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Landscape pattern and sustainability of a 1300-year-old agricultural landscape in subtropical mountainareas, Southwestern ChinaYu Cao a , Yuhuan Wu b , Yangjian Zhang c & Jie Tian da Department of Land Management, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Chinab College of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University,Hangzhou, Chinac Key Laboratory of Ecosystem Network Observation and Modeling, Institute ofGeographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences,Beijing, Chinad Department of International Development, Community, and Environment, ClarkUniversity, Worcester, MA, USAVersion of record first published: 27 Mar 2013.

To cite this article: Yu Cao , Yuhuan Wu , Yangjian Zhang & Jie Tian (2013): Landscape pattern and sustainability ofa 1300-year-old agricultural landscape in subtropical mountain areas, Southwestern China, International Journal ofSustainable Development & World Ecology, DOI:10.1080/13504509.2013.773266

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International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology, 2013http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13504509.2013.773266

Landscape pattern and sustainability of a 1300-year-old agricultural landscape in subtropicalmountain areas, Southwestern China

Yu Caoa, Yuhuan Wub, Yangjian Zhangc* and Jie Tiand

aDepartment of Land Management, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China; bCollege of Biological and Environmental Sciences,Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China; cKey Laboratory of Ecosystem Network Observation and Modeling, Institute ofGeographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China; dDepartment of InternationalDevelopment, Community, and Environment, Clark University, Worcester, MA, USA

(Received 2 November 2012; final version received 31 January 2013)

The Hani terrace landscape located in the mountainous areas of Southwestern China has a history of 1300 years and is aclassic example of human–environment harmony. This study investigates the spatial distribution and pattern characteristicsof land cover in the landscape using geographical information system and remote-sensing techniques. With the syntheticconsideration of both physical and cultural factors, the ecological stability of the landscape was discussed. The resultsshowed that ‘terrace’ and ‘forest’ are dominant in the landscape accounting for 43.80% and 44.90% of the total area,respectively. A clear vertical land-cover distribution of ‘higher forest–middle village–lower terrace–lowest river’ can befound on steep slopes. The local climate and its variation with elevation are essential for the stable local water cycle, andthe spatial layout of the landscape elements allows for effective material and energy flow within the landscape. Moreover,the obligatory forest and water resource conservation due to the unique history and culture of Hani adds a social layer ofprotection. The sustainable development of the Hani landscape is expected to provide valuable insights for the present landand environmental management.

Keywords: landscape pattern; landscape stability; Hani terrace; traditional ethnical culture; human–nature interaction;geographical information system; China

Introduction

A landscape is shaped by the interactions between nat-ural processes and human activities (Forman & Gordon1986; Farina 1998; Kadlecova et al. 2012). The land-scape ecology in a geographic area is co-determined by theregional geomorphological, hydrological, biological, envi-ronmental and human factors. Due to industrialization andurbanization, human activities have become an increas-ingly dominant force in shaping landscapes (Goudie &Viles 1997; Naveh 1998; Yi et al. 2008; Wu et al.2009). The changing spatial pattern, structure and eco-logical diversity of many terrestrial ecosystems aroundthe world are driven by the natural land conversion intourban use (Krummel et al. 1987; Vitousek et al. 1997;Crutzen 2002; Evan et al. 2003). As a result, a consider-able number of natural landscapes are experiencing severedegradation or destruction caused by exceedingly intensesocio-economic activities (Tolba et al. 1992; Rapport et al.1995; Rapport & Whitford 1999; Kristjanson & Hobbs2001). It has been suggested that effective landscape man-agement may create new patterns and functions for naturallandscapes to sustain while adapting to favourable condi-tions for humans (Van Der Vlist 1998; Nassauer & Opdam2008; Yan et al. 2008). The key idea is to strategicallyregulate the material and energy flows in the landscapeecosystem, although the implementation of the idea is

*Corresponding author. Email: zhangyangjian@yahoo.com

rather challenging and requires a deep understanding abouteach particular region of interest. Integrating human activ-ities and perceptions, including land use, value systems,traditional cultures, religious faith and socio-economicactivities, into landscape management is one of the pri-mary challenges in modern landscape ecology (Tress et al.2005; Turner 2005; Wiens & Moss 2005; Wu & Hobbs2006; Herrmanna & Torri 2009; Wu 2011; Xie et al.2012).

As a typical synthesis of nature and culture, agri-cultural landscapes are mosaics of physical and human-managed patches that vary in size, shape and arrangement(Forman & Godron 1986; Kadlecova et al. 2012). Physicalfactors such as soil type, climatic and hydrological charac-teristics are fundamental to the formation of an agriculturallandscape. At the same time, cultural factors such ashuman consciousness, social custom, life style and reli-gious practice play a vital role in shaping agriculturallandscapes. Due to their extraordinary importance to thesociety in a relatively long period of human civilizationhistory, agricultural landscapes have been reflecting eco-nomic, spiritual, ethical and aesthetic values though theirhistory (Farina 1998; Yu 2005; Gobster et al. 2007). Hence,studying the formation and evolution of agricultural land-scapes is of great value to enhance our understanding ofthe human–environment interaction.

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The Hani terrace is mainly located in the mountainousareas of the Yunnan Province, China. As a classic exampleof sustainable development, the Hani terrace has been cre-ated and well managed by the local Hani ethic minoritypeople for over 1300 years (Li 2011). The Hani popula-tion is nearly 1.5 million today. According to historicalrecords, the Hani ethic group evolved from the ancient Diand Qiang Tribes that used to be nomadic tribes living onthe Qinghai–Tibet Plateau. Due to war crisis, one branchof Di and Qiang people had to move southward to the areasof southwestern Sichuan Province and northern YunnanProvince in approximately the third century B.C. They trav-elled to the Erhai Lake, Dali and then moved eastward toKunming, Yunnan. During the Sui-Tang Dynasty, the Haniancestors eventually settled and inhabited in the subtropicalmountainous areas of southern Yunnan (Yunnan MinoritiesAncient Books Publishing Office 1986; Shi 1999; Wang2003; Mao & Li 2004), which was wild and desolate.By that time, they had already developed and mastered afull set of agricultural skills and gained extensive expe-riences, especially on paddy field cultivating (Lei 2002;Mao & Li 2004). The Hani people initially reclaimed thedesolate mountains in a way of slash-and-burn farming(Xu et al. 2009). Forests on less steep and sunny slopeswere slashed and burned, converting the inferior lands intosuperior ones. Dry crops were first planted and graduallyreplaced by terraces of paddy field through ditching andutilizing spring and stream water from the forest for irriga-tion (Li 2000; Wang 2003; Lu 2004). By the end of TangDynasty, a significant area of the region had been coveredby terraces according to the records of the Manshu (a bookwritten by Fan Zhuo, Tang Dynasty) and the Hani peo-ple’s skills for rice cultivation had also been considerablydeveloped. During the later Song and Ming Dynasties, theHani terraces experienced a significant development andfurther expansion according to the records in the NongZheng Quan Shu (a book written by Xu Guangqi, themost renowned scientist/agronomist in the Ming Dynasty).Since the Ming and Qing Dynasties, there have been a greatdeal of detailed historical logs and records about the Haniterraces (Shi 1999; Lei 2002; Mao & Li 2004).

During the past thousand years’ development and cul-tivation, the Hani terrace has created a unique landscapeecosystem (from top to bottom: forest–village–terrace–river) in terms of its spatial layout and material/energyflow cycle. Compared with other agricultural landscapesaround the world, it seems to be almost impossible tocultivate land or grow crops in such rugged and com-plex geographic environments. The Hani terrace is widelyrecognized as a wonder of agricultural civilization andhas been selected as a candidate for World Natural andCultural Heritage site in 2013. It has therefore become aresearch hot spot understanding the mechanism behind thesustainable development of the Hani landscape. A goodamount of research has been done to study the verticalcharacteristics of the paddy ecosystem (Yao & Cui 2006),heavy metal in the paddy soils (Ren et al. 2008) and thevertical variation of soil nutrients (Wen et al. 2009). Thisstudy investigates the spatial pattern of the Hani landscape

by synthetically using the geographical information system(GIS) and remote-sensing technologies. The local climate,forest conservation due to the Hani’s traditional value andwater resource management are recognized as the majorreasons for the stability of the landscape, and their relation-ships are analysed and summarized. The research findingsare expected to provide some insights for improving thelandscape management in our increasingly industrializedand urbanized society.

Study area and methods

Study area

The Hani terrace is geographically located in the YuanyangCounty, a subtropical area in Yunnan, China (102◦ 27′ E–103◦ 13′ E and 22◦ 49′ N–23◦ 19′ N, Figure 1). The countycovers around 2215 km2 and has a total population of387,000 in 2007 with six ethic groups of Hani, Yi, Dai,Miao, Yao, Zhuang and Han.

Yuanyang is highly mountainous with an elevationranging from 144 to 2940 m. Most areas are rathersteep and precipitous. The study area is dominated bya subtropical monsoon climate with a mean annual tem-perature of 16.5◦C and a mean annual precipitation of1400 mm. Owing to the existence of the significant moun-tains, the local climate varies greatly with elevation as well.There are two major river systems (Yuanjiang river andTengtiaojiang river) with a total of 29 branches and an esti-mated water volume of 26.9 × 108 m3 across the YuanyangCounty. The soil and the vegetation are of rich diversity andboth exhibit a vertical zonality corresponding to the moun-tain climate (Yuanyang County Annals Editorial Board1990).

Data description

The land-use map used in this study was originally createdby the Yuanyang Land Management Bureau in 1991 at ascale of 1:75,000. A forest distribution map of 1986 (scale1:100,000) and a 1:50,000 topographic map in 2000 wereobtained from the Yuanyang Forest Zoning Office andInstitute of Geographic Science and Nature ResourcesResearch, Chinese Academy of Sciences, respectively.A satellite image of Landsat TM (1988) was also col-lected to support the landscape spatial pattern analysis.All the GIS data and remotely sensed image were repro-jected to the Gauss–Kruger projection and rescaled to thescale of 1:100,000 with a spatial resolution of 25 m. Socio-economic data (1949–2003) for the Yuanyang County,including population, agriculture and related economicinformation, were collected to understand social and eco-nomic development for local Hani people. Meteorologicaldata (1960–2004), including precipitation, temperature andsunlight hours, etc., were also collected to characterizethe climate resource for the terrace agriculture landscape.In addition, the materials and data from the local chroni-cles and field investigation by historical literature reviewand interview of local indigenous experts and local farm-ers during 2004–2005 were compiled to help understand

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Figure 1. The location of the study area in Yunnan Province, Southwestern China. The right figure is an enlargement of the shaded partof the left figure.

the local Hani history, culture, traditions, living custom andland resource management.

Landscape pattern and geostatistical analyses

Based on the land-use and forest maps and the Landsat TMimage, five landscape types and nine land-cover classeswere identified and mapped, including terrace landscape(dominated by paddy field and dry land), forest landscape(primarily consisting of forested land, shrub land, sparsewoods and garden plots), village landscape (i.e. residen-tial), water landscape (i.e. water area) and others (e.g. grassland and wasted land) (Table 1). The landscape spatial pat-tern analysis was performed using the APACK (Version2.23) software package developed at the Forest LandscapeEcology Lab, Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology,UW-Madison (Mladenoff & DeZonia 2004). A number ofecological parameters were calculated including average

Table 1. Classification for the Hani terrace agriculture landscapein Yuanyang County.

Landscapetype

Land-coverclass Land-use characteristics

Terrace Paddy field Irrigated rice paddy andrain-fed paddy fields

Dry land Upland fields and irrigatedland

Forest Forested land WoodlandShrubland Shrubbery landSparse woods Sparsely forested landGarden plots Orchards, tea plantations

and others

Village Residents Areas for residential landsWater Water area River, lake, reservoir, pond

and othersOthers Pasture land Grassland and wasted land

area per patch (AA), average perimeter of patches (AP),fractal (box) dimension (FDB), Shannon–Weaver diversity(SWD), dominance (DO), contagion (CO) and edge dis-tribution evenness (EDE) (Table 2). A digital elevationmodel (DEM) and a slope map were derived from the1:50,000 topographic map. The structural characteristicsof the nine different land-cover classes were analysed byaltitude and slope steepness.

Results and discussion

The spatial pattern of the Hani terracelandscape

The classification map of Hani terrace landscape is shownin Figure 2. Table 3 shows the composition of land coversin each type of landscape. It can be seen that dry land andforested land are the two primary land covers in the area,accounting for 15.04% and 15.72% of total patch numberand covering 27.40% and 25.20% of the total area, respec-tively. Shrubland and paddy field are the second extensiveland covers, accounting for 14.45% and 13.07% of all thepatches and covering 17.40% and 16.40% of the total area,respectively. The above four classes, taken together, coveralmost 90% of the entire study area. Terrace (covering43.80%) and forest (covering 44.90%) are the two domi-nant landscapes in the area. Moreover, closer examinationshows that the patches of paddy fields, dry land, forestedland and shrubland are relatively larger compared with theother types of land covers.

Seven indices, including AA, AP, FDB, SWD, DO,CO and EDE were calculated and analysed to charac-terize the spatial pattern of the Hani landscape. Theaverage area and average perimeter of all the land-coverpatches are 108.84 ha and 7395.13 m, respectively. Thehigh FDB value (1.88) indicates the high irregularityof the land-cover patches’ shape in general. The SWD

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Table 2. Selected landscape metrics from APACK.

Landscape index Abbreviation Description

Average area per patch AA The average area per patch.Average perimeter of patches AP The average perimeter of patches.Contagion CO CO ≥ 0, a measure of the degree to which cover classes are clumped into

patches. Large values of CO arise from landscapes that are predominantlymade up of a few cover classes. Small values of CO arise from landscapesthat are made up of many different cover classes in approximately equalproportions.

Dominance DO DO ≥ 0, a measure of the degree to which a landscape departs frommaximal diversity. Large values of DO arise from landscapes that arepredominantly made up of a few cover classes. Small values of DO arisefrom landscapes that are made up of many different cover classes inapproximately equal proportions.

Edge distribution evenness EDE 0 < EDE < 1, estimates the relative diversity of the distribution of edgetypes upon a landscape.

Fractal (box) dimension FDB 1 (patches with very regular or straight outlines) <FDB <2 (patches withvery irregular outlines), estimates the fractal dimension of the landscape.

Shannon–Weaver diversity SWD SWD ≥ 0, A low diversity measure implies a map that is dominated by asingle cover class. A high diversity measure implies a map that containsmany cover classes in approximately equal proportions.

Figure 2. The classification map of the Hani terrace landscape.

Table 3. Statistics of the Hani terrace landscape in Yuanyang County.

Landscapetype

Land-coverclass

Patchnumber (PN)

PNpercentage (%) Area (ha)

Areapercentage (%)

Perimeter(km) AP (m) AA (ha)

Terrace Paddy field 266 13.07 36,231.68 16.40 2330.68 8761.96 136.21Dry land 306 15.04 60,622.64 27.40 4023.84 13,149.80 198.11

Forest Forested land 320 15.72 55,878.56 25.20 3161.12 9878.50 174.62Shrubland 294 14.45 38,469.68 17.40 2714.04 9231.43 130.85Sparse woods 33 1.62 2068.88 0.90 173.80 5266.67 62.69Garden plots 57 2.80 3116.44 1.40 281.08 4931.23 54.67

Village Residents 555 27.27 2243.68 1.00 596.56 1074.88 4.04Water Water area 21 1.03 584.32 0.30 287.00 13,666.67 27.83Others Pasture land 183 8.99 22,274.36 10.10 1480.96 8092.68 121.72

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value of 1.70 means the landscapes are highly diversi-fied in land covers. The low values of DO (0.50) and CO(1.72) however show that the study area of Hani land-scape is composed of many different land-cover classeswith approximately equal proportions. The high EDE value(0.89) indicates a high diversity of the distribution ofthe overall landscapes. All these indices demonstrate thatlandscape diversity and ecological stability are high for theHani terrace landscape in Yuanyang County.

Figure 3 shows the vertical distribution of the land-cover classes. First, the forests spread over all the altitudesin the study area. The shrubland is mainly distributed from500 to 2000 m in elevation. The sparse woods are mostlyseen from 1000 to 1500 m of elevation and the gardenplots are primarily found at the elevations below 2000 m,especially below 1000 m. Second, in the terrace landscape,paddy field and dry land follow a similar vertical distri-bution below the elevation of 2000 m. Terrace landscapesincluding the paddy fields are mainly distributed from500 to 2000 m, especially concentrated between 1500 and2000 m in elevation. Lastly, residential areas are mainlydistributed within the elevation range of 1000–2000 m.

450,000

156–500

500–1000

1000–1500

1500–2000

2000–2500

2500–2932

Elevation (m)400,000

350,000

300,000

300,000

350,000

250,000

250,000

200,000

20,00018,000

14,000

Pix

els

Pix

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12,00010,000

8000600040002000

0

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100,000

50,000

0

200,000

150,000

100,000

50,000

0Paddy field Dry land

Pasture land Shrubland Forested land

Water area Garden plots Residents Sparse woods

Figure 3. Histograms of DEM in zones of the Hani terracelandscape.

450,000

400,000

350,000

300,000

250,000

Pix

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Paddy field Dry land

Pasture land Shrubland Forested land

Water area Garden plots Residents Sparse woods

0–1010–2020–30

50–7240–50

30–40

Slope (degree)

Figure 4. Histograms of slope in zones of the Hani terracelandscape.

Most water areas are below 1000 m, and pastures aredistributed below 2500 m.

Figure 4 displays the slopes where the land covers are.The forest landscapes (primarily composed of forested landand shrubland) are found on all slopes, but mostly on thoseof 10–50◦, especially concentrated within the range of 30◦to 40◦ slope. The sparse woods and garden plots are mainlydistributed on slopes between 30◦ and 40◦ and 20◦ and40◦, respectively. For the terrace landscape, paddy field anddry land are both distributed on the slopes of 10–30◦ and10–40◦, respectively. For the village landscape, it is clearthat most of the local people reside on the slopes of 10–30◦.Lastly, similar to the forested land and the shrubland, thepastures are also distributed on all the levels of slopes withmost of them being 10–50◦.

The vertical distribution of the different types of land-scapes and their relying slopes suggest that the forestlandscape is mainly distributed in the areas with a relativelyhigher elevation and a steeper slope. With comparableslope angles, most of the terraces are located at lower ele-vations than the forests. A considerable number of paddyfields and dry lands are found to be on a slope less than 30◦.The villages are vertically distributed between the forests

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and the terraces and lie in relatively flat areas. In sum-mary, the Hani landscape demonstrates a clear verticaldistribution pattern of ‘higher forest –middle village–lowerterrace–bottom river’ on steep slopes.

The characteristics of the regional climate

There are several reasons that account for the sustainabil-ity of the Hani terrace landscape over the past thousandyears. The climatic factors played an important role indriving the evolvement of the landscape. The region isunder a subtropical monsoon climate with hot and rainysummers and temperate and dry winters. In addition, thesignificant elevation range in the region creates distinc-tive local climate zones by elevation. The areas with anelevation above 1800 m, 1400–1800 m, 600–1400 m andbelow 600 m have an average annual temperature of 12◦C,15◦C, 18◦C and 25◦C and a total annual sunlight hoursof approximately 1000, 1630, 2020 and 2430, respectively.Generally speaking, the lower the elevation is, the less suf-ficient rainfall and the stronger evaporation. The valleyswith the lowest elevation usually have the relatively highesttemperature, lowest precipitation and strongest evaporation(≥2500 mm). During the rainy hot summers and early falls,the average annual ground temperature and accumulatedtemperature for that period (about 5100.1◦C) (≥10◦C), thevolume of precipitation and humidity tend to be muchhigher over the areas of paddy fields.

Forest conservation in traditional Haniethnic culture

Through generations, the Hani people have graduallydeveloped and accepted a pristine understanding about therelationships between themselves and their environment.They strongly believe that ‘our lives rely on the terraces,the terraces rely on water and water relies on the forests’ anold but popular saying that has been passed down from ear-lier generations. Therefore, it has become part of the Haniculture to protect their living environment and to harmo-nize with the nature. The Hani people worship almost allnatural objects, especially the forests. Besides, totem wor-ship, ancestry worship and soul worship have also becomethe key components of the Hani’s faith and agriculturalamenity (Qing 1989; Bai & Wang 1998; Shi 1999; Lei2002; Wang 2003; Huang 2004; Fu 2006). For example,the different trees were classified into different holy types(e.g. Village God Forest, Mountain God Forest and TerraceGod Forest) in order to be best protected (Li 1998, 2000;Lu 2004; Dai 2005). This strong belief and culture of forestconservation has profoundly ensured the constant practiceof forest protection in the region.

Water resource management

It is doubtless that water resources play a vital role in main-taining the health and vigour of the terraces. In addition tothe favourable precipitation and the forests’ reservation of

water, the Hani people have built and well maintained thou-sands of ditches and canals to collect water from uppersprings and streams and to transport it down to everypatch of the terraces. These ditches and canals form anextensive network, and the water surplus in an upper ter-race is automatically transported down to irrigate a lowerterrace.

The Hani people have also developed their own regu-lations on water allocation and utilization. The quantity ofthe water volume into each terrace patch is controlled bya ‘tap’ that is either wood-cut or stone-carved in the ditch.To be fair, the allowed water volume into each terrace patchis depending on the terrace owner’s contribution to build-ing and maintaining the ditches. The Hani people also usesome of the paddy fields as farms, and the excreta of theaquatics also contribute to increase the terrace fertility.

The mechanism behind the stabilityof the Hani landscape

Two major aspects should be highlighted in order to under-stand the stability of the Hani landscape. They are thephysical relationship among the landscape components andthe cultural impact (Figure 5).

The Hani landscape shows a vertical distribution pat-tern of ‘high forest–middle village–lower terrace–bottomriver’. The forests are mainly distributed at the higher ele-vations than the others. The relatively more rainfall athigher elevations provides sufficient water resources for theforests and the forests serve to keep the water from run-ning off or evaporating too quickly. The reserved water canthen flow through the irrigation systems down to the vil-lages and terraces. Most of the Hani villages are locatedbetween the upper forests and the lower terraces. Theirwater supply is mainly from the downflow of water fromthe forests. In the same time, the Hani people’s life waste,including livestock waste and artificial manures, can fer-tilize the lower terraces when discharged into the streamsystems and flowing down due to gravity. The terracescan be regarded as the ‘sink’ of water and nutrients andthe ‘source’ of food and vegetables to support the localpeople’s living. The adequate sunlight, favourable tem-perature and effective irrigation together have allowed thesustainable development of the terraces. The valleys arerelatively the warmest due to their lower elevation and theaddition of terrestrial radiation. Water in the valley riversis normally quickly vaporized and rises up to form newprecipitation, which completes the water and energy cyclewithin the Hani landscape.

On the other hand, the Hani culture of environmen-tal protection has both subjectively and objectively con-tributed to the conservation of the regional landscape.Their philosophy in developing a harmony with the naturehas greatly shaped their practice with respect to theregional climatic, geographic and hydrological character-istics. The Hani people’s environmental management ismore of a strategy to ‘adapt’ rather than ‘change’.

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Figure 5. Sketch map of the Hani terrace landscape stability mechanism.

Perspectives for future research

Future research efforts should be spent to evaluate theimpact of regional economic development on the Hanilandscape. One of the pressing issues is to prevent the land-scape from being disturbed by the booming local tourism.A balance needs to be made between the conservationof the traditional local lifestyle and the elimination ofrural poverty. The decreasing importance and weakenedawareness of environmental protection in the current gen-eration of young Hani people’s value system deserve closeattention as this minority group is experiencing a culturaltransformation to some degree.

Conclusions

The long stability of the Hani landscape is attributedlargely to its unique vertical distribution pattern of ‘forest–village–terrace–river’ from mountain tops to the valleysand the layer of cultural protection. The historical timing

allowed the Hani ancestors to be skilled enough to buildterraces and cultivate the lands when they were forcedto arrive in where their offspring are today. The natu-ral material and energy cycles in the region, enhancedby the development of adaptive irrigation systems, haveprovided the foundation for the landscape’s sustainabledevelopment while the Hani’s cultural values in regard tothe nature have largely safeguarded their agricultural andcivil practices from breaking or weakening the foundation.In short, the Hani terrace landscape is an exemplary case ofhuman–environment harmony, which is ought to be furtherstudied to provide more insight on modern environmentalconservation and sustainable development.

AcknowledgementsThis study was supported by the Fundamental Research Fundsfor the Central Universities and was partially funded by KeyProject of International Science and Technology Cooperation(2001DFDF0004), the Project of National Natural Science

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Foundation of China (NSFC, NO. 30700098, NO. 30970188) andthe Project of Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science Foundationof China (NO. Y507207). The authors would like to thank Mrs.Zhang Hongzhen who is the director of Association of HaniTerrace Conservation and Development, Mr. Lu Chaogui who isa local famous Hani traditional culture scholar, Mr. Fu Yongshouwho is one of the few Hani PhDs and Professor from YunnanArts University, Mrs. Qian Jie who is the director of Center forBiodiversity and Indigenous Knowledge and Professor OuyangHua, Dr. Zhou Caiping and Mrs. Wang Qunli who are ecologistsfrom Institute of Geographical Sciences and Natural ResourcesResearch, CAS, for their help and cooperation on data collectionand field investigation.

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