield for a day. (for one day)d) when these nouns are preceded by the pronoun other: I went to the dentist the other day.

USE OF ARTICLES WITH NOUNS DENOTING UNIQUE POSTS, RANKS AND OCCUPATIONS

1. Nouns denoting unique posts, ranks and occupations (president, prime minister, chancellor, chairman, head, king, queen, prince, princess, captain, director, principal, etc.) are usually used with the definite article: The president knocked at the door, but I didn’t open. The director is waiting for you near the entrance.Several people shouted at the chairman; feelings were running high.

2. The definite article is optional with these nouns when:a) they function as a predicative: He was (the) head of a great publishing house. Excuse me, are you (the) president of the United States?b) after the verbs to appoint, to elect, to choose, to make, to call, to consider, to run for: Women in the USA may run for president; but so far no woman has become president. Who appointed me prime minister? They elected him president. They made him (the) captain of the team.c) after the preposition as: When I don’t sleep, I work as prime minister.

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Bill Clinton attracted voters with his thorough plans for what he would do as president and his concern for ordinary people’s problems.d) in the function of apposition after personal names: Mr Turner, (the) head of the firm, spent a few days there waiting for a taxi. George Bush, (the) president of the USA, will make a state visit to the far East next year.NOTE: There is no article if the title precedes a personal name: Queen Elizabeth, President Roosevelt, Princess Margaret, King Midas, King Taufa’ahau Tupou IV, etc. (The article may precede some foreign titles: (the) Pharaoh Cheops [‘ki:əps], (the) Emperor Nero, (the) Emperor Haile Selassie etc.)

USE OF ARTICLES BEFORE THE WORDS LAST AND NEXT

1. Nouns denoting time such as day, night, morning, afternoon, week, year, century, millennium, etc. are used with no article when they are modified by the adjectives last and next in present time context: They arrived last year. I’m going to a football match next week.In past time contexts the definite article may be used in similar cases, but its use is not obligatory: (The) next day Mr Drinkmore woke up with a headache.However, when the adjectives last and next are followed by an ordinal numeral the definite article is obligatory: The next twelve years the students studied the use of articles.2. When we talk about the period of time immediately before or after the present one we use last and next with no article (the prepositions on, in, at are not used either in these expressions):

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last week today next week

Monday Sunday

We saw Mr Scrooge last week. See you next week. I remember meeting you last century. Let’s talk about it next millennium. Last year was difficult.The last and the next can be used to talk about a period of time that continues up to the present moment:

the last week today the next week

Monday Sunday

The last year was difficult.I’m going to be very busy for the next week.NOTE: The last and the next can also mean the last or the next in a series (with no relation to the present): In the last week of the holiday a strange thing happened. That was the last day I went to University.

ABSENCE OF ARTICLE IN PARALLEL STRUCTURES

The article is not used in parallel structures such as from town to town, from house to house, arm in arm, hand in hand, face to face, day and night, from right to left, from beginning to end, etc. It went on raining day after day.

OMISSION OF ARTICLE IN ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTIONS

Articles or other determiners (for example, possessive pronouns) may be omitted in Nominative Absolute Constructions: She was electrically alive, eyes bright, smile inviting.

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USE OF ARTICLES IN SOME SET PHRASES

GROUNDto get something off the ground сдвинуть с местаto cut the ground from under somebody’s feet

выбить почву из под ног

to suit somebody to the ground полностью устраивать кого-либо

on the ground of … по причине, под предлогом to keep both feet on the ground не отрываться от реальностиto gain (get) ground продвигаться впередto give ground отступатьto break new ground начать новую деятельностьto go to ground затаитьсяto gain ground on somebody получать преимущество

перед кем-тоto be on dangerous ground быть в опасностиto be on safe ground быть в безопасностиabove (below) ground на поверхности земли (под

землей)on familiar ground в знакомой обстановке

RUNto be on the run быть в бегах, в работеin the long run на долгий срок, в конце

концовin the short run на кратковременный срокout of the common run необычныйto have the run of something иметь право пользоваться

чем-тоa run of something периодa big run on something большой спрос на что-либоto take a run предпринять вылазку,

экскурсию)to go with a run идти как по маслуto give somebody a good run 1) получить полное

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for their money удовольствие за свои деньги

2) оказать сопротивлениеat a run 1) бегом

2) подряд

GOto be on the go иметь много делto be all the go пользоваться популярностьюto have a go on something попытаться что-либо сделатьto make a go of something преуспевать в чем-либоto be full of go быть полным энергии

TIMEall the time всё времяfor the time being на первое времяat the time в своё времяto pass the time проводить времяat a time за один раз (присест)for a time какое-то времяto work against time стараться уложиться в срокprime time час пик на телевиденииto do time отбывать срок заключенияto play for time выигрывать времяto make up for lost time наверстать упущенное времяto be behind time опаздывать, отставать

LIGHTto see the light понять, осознатьto give somebody a light дать прикуритьin a new light в новом светеin a good (bad) light в хорошем (плохом) светеto come to light выйти на поверхностьLet there be light! Да будет свет!

LINE

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to hold the line проводить политикуto draw the line подвести чертуto put something on the line рискнуть чем-либоdown the line полностью, во всех

отношенияхto read between the lines читать между строкto take a tough line against somebody

проводить жесткую политику против кого-либо

to be in line with something совпадать, согласовываться с чем-либо

to fall into line придти к согласиюto be in line for something ожидать что-л.

EYEto meet the eye бросаться в глазаwith the naked eye невооруженным глазомto give somebody the eye взглянуть на кого-либоto look somebody in the eye смотреть кому-либо в глазаto be easy on the eyes приятно выглядетьto be up to the eyes in work быть по уши в работеto cast an envious eye at something

завидовать

to keep an eye on something следить за чем-либоwith an eye to something с расчетом на что-либоto have a wandering eye иметь блуждающий взглядto have a good eye for distances

иметь хороший глазомер

to set (clap) eyes on something видеть что-либоto see eye to eye on something соглашаться с чем-либо

EARpleasing to the ear приятный на слух

to get the ear of somebody добиться чего-либо внимания

to have a good ear for something

иметь хороший слух

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to have an ear to the ground быть в курсе событийto lend an ear to somebody выслушать кого-тоto turn a deaf ear to something быть глухим к чему-либо

AIRin the air 1) у всех на слуху

2)в неопределенном состоянии

to clear the air устранить разногласияto be on the air быть в эфиреto have an air of … иметь видto walk on air быть на седьмом небеto put on airs важничатьto disappear into thin air бесследно исчезнутьto appear out of thin air появиться из неоткуда

HANDto take the upper hand иметь преимущество перед

кем-тоto have a hand in something быть причастным к чему-

либоto give somebody a hand in doing something

помочь

to give somebody a big hand аплодироватьto write a legible hand писать разборчивоto keep a strict hand over somebody

держать в ежовых рукавицах

by hand в ручнуюto hear somebody at second hand

знать что-либо понаслышке

to be on hand быть в наличииclose at hand рядом, по соседствуto have somebody in hand контролировать кого-либо

HEADto come to a head достигнуть критической

точки

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to have a good head for something

хорошо разбираться в чем-либо

not to make head or tail of something

не понимать

to tumble head over heals покатиться вверх тормашками

HEARTto take to heart принимать к сердцуto lose heart падать духом, отчаиватьсяat heart в глубине душиby heart наизусть

FACEto disappear off the face of the earth

исчезнуть с лица земли

in the face of something перед лицом чего-либоto have the face to do something

иметь наглость что-либо сделать

on the face of it на поверхности, на первый взгляд

to pull a long face скорчить гримасуto lose face потерять репутациюto save face сохранить репутацию

WAYout of the way что-либо выдающеесяIt is always the way! И вот так всегда!by the way кстатиin a way в некотором отношенииto be in a bad (good) way быть в плохой (хорошей)

ситуацииto have a way with somebody (something)

иметь свой подход к кому-либо

by way of something ради чего-либо, с целью; в качестве чего-либо; через

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to give way to something уступить, не выдержатьto make way освободить путьto be under way зайти достаточно далеко;

идти полным ходом

TURNto be on the turn меняться коренным образомto make a left (right) turn повернуть налево (направо)to do somebody a good turn оказать кому-либо услугуto take a turn for the worse меняться к худшемуto a turn в самый разto have a witty turn of phrase уметь хорошо говорить

ORDERto be in good (bad) order быть в хорошем (плохом)

состоянииin alphabetic order в алфавитном порядкеin order of importance в порядке важностиto get out of order испортиться, сломатьсяto put something in order привести в порядокto keep order соблюдать порядокin short order быстроmade to order сделанный на заказto call to order призывать к порядку

POINTWhen it comes to the point … Когда доходит до дела…The point is … Дело в том, что…to be beside the point не иметь отношения к делуto be on the point of doing something

собираться; почти сделать что-либо

off the point некстатиto the point кстатиto make a point of something придавать чему-либо

слишком большое значениеa boiling point точка кипенияto stretch a point немного обойти правила

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in point of fact фактическиa case in point как раз тот случайbreaking point критическая точка

BOARDto go by the board остаться за бортом; пойти

насмаркуto sweep the board выиграть все, что можноon board (the ship) на бортуto take something on board принимать что-либо во

внимание; соглашатьсяto pay for board платить за питаниеabove board открыто, явно

ENDin the end в конце концовto put an end to something положить конец чему-либоon end 1) беспрерывно, подряд

2) стоймя, дыбом

REFERENCES

1. Barmina L.A., Verkhovskaya I.P. Learning to Use Articles. M., 1989

2. Briskin R.U. Articles and Their Use in Modern English. Kiev, 1978

3. Swan M. Practical English Usage. M., 19844. S.Makarov’s Grammar Page:

http://www.angelfire.com/ks2/grammar

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CONTENTS

Article . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Use of articles with class nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Meaning of articles with class nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Articles with countable nouns modified by attributes . . Use of articles with collective nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Use of articles with material nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Use of articles with abstract nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Use of articles with uncountable abstract nouns . . . . . . Use of articles with proper nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Articles with personal names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Articles with geographic names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Articles with names of astronomical objects . . . . . . . . . Articles with other semantic groups of proper nouns . . . Use of articles with abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Special difficulties in the use of articles . . . . . . . . . . . Articles with names of seasons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Articles with names of times of the day and night . . . . . Use of articles with nouns denoting unique posts, ranks and occupations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Use of articles before the words last and next . . . . . . . . Absence of articles in parallel structures . . . . . . . . . . . .

3 4 4 6 9 91116212122252627282829

303132

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Omission of articles in absolute constructions . . . . . . . . Use of articles in some set phrases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

323239

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