Language and CultureProf. R. HickeySS 2006

Sociolinguistics, Language and Culture

Nadine Bieniek (Hauptstudium LN)Alina Biesenbaum (Grundstudium LN)Maike Ebert (Grundstudium TN)Katharina Kraatz (Grundstudium TN)Lukas Rott (Hauptstudium LN)Magdalena Szuber (ECTS Punkte)Anna Zagermann (Grundstudium TN)Jessica Zeltner (Hauptstudium LN)

Content1. Standard Languages and Linguistic Engineering

2. Building National Identities

3. Language and Social Position: Social Inequality

4. Social Deixis

5. Social Markers

6. Non-verbal communication

7. Expressive movements between cultures

8. Human Rituals

1. Standard Languages and Linguistic Engineering

The Concept of the Nation-State and the National Language

Magdalena Szuber

The notion of a ‘nation –state’

A result of economic and political developments in the 19th century, particularly the French and industrial revolutions, and from these via education of elites diffused throughout the world.

The notion of a ‘nation –state’Shift of political communities from Gemeinschaft “community”

signifying relationships based on likeness, shared properties of kinship and descent or locality, e.g. home, farm, village

to Gesellschaft “association”

people of different backgrounds engaging in contracts of association and exchange, e.g. larger cities or industrial units as is clearly modern

nation-state. (Toennis, 1955)

In this sense the nation-state is an “imagined community”, basis of which (or a powerful force for its forming) is a

shared, mostly standard, national language.

The notion of a ‘nation –state’

Forces producing and molding standard national languages are various, but revolve mainly around politics and

economy.

Standard national language is likely to reflect the speech of nation’s elite.

The Development of Standard English

The Development of Standard English

The idea of a standard English emerged in the London area, center of trade and commerce, around the 14th century; English spoken in 4 main dialect groupings:

1) Northern, above the Humber River2) Midland, north of the Thames and Avon rivers, south of

Humber3) Southern, south of the Avon and Thames rivers, west

of London4) Kentish, south of the Thames River, mainly east of

London

The Development of Standard English

The Dialect of English spoken in London has always been gradually seen as prestigious throughout the whole

country:

14th century - the Southern dialect 15th century - the East Midland dialect (The Black Death, William

Caxton) 16th century - the Northern dialect (wool trade & manufacture) 16th/17th century literacy solidifies position of the prestigious London

dialect, late 18th century - the rise of a nation-state ideology mounts full-

scale attack on the minority languages of the British Isles

The Development of Standard English

Late 18th century - the rise of a nation-state ideology mounts full-scale attack on the minority languages of the

British Isles

Unified British nation and people required acceptance of all of a standard British language

Spelling standardized, stigmatizing certain variant forms (development of prescriptive grammars and dictionaries)

The end result – Standard English we know today

Language standardization Country’s economic and political power centralized

‘Standard’ likely to be based on speech of the higher social strata, ‘the elite’

Literate forms and cultural activities

Dutch as a Standard Language

Two different stories - Belgium and the Netherlands

Standard Dutch of Belgium and the Netherlands

In Belgium Dutch is one of the two official languages. Originally modern Belgium and the Netherlands spoke regional dialects of Dutch.

17th century revolt against Habsburg rule produce a new standard of the independent northern provinces (The Netherlands), based on the language of Amsterdam. Amsterdam – cultural and scientific center

The developments in Belgium differ.

Standard Dutch of Belgium and the Netherlands

Habsburg hegemony in Belgium continued until the 19th century, when the Kingdom of Belgium emerged.

French was than an prestigious language of courts from Paris to Moscow, also bulk of elite in Belgium.

Farmers and laboring classes continued to speak regional Dutch dialects.

Dutch received an official status in Belgium only in 1938. Belgian Dutch has never been officially recognized.

Real economic power lies in the hands of French speakers (Brussels and the European Union).

Standard Languages in Norway

Standard Languages in Norway Story reflects the Romantic idea that nation’s unique

identity and distinctive national language are closely intertwined.

From 15th century until 1814, Norway was ruled by Denmark;

official language – Danish. When Norway regained its independence in 1814, there was no Standard Norwegian.

Two Standard languages emerge.

Standard Languages in Norway

Bokmal, the ‘book language’,

developed on the basis of speech of the urban elite, but influenced by the language of the enemy – Danish.

Nynorsk, the new Norwegian

A school teacher Ivar Aasen introduces new standard, based on the rural western Norwegian dialects, which have had least Danish influence.

Conclusion

Language Standardization is primarily a political and economic process

Significant role of ideologies of statehood and nationalism

2. Building National Identities

Alina Biesenbaum

Building National Identities

The concepts of nation and state:

State: any region governed under a central administration with its own legal and political institutions, and separated by the administration from surrounding regions.

Nation: community of people who see themselves as an ethnic and cultural unit, and contrast with other communities of people surrounding them.

Asia and Africa are multiethnic and multilingual

problems of developing a standard language

constructing a standard language is seen as an intrinsic part of building a modern nation-state

„one nation, one people, one language“

Asia and Africa citizens are often divided by tribe, race, region, custom,

religion and language

therefore struggles may arise ( conflict between Bantu and Nilotic tribes in 1970s and 1980s)

conflicts can lead to a collapse of the nation-state

Asia and Africa according to Geertz conflicts are a result of integrative

failure

important to bind people together into a state

centralization of a national media, national school curricula, national governmental bureaucracy

Asia and Africa one of the major conflicts today is the struggle of

communities (nations) to become states (Kurds)

ex colonies: they are states struggling to be nations

Standard language and Elite Hegemony

common identity of citizens = same national language

official languages are necessary for the functioning of the state and its central institutions

many ex-colonies have chosen English or French to be their national language

2 main reasons for this situation

1. countries are highly multilingual

2. prior to independence, the political and economic elite were educated in the colonial languages

good and active control of these languages is essential to gaining access to power and prestige

Forging a Standard language- the case of Indonesian

not all ex-colonies have adopted French or English

Indonesia and Tanzania have raised regional languages to the status of official national languages

Indonesia: multiethnic, multilingual (over 300 languages)

The Malay language Malay: language of trade, also used by the Dutch

in 1928 Malay was claimed as official national language

The Malay language colloquial:

aku tanam sayur di kabunI plant vegetables in garden

standard: saya men-(t) anam-i kebun dengun I plant garden withsayurvegetables

prefix men- indicates active voice suffix –i indicates that direct object is a location

The Malay language the colloquial varieties employ word order to signal

grammatical functions and are morphologically unelaborated

Standard Indonesian makes use of derivational morphology

Modernization in Language Standardization

standard Indonesian is under pressure to „modernize“

lack of words for concepts and practices connected with the modern world of technology, bureaucracy, economy

Modernization in Language Standardization

In coining new words for modern concepts, language planners look

1.for sources in Indonesian languages,

2. Sanskrit,

3. Indic languages,

4. European languages (English)

Modernization in Language Standardization

antropologi – anthropology kwalitet - quality rasionalisasi – rationalization politik - politics demokrasi - democracy

In the field of politics, economies, technology the words are borrowed from the English language

3. Language and Social Position: Social Inequality

Jessica Zeltner

Contents: Language and Social Position

1. Social Inequality: Class, Power, and Prestige

2. Social Roles

3. Other Types of Social Structure

4. Conclusion

Social Inequality: Class, Power, and Prestige

Sociolinguistics:

“deals with the inter-relationships between language and society. It has strong connections […] to sociology, through the crucial role that language plays in the organization of social groups and institutions.” (Yule 1996: 239)

Social Inequality: Class, Power, and Prestige

Social Stratification:

“the arrangement of any social group or society into a hierarchy of positions that are unequal with regard to power, property, social evaluation […]” (Tumin 1967: 12)

Power:

The ability to realize one’s wants and interests even against resistance (according to Max Weber 1972)

Social Inequality: Class, Power, and Prestige

Class:- defined by occupation and educational level- people behave in ways appropriate to their

class position

Class System: positions people so that access to “scarce goods” is either given or denied

Social Inequality: Class, Power, and Prestige

Conflicts of interests: higher vs. lower class

Social Classes: “aggregates of people who have similar overall positions in the economic system” (Foley 1997: 308)

indicators: occupation, educational level

Social Inequality: Class, Power, and Prestige

Status:

“the hierarchical ranking of individuals along a dimension of social prestige, which leads to differentials in power and access to scarce goods” (according to Weber)

Social Inequality: Class, Power, and Prestige

Criteria of Status: inferior / superior Status entitlements are not fixed determined by occupation and educational

background deference / avoidance hierarchy

Social Roles

Criteria of Roles:

particular attitudes and practices

Influenced by class position and education

different contexts - different behavior

Social Roles

Criteria of Roles:

actors take on roles

different roles – differing status entitlements

asymmetrical power

Social Roles

Criteria of Roles:

expectations

asymmetry of power - strictness of roles

specific code of behavior: “styles of language”

highly pervasive roles

Social Roles

Society:

“network of fields of conventionalized interactive relationships of differential power, reward, and prestige” (Foley 1997: 311)

Other Types of Societies

Caste Society:

indicator: birth no alteration multidimensional hierarchical

Other Types of Societies

Age Set Society:

biological features hierarchy structured by age: age grades political power: the eldest younger must defer to older alteration by aging

Conclusion

1. Societies are structured in various ways

2. Most common way in Western Societies: class system

3. Social roles are linked to concept of class and status

4. Languages have various ways to indicate social class, status and roles

4. Social Deixis

Maike Ebert

Contents: Social Deixis

1. T/V Phenomenon

2. Example Japanese

3. Example Javanese

4. Conclusion

T/V Phenomenon

• described by Brown and Gilman

• best known type of social deixis

• refers to the phenomenon that in almost every European language but also elsewhere second-person singular pronouns are used

T/V Phenomenon

• T from Latin tu, V from Latin vos

• T form informal

• V form formal

• Two dimensions how to use the forms:

1. Power

2. Solidarity

T/V Phenomenon

Dimension of Power:- One has power over another to degree to which one

can control or influence the behaviour of another- Asymmetrical- V form- Inferior uses V form, Superior T form- Expl. Teacher – Pupil

Employer – Employee

T/V Phenomenon

Dimension of Solidarity:- No asymmetry of power - Related to social roles- Two types: 1. equal and solidary T form

2. equal and not solidary V form

Japanese

- Special class of words or grammatical morphemes, whose sole function is to indicate social deixis among the interlocutors or the referent of some participant in the utterance.

- These grammatical units are called honorifics

Japanese

Boku kare ni au yo

I he meet

DAT

I’ll meet him

T form

Japanese

Watakushi kare ni aimas u

I he meet

DAT

I’ll meet him

V form I changes in V form (boku watakushi) Mas is added (au aimas)

Japanese

Referent honorifics:-Deference is accorded by the speaker to the referent of a

nominal participant in her utterance

1. Neutral, non-deferential form, used to a solidary or inferior addressee

Sakai drew a map for Suzuki

Japanese

2. Both are equal to the speaker Mr Sakai drew a map for Mr Suzuki

3. Speaker is considerably lower in status than Sakai, special subject honorific forms must be used to indicate the relative high status entitlement

Mr Sakai came to draw a map for Mr Suzuki

4. Significant status differential between Sakai and Suzuki

Mr Sakai did the drawing of a map for Mr Suzuki

Javanese

- Most complex systems of honorifics, humbling, expressions and polite speech form indicating deference to the addressee

- Two speech levels which exemplify lexical items for most items of basic vocabulary

1. Ngoko T form

2. Krama V form

Javanese

Ngoko: apa kowé njupuk sega semono

Krama: menapa panjenengan mendhet sekul semanten

Will you take that much rice?

Javanese

Madya:

- Middle language

- Small vocabulary

- Disliked by nobility

- Used by speakers that can’t speak krama

- Krama-speakers mainly use it as an outgroup code

Javanese

Napa sempéyan mendhet sekul semonten

njupuk sega

Will you take that much rice? Mixed form of both languages

Conclusion- T/V Phenomenon:1. Use of second-person singular pronouns2. Common in almost every European language3. Dependent on dimension of

solidarity and power

- Honorifics:Special class of words or grammatical morphemes, whose sole function is to indicate social deixis among the interlocutors or the referent of some participant in the utterance Japanese

Conclusion

- Different language are used to show different speech level Javanese

5. Social Markers

Lukas Rott

Contents

1. Sociolinguistic Variables

2. Code Switching

3. Social Markers and Ethnicity

Sociolinguistic Variables Definition:

- indexical linguistic feature present in most, if not all, languages

Sociolinguistic Variables- A linguistic feature that shows statistically significant

variation along the lines of social variables (class, age, sex…)

- Most commonly involves phonological variation, but can involve any linguistic feature.

Example Labov investigated differences in the phonetic

realization of the phoneme /r/ in postvocalic position among speakers of New York City English:- two different realizations: a) retroflection of the vowel = /r/ -ed varietyb) phoneme “r” is absent = /r/ -less variety

After World War II the first realization became the standard pronunciation

Example Labov’s research in three different New York City

department stores revealed that higher-class speakers tend to pronounce the postvocalic /r/

lower- and working-class New Yorkers often leave out the /r/ in postvocalic position

Code Switching

Code Switching is the shifting from one language or variety of language to another in the course of verbal interaction.

Example Almost all adults in Yimas village (Papua New Guinea)

are bilingual. They speak:

a) Tok Pisin: The major lingua franca of Papua New Guinea→ is used for political affairs, means modernity, lacks intimacy, can show superiority

b) Yimas vernacular: carries social connotations of traditional cultural patterns, intimate relations and local conditions→ shows solidarity, belonging

Diglossia

Diglossia is a language situation in which there is, in addition to the primary dialect of the language, a very

divergent and extremely codified variety, which is learned in formal education and is only used for written and formal spoken purposes. It is basically the result of

an early codification of a language.

Example In Cairo there are two different varieties of the Arabic

language:

- Classical Arabic of the Koran → prestigious variety, predominantly a written language

- Colloquial Arabic → predominantly an oral language, comprises several mutually unintelligible languages

Social Markers and Ethnicity There is a strong relation between ethnicity/race and

language in many societies.

Code switching is very popular among the different ethnic groups in hybrid countries

→ use of a shared local ethnic language is a claim to solidarity

Example Vernacular Black English is very different from Standard

American English:

- pronunciation is different in many cases (postvocalic /r/)

- grammatical differences ( 3rd pers. sg. present)

- different speech genres and styles of speaking

Conclusion Languages have social markers: forms that differ according

to the social category one belongs to.  Good examples of social markers are sociolinguistic

variables, which is e.g. the difference in pronunciation of postvocalic /r/ among New Yorkers of different social classes.

  Other social markers are code switching and disglossia in

which languages or varieties of languages are shifted to index categories of status or solidarity

  People of different ethnicities and races tend to talk differently

because they want to label social identity.

6. Non-verbal communication

Katharina Kraatz

Main non-verbal signals

Bodily contact: like: hitting, pushing, stroking involves a variety of areas of the body extend depends on culture

Proximity: how close people sit or stand reflects relation between people

Main non-verbal signals Orientation:

angle at which people sit or stand to each other varies with the nature of the situation:

side-by-side position (cooperative situations/close friends)

head-on position (confronting/bargaining)

Appearance:1. clothes, hair, skin under voluntary control

2. physique and bodily condition only partly under control- purpose of manipulating appearance is self-presentation- conveys information about personality and mood

Main non-verbal signals Posture:

way of lying, standing, sitting are culturally defined conventions about posture have to be adopted in

certain situations (e.g. church) it can be a signal for status (upright posture), varies

with emotional state (tense- relax) is less well controlled than facial expression

Main non-verbal signals Head- nods:

connection with speech usually a reinforcer (e.g. permission to speak)

Facial expression: cultural universal and independent of learning (e.g.

smiling) some aspects are hard to control (e.g. expansion of

the pupils) used in close combination with speech

Main non-verbal signals Gestures:

movements of the hands more expressive than movements of head or body close connection with speech (e.g. illustrates) can even replace speech: gesture languages

Looking: people look about twice as much while listening as while

speaking looking sends a signal of interest amount of looking seems to be a signal for intimacy used to obtain information: feed-back while talking, extra

information while listening

Non- verbal aspects of speech paralinguistic signals: emotions expressed by tone of

voice; group membership expressed by accent, personality characteristics expressed by voice quality, speech errors, etc.;

not closely linked with language

Functions of non-verbal communication

to communicate attitudes and emotions, to manage the immediate social situation

cultural variations in the signals used and situational rules governing their use

to support and complement verbal communication

coordinated with speech in a complex way

developed to replace verbal language

Sources of variations in non-verbal communication

there are different rules of behaviour in different situations

leads to different patterns of non-verbal communication

different forms of groups: family: intimacy, dependence, aggressions, affections

more bodily contact; less formality and politeness work-groups: bodily contact helping; gesture language

where noise or distance prevents speech; facial expressions work performance

friendship- groups: more self-presentation and attention to appearance; behaviour is more polite

7. Expressive movements between cultures

Nadine Bieniek

Similarities Smiling

Crying

Laughing

Similarities Greeting:

smiling

nodding

raising eyebrows for 1/6th second (if friendly)

signals readiness for contact

Similarities

Eyebrowflash:

greeting

flirting

approving

thanking

emphasizing a statement

seeking information

Similarities Coyness / embarassment / flirting:

hiding the face/mouth behind one hand

especially young children and flirting girls

Differences Yes – No:

Central European:

„yes“ nodding the head

„no“ shaking the head

Differences

Ceylonese:

factual question („Do you drink coffee?“)

„yes“ nodding the head

agreement to do something („Will you join me for a cup of coffee?“)

„yes“ swaying the head in slow sideway movements

„no“ shaking the head

Differences

Greece:

„yes“ nodding the head

„no“ jerking the head back, thus lifting the face

Differences Darwin:

suggested that shaking the head originated from food-refusal

when a baby is satiated it refuses the breast by turning its head away

even deaf- and blind-born children refuse food in the same pattern

8. Human Rituals

Anna Zagermann

Human Rituals

Definition:

situation in which an individual actor puts on a performance

performance consists of symbolic actions

showing mutual statuses in relation to other persons/parties

Human Rituals cultural traditions

characteristics of a certain group

take place within a cultural context

not an innate process

if you want to be part of a society you

have to learn the rituals

Why Rituals? rituals in human‘s and animal‘s life

strategy to survive

1) individual wants that the society of which

it is part continues

2) to define its own group

Examples

Prayer: Hinduism

Examples

Salutations

Problem of Rituals problem of interpretation

context of action Private Arena Public Arena

each code used in a ritual is unique

Conclusion many kinds of non-verbal signals are culturally

dependent

non-verbal communication is used to communicate attitudes, to complement speech and to replace speech

non-verbal communication differs with the groups you communicate in and the rules which govern communication

References• Foley, William 1997: Anthropological Linguistics. An

Introduction. Oxford:Blackwell• Tumin, Melvin M. 1967: Social Stratification. The Forms and

Functions of Inequality. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, Inc.• Weber, Max 1972: Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft – Grundrisse

der verstehenden Soziologie: Tübingen • Yule, George 1996: The Study of Language. Cambridge: CUP• Hinde, R.A. 1972: Non-Verbal Communication.Cambridge

University Press.Cambridge• http://www.harekrsna.com/practice/sadhana/morning/mangala

-arati/mangala-arati.htm• http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gru%C3%9F

Thank you for your attention!