Language History and Changes

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Language Language History and History and Changes Changes Yule, G. (1996) The Study of Yule, G. (1996) The Study of Language. Language. UK. Cambridge University Press UK. Cambridge University Press Mariana Alarcón González Mariana Alarcón González September 9th, 2008 September 9th, 2008

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Language History and Changes. Yule, G. (1996) The Study of Language. UK. Cambridge University Press Mariana Alarcón González September 9th, 2008. LANGUAGE HISTORY AND CHANGE. - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

Transcript of Language History and Changes

Page 1: Language History and Changes

Language History Language History and Changesand Changes

Yule, G. (1996) The Study of Language.Yule, G. (1996) The Study of Language.

UK. Cambridge University PressUK. Cambridge University Press

Mariana Alarcón GonzálezMariana Alarcón González

September 9th, 2008September 9th, 2008

Page 2: Language History and Changes

LANGUAGE HISTORY LANGUAGE HISTORY AND CHANGEAND CHANGE

Sanskrit is the ancient Language of Indian law, the Sanskrit is the ancient Language of Indian law, the classical Language of India and may be the oldest one, classical Language of India and may be the oldest one, which had been studied by a British government which had been studied by a British government official called Sir William Jones, who was working as a official called Sir William Jones, who was working as a judge of the high court in India. judge of the high court in India.

During 1786, Sir William suggested that a number of During 1786, Sir William suggested that a number of languages from very different geographical areas must languages from very different geographical areas must have some common ancestor, however this common have some common ancestor, however this common ancestor could ancestor could

not be described from any existing records, but had to not be described from any existing records, but had to be hypothesized on the basis of similar features be hypothesized on the basis of similar features existing in records of languages which were believed existing in records of languages which were believed to be descendants.to be descendants.

Page 3: Language History and Changes

► Established as the “great-grand mother” of Established as the “great-grand mother” of many many

modern languages in the Indian sub-continent modern languages in the Indian sub-continent

(Indo), and in Europe (European). “Proto” is a (Indo), and in Europe (European). “Proto” is a term term

that came into use to describe that common that came into use to describe that common ancestor ancestor

““Proto-Indo-European”. This term was Proto-Indo-European”. This term was established established

during the 19th century by linguistics during the 19th century by linguistics dedicated to dedicated to

the historical study of languages (philology).the historical study of languages (philology).

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Diagram: Diagram: Proto-Indo-EuropeanProto-Indo-European

Proto-Indo-European

Balto-Slavic

Indo-Iranian

SlavicBaltic

Iranian

Indic Hellenic Italic CelticGermanic

German

English

Dutch

Danish

Swedish

Norwegian

Etc.

Gaelic

Irish

Welsh

Etc.

Italian

Spanish

Frenc

Portuguese

Romanian

Etc.

Latin Ancient Greek

Greek Russian

Polish

Czech

Bulgarian

Etc.

Latvian

Lithuanian

SanskritHindi

Bengali

Etc.

Persian

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► a)a) The process that we use to establish family The process that we use to establish family connectionsconnections

between different languages is called “Cognates”.between different languages is called “Cognates”.A cognate of a word in one language is a word in another A cognate of a word in one language is a word in another language which has a similar form and is or was, used with language which has a similar form and is or was, used with

a a similar meaning.similar meaning.For example:For example: EnglishEnglish GermanGerman SpanishSpanish ItalianItalian Mother Mutter Madre MadreMother Mutter Madre Madre Father Vater Padre PadreFather Vater Padre Padre Friend Freund Amigo AmicoFriend Freund Amigo AmicoAccording with the explanation above, the common According with the explanation above, the common

ancestorancestorof the Spanish and Italian words is in the Italic Branch, and of the Spanish and Italian words is in the Italic Branch, and

ininthe case of English and German words, the common the case of English and German words, the common ancestor of those words is in the Germanic branch.ancestor of those words is in the Germanic branch.

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b) b) There is another process called “ComparativeThere is another process called “Comparative

Reconstruction”, that is a process in which we useReconstruction”, that is a process in which we use

Cognates Cognates to get information about a language.to get information about a language.

The aim of this procedure is to reconstruct whatThe aim of this procedure is to reconstruct what

must have been the original form in the commonmust have been the original form in the common

ancestral language, and this is possible looking forancestral language, and this is possible looking for

common features on the basis of some generalcommon features on the basis of some general

principles. These principles are:principles. These principles are:• The mayority principle.The mayority principle.• The most natural development principle.The most natural development principle.

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► a)a) The majority principleThe majority principle, is very straightforward., is very straightforward.

Consist on, if in a cognate set, 3 forms begin with a Consist on, if in a cognate set, 3 forms begin with a

[p] sound and one form begins with a [b] sound, [p] sound and one form begins with a [b] sound,

then we suppose that majority have retained the then we suppose that majority have retained the

original sound [p], and the minority has changed a original sound [p], and the minority has changed a

little through time.little through time.

b) b) The most natural development principleThe most natural development principle, is based , is based

on the fact that certain types of sound-change are on the fact that certain types of sound-change are

very common, whereas others are extremely very common, whereas others are extremely

unlikely.unlikely.

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For example:For example:• Final vowels often disappear.Final vowels often disappear.• Voiceless sounds become voiced between vowels.Voiceless sounds become voiced between vowels.• Stops become fricatives (under certain conditions)Stops become fricatives (under certain conditions)• Consonants become voiceless at the end of words.Consonants become voiceless at the end of words.

Concluding, the main difference betweenConcluding, the main difference between

these principles is that majority principle is based on these principles is that majority principle is based on

morphology changes, in the meantime, the most morphology changes, in the meantime, the most

natural development principle is based on the fact natural development principle is based on the fact

that certain types of sound-changes are common.that certain types of sound-changes are common.

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The language changesThe language changes► The historical development of English is usually The historical development of English is usually divided into 3 major periods: Old English (7th-11th divided into 3 major periods: Old English (7th-11th century), Middle English (1100-1500) and Modern century), Middle English (1100-1500) and Modern English (1500-to the present).English (1500-to the present).• The Old English:The Old English: probably began with Germanic probably began with Germanic language, spoken by a group of tribes from northern language, spoken by a group of tribes from northern Europe. The tribes were the Angles, the Saxons and Europe. The tribes were the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes. These tribes were called “Anglo-Saxons”, the Jutes. These tribes were called “Anglo-Saxons”, because of the name of the first two tribes. To because of the name of the first two tribes. To describe these people, and from the Angles, that we describe these people, and from the Angles, that we get the word for their language, Englisc, and for get the word for their language, Englisc, and for

their their new home, Engla-land.new home, Engla-land.

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• From the Englisc, we have many of the most basicFrom the Englisc, we have many of the most basic

terms in English: terms in English: mannmann (man), (man), wwīīff (woman), (woman), cildcild

(child), (child), hhūūss (house), (house), metemete (food), (food), etanetan (eat), (eat), drincandrincan

(drink) and (drink) and feohtanfeohtan (fight). (fight).• These settlers were pagan, however from the 6thThese settlers were pagan, however from the 6th

to the 8th century, the Anglo-Saxons were convertedto the 8th century, the Anglo-Saxons were converted

to Christianity where a number of terms from the to Christianity where a number of terms from the

language of religion, Latin, came into English at that language of religion, Latin, came into English at that

time: angel, bishop, candle, church, martyr, priest time: angel, bishop, candle, church, martyr, priest

and school.and school.

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• From the 8th to the 10th century, another group From the 8th to the 10th century, another group

arrived in the coastal regions of Britain, they were arrived in the coastal regions of Britain, they were

““The Vikings”, and from their language, Old Norse, The Vikings”, and from their language, Old Norse,

we derived the forms which gave us a number of we derived the forms which gave us a number of

common terms such as: common terms such as: givegive, , lawlaw, , skinskin, , skysky, , taketake

and and theythey..• The Middle English:The Middle English: there is no doubt that the there is no doubt that the

event that marks the end of the Old English and the event that marks the end of the Old English and the

beginning of the Middle English is the invasion of beginning of the Middle English is the invasion of the the

Normans in England under William the conqueror in Normans in England under William the conqueror in

1066.1066.

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• The Normans were French speakers and asThe Normans were French speakers and as

invaders, they became the ruling class, asinvaders, they became the ruling class, as

consequence of this, for the following 200 consequence of this, for the following 200 years, theyears, the

French language became the dominant French language became the dominant language oflanguage of

the nobility, the government and the law. the nobility, the government and the law. SomeSome

moderns terms were added during this period: moderns terms were added during this period: armyarmy, ,

courtcourt, , defensedefense, , faithfaith, , prisonprison and and taxtax..

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• The most noticeable difference in this period, was The most noticeable difference in this period, was

the division of the society and the language used the division of the society and the language used by by

each one, this means, as the dominant class were each one, this means, as the dominant class were

the Normans, called upper class, they used French the Normans, called upper class, they used French

language, and they talked about: mutton, beef, and language, and they talked about: mutton, beef, and

pork, while the lower class, the peasants, worked pork, while the lower class, the peasants, worked on on

the land and reared: sheep, cows and swine (words the land and reared: sheep, cows and swine (words

from Old English).from Old English).

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► One of the most obvious differences One of the most obvious differences

between Modern English and the English spoken inbetween Modern English and the English spoken in

earlier periods is in the quality of the vowel sound.earlier periods is in the quality of the vowel sound.

In some words, their general form has remained In some words, their general form has remained thethe

same, but their vowel sound have changedsame, but their vowel sound have changed

considerably.considerably.

For example:For example:

OldOld EnglishEnglish ModernModern EnglishEnglish

hu:s haws (house)hu:s haws (house)

wi:f wayf (wife)wi:f wayf (wife)

spo:n spu:n (spoon)spo:n spu:n (spoon)

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Not always a sound changed, some soundsNot always a sound changed, some soundssimply disappeared. One notable example is a simply disappeared. One notable example is a voiceless velar fricative /x/ which was used in voiceless velar fricative /x/ which was used in Old English pronunciation of Old English pronunciation of “nicht”,“nicht”, as [nixt], as [nixt], but is absent in the present-day form but is absent in the present-day form “night”“night” as as [nayt].[nayt].• There is a phonetic phenomena calledThere is a phonetic phenomena called““metathesis”, that involves a reversal in metathesis”, that involves a reversal in

position position of 2 adjoining sounds.of 2 adjoining sounds.For example:For example: acsian ask bridd birdacsian ask bridd bird frist first hros horsefrist first hros horse

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This phenomena may actually occur betweenThis phenomena may actually occur between

non-adjoining sounds.non-adjoining sounds.

For example:For example:

LatinLatin SpanishSpanish

Parabola Palabra (word)Parabola Palabra (word)

Periculum Peligro (danger)Periculum Peligro (danger)

Miraculum Milagro (miracle)Miraculum Milagro (miracle)

In the first word of the example above, the In the first word of the example above, the SpanishSpanish

form “palabra” was created from the Latin form “palabra” was created from the Latin

““parabola”, via the reversal of th [l] and [r] parabola”, via the reversal of th [l] and [r] sounds. sounds.

And that pattern is repeated in the other 2 forms.And that pattern is repeated in the other 2 forms.

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• There is another phenomena called “epenthesis”,There is another phenomena called “epenthesis”,

that involves the addition of a sound to the middle ofthat involves the addition of a sound to the middle of

a word.a word.

For example:For example:

aemptig empty spinel spindleaemptig empty spinel spindle

timr timbertimr timber• But, there is a last type of phenomena calledBut, there is a last type of phenomena called

““prothesis” that involves the addition of a sound to prothesis” that involves the addition of a sound to

the beginning of a word. It is very common in the the beginning of a word. It is very common in the

change of pronunciation of some forms from Latin to change of pronunciation of some forms from Latin to

Spanish.Spanish.

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For example:For example:

LatinLatin SpanishSpanish

Schola Escuela (school)Schola Escuela (school)

Spiritus Espíritu (spirit)Spiritus Espíritu (spirit)

Native speaker of Spanish who are learning Native speaker of Spanish who are learning EnglishEnglish

as a second language will often add a vowel as a second language will often add a vowel soundsound

to the beginning of some English words.to the beginning of some English words.

For example:For example:

strange estrangestrange estrange

story estorystory estory

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► Some noticeable differences between the structureSome noticeable differences between the structure

of sentences in Old and Modern English involve word of sentences in Old and Modern English involve word

order, the changes of the structure of sentences are order, the changes of the structure of sentences are

called “called “Syntactic changesSyntactic changes”.”.

In Old English texts. We find the In Old English texts. We find the subject-verbsubject-verb

object, object, the most common structure of sentences in the most common structure of sentences in

Modern English. However we can also find a number Modern English. However we can also find a number

of different orders which are no longer possible.of different orders which are no longer possible.

For example:For example: • the subject can follow the verb: fthe subject can follow the verb: fēērde he (he rde he (he

traveled).traveled).

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• The object can be placed at the before the verb: The object can be placed at the before the verb: hhēē hine geseah (he saw him).hine geseah (he saw him).

• The object can be placed at the beginning of the The object can be placed at the beginning of the sentence: him man ne sealde (no man gave sentence: him man ne sealde (no man gave [any] to him).[any] to him).

As we can see in the last example, the use of theAs we can see in the last example, the use of thenegative form also differs from Modern English. A negative form also differs from Modern English. A ““double-negative” construction was also possible, double-negative” construction was also possible,

as as in the following example, using “in the following example, using “notnot” and “” and “nevernever”.”.For example:For example:

And ne sealdest And ne sealdest þū þū m mēē næfre næfre āān ticcenn ticcen(and) (not) (gave) (you) (me) (never) (a) (kid)(and) (not) (gave) (you) (me) (never) (a) (kid) “ “and you never gave me a kid”and you never gave me a kid”

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Perhaps the most sweeping change in the form ofPerhaps the most sweeping change in the form ofEnglish sentences was the loss of a large number of English sentences was the loss of a large number of inflectional affixes from many parts of speech.inflectional affixes from many parts of speech.For example:For example: the verb form “the verb form “sealdesealde” (he gave) and” (he gave) and““sealdestsealdest” (you gave) are differentiated by ” (you gave) are differentiated by inflectional suffixes which are no longer found in inflectional suffixes which are no longer found in Modern English.Modern English.

Nouns, adjectives, articles and pronouns all tookNouns, adjectives, articles and pronouns all tookdifferent inflectional forms according to theirdifferent inflectional forms according to theirgrammatical function in the sentence.grammatical function in the sentence.

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► The most obvious way in which ModernThe most obvious way in which Modern

English differs lexically from Old English is in English differs lexically from Old English is in

the number of borrowed words, particularly the number of borrowed words, particularly

words of Latin and Greek.words of Latin and Greek.

A common Old English term for “A common Old English term for “manman” was ” was ““were”.were”.

This is no longer in general use, but within the This is no longer in general use, but within the

domain of horror films, it has survived in the domain of horror films, it has survived in the

compound form, compound form, werewolfwerewolf..

It exists 2 processes of broadening and It exists 2 processes of broadening and narrowing ofnarrowing of

Meaning.Meaning.

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For example:For example:• Broadening: the change from Broadening: the change from holy dayholy day as a as a

religious feast to the general break from workreligious feast to the general break from work

called a called a holydayholyday. . • Narrowing: is the reverse process. Example: Narrowing: is the reverse process. Example:

metemete, once used for nay kind of food, which , once used for nay kind of food, which has in its form, has in its form, meatmeat, become restricted to , become restricted to only some specific types. A different kind of only some specific types. A different kind of narrowing can lead to a negative meaning narrowing can lead to a negative meaning for words that previously were simply for words that previously were simply “ordinary” (= vulgar) or “worth nothing” (= “ordinary” (= vulgar) or “worth nothing” (= naughty).naughty).

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► None of the changes described here happenedNone of the changes described here happened

overnight. They were gradual and probably difficultovernight. They were gradual and probably difficult

to discern while they were in progress.to discern while they were in progress.

The most pervasive source of change in languageThe most pervasive source of change in language

seems to be in the continual process of cultural seems to be in the continual process of cultural

transmission. Each new generation has to find a way transmission. Each new generation has to find a way

of using the language of the previous generation.of using the language of the previous generation.

Given this tenuous transmission process, it shouldGiven this tenuous transmission process, it should

be expected that languages will not remain stable,be expected that languages will not remain stable,

but that change and variation are inevitable.but that change and variation are inevitable.

Page 25: Language History and Changes

The variations mentioned are:The variations mentioned are:• Language viewed diachronically: the Language viewed diachronically: the

historical perspective of change through historical perspective of change through time.time.

• Language viewed synchronically: Language viewed synchronically: differences within one language in different differences within one language in different places and among different groups at the places and among different groups at the same time.same time.