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Chapter 3

Landscape: A Natural Resource Endowment of Kashmir Region

Natural resources are the “stocks of materials that exist in the natural environment,

that are both scarce and economically useful in production or consumption, either in

their raw state or after a minimal amount of processing” (World Trade Report, 2010).

They are the naturally occurring features or characteristics of the environment having

a significant commercial value (1). A more encompassing definition of resource

considers it as “means of attaining given ends” and the ends range from individual

satisfaction to social well-being. Water, land, timber and minerals are the basic

resources (Zlotin and Zusman, 2005). But, apart from these, intangible things like

good health, knowledge, freedom, social harmony and so on also fall in the category

of resources (Otokiti, 2010). Therefore, resources include tangible as well as

intangible things which have some function beneficial to man and satisfying his want

(Zimmerman, 1933). Thus, ‘resource’ is a broad term which includes natural and

man-made, tangible and intangible, material and abstract, substances or objects or

entities on the earth or anywhere else in the universe that man is able to use for his

benefit.

The concept of resource is highly dynamic as the functionality of a given resource

changes with the change in the social objectives; change in the standard of living and

with technological advancement (Bradley, 2004). What seems useless today can turn

out to be an indispensable resource tomorrow, and what we value a lot today may be

of no use in future. But as Zimmerman (1933) has aptly said “resources are not they

become” so in the process of becoming, they are neither fixed nor finite (DeGregori,

1987). And it is the knowledge that actually gives birth to resources. For example,

coal, petroleum and iron-ore were available on earth since the man evolved but for the

early man these things were just neutral stuff as they were of no use to him (Otokiti,

2010). In the same line landscapes started to be considered as resources only lately as

earlier the man was more concerned with food and other basic necessities of life. With

the advancement in civilization travelling became an important aspect of elite class,

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but with the further advancement in technology and increase in well being travelling

for recreation became indispensable for a healthy life. So landscape or the scenic

beauty is also one of the important resources in this age of travel. It is the resource

important for both cultural and economic development (Hudson, 1986). Tourism,

which thrives basically on the scenic resources, is one of the biggest and fastest

growing industries in the world. Its contribution to world trade and employment

surpasses all other industries. And its impacts on the environment are still debatable

(Mir, 2012). However, there is no denying the fact that the tourism activity itself

spoils the very resource on which it thrives (Hudson, 1986) especially when

improperly managed.

3.1 Landscape as a natural resource

Landscape is a natural resource important for both cultural and economic

development of a country (Hudson, 1986) and scenery itself is the ‘potential asset to

the land’ in which it is found (Linton, 1968). Landscape is the “polysemic term

referring to the appearance of an area, the assemblage of objects used to produce that

appearance, and the area itself…By the early seventeenth century, however, under the

influence of the Dutch landschap painters, the term landscape came to refer to the

appearance of an area, more particularly to the representation of scenery” (Johnston,

et.al, 2000). The simplest definition of Landscape is “the appearance of the land” and

it is found everywhere and may comprise rural landscape, urban landscape, mountain

landscape etc. (The Landscape Institute & Institute of Environmental Management

and Assessment, 2002).

Variety and association of different landscapes form the best sceneries in the world.

Beautiful places have attracted visitors since time immemorial. People, especially the

city and town dwellers, visit such places to get visual treat and peace of mind, which

is hard to find in the urban vicinity. Hence, rural landscapes have long been used as

‘territory for visitors and tourists to gaze’ at (Domon, 2011). More natural the

landscape more preferred it is for visual perception (Simonic, 2003). Tourism, which

primarily thrives on scenic beauty, is the largest industry in the world, employing

more people than any other industry. In 2012 this industry was forecasted to pass the

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‘100 million jobs and contribute $2 trillion GDP to the global economy’ (World

Travel and Tourism Council, 2012). Landscape scenery is exploited as an economic

resource especially in those regions where geographical conditions are not conducive

for other economic activities. For example, in Nepal attractive natural scenery has

provided a viable economic activity in remote areas (Bhattarai et al, 2005).

Landscapes are of two types, based on the ownership. One, publically owned

landscapes, which are very large in extent, include the wild-lands (like forests, lakes

and beaches) and are associated with scenic beauty and hence used for leisure

activities. Two, privately owned landscape, large or small in extent, are mostly

utilized for agriculture. Even these privately owned landscapes can be utilized for

recreational purpose in addition to the already serving one. For example, village

tourism or agri-tourism which includes education and on-site retail purchases, along

with the enjoyment (Veeck, et.al, 2006). Further there are landscapes which may be

extremely important ecologically but are not scenically attractive (e.g. swamps or

bogs), and on the other hand there are the landscapes that are highly scenic but are

less valuable or even destructive ecologically (Gobster, et.al, 2007).

As mentioned earlier the world’s largest and most eco-friendly industry – tourism –

thrives on landscape resource. This resource doesn’t need fossil fuels for extraction or

industrial infrastructure for processing, but yes, it needs proper management and care

and above all the marketing. Tourism is such activity which utilizes the landscape

sceneries in their natural form to generate economy. “Landscape of high quality does

not exist everywhere” (Price, 1978). So it also qualifies the criterion of being scarce.

Moreover it can be degraded by over-exploitation if not properly managed. But unlike

other resources this resource is immobile and hence needs its customers to be

transported to it. Within a given landscape, ‘many features and elements contribute to

aesthetic desirability’ (Price, 1978). The degree of ‘wilderness and positively

evaluated man-made features play a key role in determining the visual quality’

(Arriaza et al, 2005).

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3.2 Tourism as resource endowment of Kashmir region

Kashmir has plenty of natural resources in the form of its diverse landscape; the utility

of such resource base is none but recreation. Natural resources are generally allocated

to that economic activity which provides maximum benefit to the majority of the

people living in the vicinity. In the delicate environs of the Vale of Kashmir the

natural endowments are best suited for the tourism as it is considered to be an

inclusive economic activity with relatively less impact on the surroundings. Although

According to the popular notion, Kashmir is deficient in natural resources (Ahmad &

Hussain, 2011). This is true as there are hardly any mineral resources available or the

known reserves of oil and petroleum, or high grade coal. But we cannot say that it is

devoid of natural resources. In fact, it is very rich in terms of other bounties of very

high quality, rare to find in any other place on the planet earth. That is why this

beautiful valley has been compared to the heaven and is considered as paradise on

earth.

Kashmir region has a. The perception of the scenic beauty varies among ‘recreationist

groups’ (Sanderson et.al. 1986), but the region, with plentiful and diverse landscape

resource endowment, has almost everything to offer to scenery appreciators and

nature lovers. It has abundant and clean water streams, numerous freshwater lakes of

vast expanse, majestic mountains with snow capped peaks, eternal glaciers, extensive

lush green meadows, great variety of flowers and fruits, a perfect combination of

valleys, hills and plains and the invigorating climate. It also abound in rich bio-

diversity, flora and fauna, avian multifariousness, long stretches of dense forests and

some of the best agricultural lands. It is adventurist’s paradise. Along with all this the

valley has enough supplementary tourist products like rich cultural heritage,

architectural distinctiveness, unique handicrafts industry and hospitable population.

Moreover, Kashmir’s landscape has an advantage of falling in the category of

‘landscape ephemera’. Landscape ephemera or ‘Ephemeral landscape’ changes its

appearance with the change in weather, seasons, the growth and decay of plants and

so on. These ephemeral components of the landscape have a major influence on the

perception of the observers (Brassley, 1998). This property multiplies the scenic

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resources. If properly marketed the region of Kashmir can attract tourists in all

seasons. The lush green summer is followed by the autumn/fall, with tress shedding

their leaves and providing a scene of colourful landscape, ranging from green, through

yellow, to red and all the colours in between. White snow carpet during the winter is

followed again by the colourful appearances due to flowering of the orchards and the

rejuvenation of all plant life, subtly entering the lush green phase again. This is the

nature’s gift which can be utilized for the benefit of the people if properly advertised

and managed. Currently Kashmir is able to attract the visitors in summer only and to

some extent in winter. The economic importance of winter tourism can be judged by

the fact that an estimated 10,000 families depend on good Gulmarg winter and the

skiing season, from hoteliers to guides to the men who rent out sledges to tourists

(Jaleel, 2012). Two seasons are still untapped and the outer world, especially our

domestic market is unaware of it. If these seasons are also marketed well the benefits

from tourism will multiply and its impacts on environment will reduce as tourists will

be equally distributed among all the seasons avoiding overexploitation of few

established destinations and seasons.

3.3 Landscape components in Kashmir region

Landscape is an area of land containing a mosaic of patches or landscape elements or

components. The components are either physical or cultural. Kashmir is the epitome

of natural beauty that surpasses any other region in the whole world in terms of

landscape. Its “reservoirs of tourist attractions are unparalleled both in its antiquity on

man’s magnificent creations and the unique natural scenic splendour” (Bandhu,

1989). Almost all the components, that form a landscape, are available in abundance

and in perfect combination. Table 3.1 shows the primary and secondary landscape

components found in the Kashmir region.

Normally the landscape components occur in combinations and no resort is based on a

single physical or cultural landscape component. Forests, meadows, hills and valleys

almost always occur in combination. For instance, a lake occurs in combination with a

river or stream. A high altitude lake is found near a glacier, on a mountain. But for the

convenience of understanding the landscape of the the tourist attractions of the

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Table 3.1 Availability of Landscape Components in Kashmir Region

Primary Components (Universal Components)

Secondary Components (Local Components)

Vegetation (V) Forest (V1) Meadows (V2) Agriculture (V3)

Landform (L) Mountainous (L1) Hill & Valley (L2) Plateau (L3) Flat/Plain (L4)

Water (W) Lake (W1) Springs (W2) Rivers (W3) Glacial Lake (W4) Wetland/Masrhy Land (W5)

Builtform (B) Rural (B1) Urban (B2)

Heritage (H) Cultural (H1) Religious (H2) Historical (H3)

Kashmir region can be divided into the following three broad headings and associated

sub-divisions:

1. Natural Landscape

a. Valleys

b. Meadows/Margs

c. Lakes

d. Rivers and Streams

e. Springs

f. Glaciers

g. Bio-diversity Regions

2. Cultural Landscape

a. Historical Gardens

b. Religious Shrines

c. Historical Places

d. Ancient Monuments

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e. Towns & Cities

3. Tourism Activities

a. Trekking

b. Sports

c. Shopping

4. Miscellaneous

a. Climate

b. Ephemeral Landscape

c. Fairs and Festivals

3.3.1 Natural landscape

(i) Valleys

Kashmir region is famous for the elongated valley through which the river Jhelum

flows, and this main is garlanded by numerous small side valleys. Lidder Valley,

named after the Lidder river flowing through it, is a picturesque valley that forms one

of the main attractions among the sight-seeing destinations in and around the pleasant

hill station of Pahalgam. The scenic valley of Lidder is adorned with beautiful brooks

and streams. One remarkable feature of the Lidder Valley is the presence of pleasing

glaciers that enhance the beauty of the lovely valley of Lidder largely. Lolab Valley is

a beautiful, untouched and unexplored tourist resort with dense forest ranges. It is an

oval shaped valley meaning love and water – signifying the love and beauty of the

unexplored destination. Bungus Valley is also an upcoming destination where

government is planning to make a golf course.

(ii) Margs/Meadows

Margs or meadows form a very important part of tourist attractions in Kashmir valley.

According to Bruce (1911) “the meaning of the word marg is simply an open grassy

upland or alp, and the alps of Kashmir are as charming in their way as the well-known

Alps of Switzerland.” Gulmarg is undoubtedly the best known meadow of the region.

Yusuf Shah, a King of Kashmir of the Chak dynasty, who used to frequently visit this

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‘meadow of flowers’ changed its name from Gaurimarg to Gulmarg in 1581 A.D

(Koul, 1925). Situated about 1000 metre above the valley-level, Gulmarg has a

delightfully salubrious climate. The scenery here is comparable with the loveliest

regions of Switzerland and the Tyrol. Apart from the beautiful scenery nature has

provided this region with great variety of flora and fauna. World’s highest golf course

lies here. During the winter it offers the best ski slopes and visitors come from all

over the world to enjoy.

Another well developed tourist resort is Sonamarg. Literal meaning of Sonmarg is

‘Meadow of Gold’. This beautiful tourist resort lies in the Sindh Valley at an altitude

of 2740 metres and is surrounded on all sides by mountains and strewn with bright

coloured flowers. The landscape here is draped with fir, pine, silver and sycamore

trees. Mighty glaciers and silent lakes add to the grandeur of this place. The scenery

here presents a grandeur and beauty similar to ‘Alps in Europe’. Paragliding can be

enjoyed here. Yusmarg is a developing resort. It is referred to as ‘miniature Gulmarg’

as its scenic beauty and topography resembles with that of Gulmarg. It is a vast

expanse of flat turf, ringed with coniferous forests, providing an enchanting

landscape. Doodhpathri or ‘valley of milk’ is the recent discovery of green carpeted

bowl shaped valley. Locals say that the place has got its name from the fact that the

cattle grazed in this meadow produce rich milk in large quantity. Tucked away in a

densely forested gorge, Daksum, 85 km from Srinagar, is a walker’s paradise. The

cool mountain air, densely clad hills, beyond them snow-covered mountains all make

it the perfect treat. This is a relatively new tourist resort. The area has a combination

of green meadows, pine forests and flowery landscape.

Other margs or meadows in the valley are, Tangamarg (below Gulmarg), Khilanmarg

(above Gulmarg), Tilwanmarg (near Gulmarg), Vishnasarmarg (in the mountains of

Lar), Kanamarg, Nagamarg, Mohandmarg, mahalishmarg, gungabalmarg,

salanmarg, minimarg, vijimarg, bangasmarg, Tosamarg or Tosamaidan, nunamarg,

Kashunamarg, Zajamarg, Musamarg, Rainyur, Nandamarg, Famarmarg,

Marganmarg, Badmarg, Zabamarg, Astanmarg (Koul, 1925).

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(iii) Lakes

As mentioned earlier, Kashmir has an aquatic origin (Kapur, 1998) and emerged out

of a gigantic lake (called Satisar) that occupied the valley in Pleistocene age. Today

the valley is ornamented by a number of big and small lakes found all along the length

and breadth of the valley. Wadia (1919) is however of the view that considering the

geological past of the valley the number of lakes there is very small. Beautiful and

fresh lakes are not present in the valley only but are found at higher elevations too.

Following are the important lakes that attract the attention of the tourists.

Valley Lakes

Kashmir valley is an abode of some of the most beautiful lakes of world. The Dal

Lake is the second biggest lake in the state of J&K. Famous for its houseboats; it is

the most popular tourist destination of the region (Bruce, 1911). Dal lake is

considered Srinagar’s aquatic plaza. The Wular Lake is also the reminiscent of Satisar

and is the Asia’s largest freshwater lake. Situated in Bandipore district, the lake is

popular for adventure sports activities like water sports, yachting, and water skiing.

The streams of Madmati, Erin and Bohnar flow into the lake, whereas the Jhelum

seeks a passage through its southern part. Nagin lake is another popular venue for

water sports like water-skiing, swimming, diving and sailing. On its banks is a boat

club, a bar and tea pavilion. It has deep blue waters and is encircled by a ring of green

trees, resembling a sapphire in an emerald setting from which it derives its name. The

Manasbal lake, was the deepest lake in Asia. On its eastern shore stands the Baladar

Mountains, the rugged features of which present a sharp contrast to gentle beauty of

the Lake, with its pink lilies, the deep clear water, Manasbal lake gives a very

charming view. In its vicinity there are some of the hot springs. The Manasbal Lake is

a popular bird-watching area and is ideal water sport resort. Anchar lake in Srinagar,

is 8 km long and 3 km wide extending towards Ganderbal.

Mountain Lakes

Sheshnag lake lies beyond Pahalgam (enroute to Amarnath cave) at a height of 11,730

feet. This three kilometres stretch of water has an exquisite pale-blue colour similar to

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that of Lake Lucerne. “Another lake of some interest is Gangarbal which lies above

the Wular lake” (Bruce, 1911). It is believed to change colours. From the heights of

the mountain it appears turquoise-blue with broad batches of violet shadow lying

across it. At the northern there is a streak of emerald green and the waters pass from

one shade of green to another during the day in accordance with the weather. Apart

from the opportunity of camping in alpine meadows the Gangabal lake also offers a

chance for some fine trout fishing. Kousarnag Lake is the largest mountain lake in

Kashmir. Surrounded by some of the most picturesque peaks of Pir Panjal range the

lake lies at 13,000 feet above sea level. The Apharwat Lake or Alpather lake lies near

Gulmarg. A well graded pony track joins Apharwat ridge with Gulmarg. This lake is

also called as frozen lake because of its freezing cold water. It remains snow-covered

for most of the year and is 13,000 feet above sea level.

The Vishansar Lake is a high altitude Himalayan lake filled with trout. It is one of the

loveliest lakes situated at the height of 1234 m from sea level. Krishanasar Lake is

3810 metres above the sea level. Translucent waters flecked with ice flakes, the lake

is almost 1.6 km. in length and 2.4 km. apart. The lake is stocked with trout. Ice

bound Tulin Lake is enclosed on three sides by steep, snow-clad mountain peaks

which rise precipitously about a thousand feet from its shore. It is 11 km. from

Baisaran in Pahalgam. The Tarsar Lake lies at the height of 3962 metres. There are

delightful camping sites at Sekiwas about 2.4 km. from the lake.

(iv) Rivers and Streams

Rivers form an important secondary component of physical landscape and Kashmir

region is bestowed with a large number of rivers and streams. One of the few rivers

that have their origin in Kashmir itself, Jhelum River is a beauty in itself. The river

originates in Verinag, shooting out from a spring. Over the years the Jhelum River has

emerged as a major tourism attraction. The Mangla Dam built on the river is one of

the largest earth-fill dams and a great tourist destination. The Jhelum River bifurcates

the beautiful Srinagar city into two parts. The wonderful lakes of the city are mostly

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Map 7

Spatial distribution of lakes in Kashmir Region

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fed by water from Jhelum. The River Jhelum in its path takes the form of a stream an

act as lovely camping sites for campers and trekkers. The nine bridges over the river

Jhelum, which were built long ago, also serve as hot tourism sites. The river is

navigable from Khanabal to Baramulla, and is one of the principal beauties of the

valley (Koul, 1925). Dudhganga river rises in the central part of the Pir Panjal range

round mountain Tata Kuti. The traditional source of Sindh River lies in the sacred

Gangabal lake on mount Haramukh and passes through the famous resort of

Sonamarg. The river of Veshav is an important river flowing through the district of

Kulgam in south Kashmir. Aharbal’s waterfall, on this river, is famous and attracts a

large number of visitors.

(v) Springs

Numerous glaciers lying at the higher altitudes of the region slowly melt down, seep

into the ground and ooze as springs of sweet and fresh water along the valley floor.

Apart from their use as drinking water sources, many springs are sacred and hence

attract many visitors. Tulamul Spring is the most famous and sacred spring of

Kashmiri Pundits. A large fair is held each month on the 8th and 15th days of the bright

fortnight, especially of May-June. The spring is believed to change colour, sometimes

it is green, sometimes pink and so on. At Takar in Uttar Machhipura there is a spring,

the water of which, like the Tulamul spring, changes colour every now and then.

About 18 km from Anantnag towards Verinag in Brang there is a spring at the village

Gagar-Tshunda above Larkipora which is called Kon-nag by the Muslims and Sita-

Kund by the Hindus. Some of the fish therein are blind in one eye. Verinag Spring is

the chief source of Jhelum, and is situated at the foot of Pir Panjal. In ancient times it

was also known as ‘Nilnag’ . Malak Nag Spring is a sulphur spring. People suffering

from skin ailments have a dip into this spring for treatment. The water of this spring is

cold in summer but very warm in winter. At Halmatpura in Uttar Machhipura there

are five springs near one another. A ‘linga’ of stone is in one of these springs, which

is said to move by itself round it, making one move from one corner to the other in

one month. At Dobijan in Shopian there is a spring called Tatadan, the water of which

is warm. A similar spring exists at a place 110 km from Anantnag across the Margan

pass. Thermal springs are found at Wuyan village and Sadarkutbal. Kokernag has an

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abundance of spring waters believed to possess medicinal properties. Gushing out of

the spur of Zebarwan mountain is the Royal Spring or Chashma Shahi. It is enclosed

in a lotus shape curved stone framework. The crystal pure water of the spring is

reputed far and wide for its highly prized mineral curative properties. Other important

springs are Sunda-Brari or Trisandhya Spring is situated south of the Divalgam

village in Brang, Rudra-Sandhya Spring near Verinag towards the west, Sata Rishi

Spring, Varuknag Spring, Pavana-Sandhya Spring, Choarnag Spring, Mattan Spring,

Papashodhan Nag.

(vi) Glaciers

The higher reaches of Kashmir region are dotted by small and large glaciers. Kolahoi,

a valley glacier in the northwestern Himalayan Range situated 26 kilometers north

from Pahalgam and 16 kilometers south from Sonamarg, is the most important of all

glaciers in Kashmir region. It lies at an elevation of 4700 meters. It is the source

of Lidder River and some melt waters become the tributories of the Sind River also.

Thajiwas is another glacier important from tourism point of view. Trek to Thajiwas

Glacier is the most popular trek in the region, originating at Srinagar (2). Apart from

these two important glaciers, there are many smaller ones of local importance.

However, due to increase in tourism these glaciers are being threatened. Amarnath

pilgrimage is considered to pose a great threat to the Kolahoi glacier (Agnivesh,

2013).

(vii) Biodiversity Regions

Kashmir’s wildlife has attracted visitors for endless years. Several species and sub-

species of wildlife are available there. The focal point of attention for most tourists

and residents are the National Parks, wildlife sanctuaries and Biosphere Reserves. A

large number of species have extincted from the region and hence Sahni (1990) called

this area an important graveyard of several extinct species. For a man who loves

nature, colour and beauty, the valley indeed offers a land covered by a large number

of flowers of different colours, kinds, varieties, beauties and fragrance. It is here that

Nature is visible in all her colours. The wetlands of the region are an important

repository of the flora and fauna (SAC, ISRO, 2010). The measures taken by the

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government for conservation of the endangered species has resulted into the

demarcation of some reserved land for these animals (Table 3.2).

Table 3.2 District-wise wildlife protected areas in the Kashmir region

Name of the protected area

Legal status District in which falls

Area (in sq. km.)

1. Dachigam National Park Srinagar/Pulwama 141.00 2. City Forest / Salim Ali National Park

-do- Srinagar 9.07

3. Overa Wildlife Sanctuary Anantnag 32.37 4. Overa-Aru -do- -do- 425.00 5. Gulmarg -do- Baramulla 180.00 6. Lachipora -do- -do- 80.00 7. Haripora -do- Pulwama 110.00 8. Baltal (Thajwas) -do- Srinagar 203.00 9. Rajporyan -do- Anantnag 20.00 10. Limber -do- Baramulla 26.00 11. Dara Highland Reserve Srinagar 13.70 12. Brain -do- -do- 5.75 13. Khonmoh -do- Srinagar/Pulwama 4.00 14. Khanagund -do- Pulwama 10.00 15. Khrew -do- Srinagar/Pulwama 7.90 16. Panyar -do- -do- - 17. Shikaragah -do- -do- 15.25 18. Khiram -do- Anantnag 5.70 19. Chambnai -do- -do- 10.00 20. Hokersar Wetland Reserve Srinagar/Budgam 9.00 21. Mirgund -do- Budgam 2.83 22. Haigam -do- Baramulla 14.00 23. Shallabugh -do- Srinagar 7.00 24. Chatlum -do- Pulwama 5.00 25. Kranchoo -do- -do- - 26. Dara Chokore Reserve Srinagar - 27. Nishat -do- -do- - 28. Brain -do- -do- - 29. Khiram -do- Anantnag - 30. Zewan -do- Srinagar - 31. Wuyan -do- -do- - Source: Department of Wildlife Protection, J&K Govt (adapted from Dar, et.al., 2002)

From the table it is seen that Kashmir region has two National Parks, eight wildlife

sanctuaries, nine highland reserves, six wetland and six chokore reserves. However,

the region has still a small proportion of its geographical area under Protected Area

Network Dar et al, 2002). Kashmir region is one of the 28 hotspots in India, because

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of its rich biodiversity, high endemicity and accelerated anthropogenic threats to

biodiversity (Khoshoo, 1991; cited in Dar et al, 2002). Out of these protected areas

the touristically important reserves are:

1. Dachigam National Park

2. Overa Wildlife Sanctuary

3. Overa-Aru Biosphere Reserve

4. Gulmarg Biosphere Reserve

Dachigam National Park

The Dachigam National Park comprises an area of 141 sq. km. which was constituted

into national park in 1981 with an aim to protect the Kashmir stag (Cervus elaphus

hanglu). This national park is popular among tourists because it is easily accessible

from Srinagar and attracts tourists due to the presence of biological and geological

recreational resources (Bhatnagar, 2002). It is the only habitat of Kashmir stag in the

world. But this habitat is threatened by livestock grazing, illegal timber and fuelwood

collection (Grueisen, 1989) and more recently due to tourism development. There are

over fifty species of trees, twenty of shrubs and 500 species of herbs. The park is also

rich in fauna, having twenty mammal species, which include hangul, Himalayan

brown bear, Himalayan black bear, langur, Himalayan marmot, leopard etc.

Moreover, there are over 150 species of birds.

Overa Wildlife Sanctuary

The total area of this wildlife sanctuary, situated near Pahalgam, is 32.27 sq. km.

Hangul, musk deer, serow, rhesus, macaque, langur, leopard, leopard cat etc.

Avifauna of this sanctuary includes chukar, koklas, monal and Himalayan snow cock,

jungle crow, red billed chough, griffon vulture, bearded vulture, Himalayan whistling

thrush, rufous backed shrike, Indian mynah etc.

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Overa-Aru Biosphere Reserve

The area of this biosphere reserve is about 400 sq. km. Hangul, musk deer, serow,

brown bear, leopard, rhesus macaque, grey langur, Himalayan mouse hare. Avifauna

includes griffon vulture, monal, snow cock, koklas, blue rock pigeon, Kashmir roller,

European hoopoe, golden oriole, jungle crow etc. The area holds a rich cover of

vegetation, the dominant forest consisting of conifers which account for over 90 per

cent. Nature has gifted this Biosphere Reserve with multiple species of rare,

endangered and protected species. The main species are hangul, musk deer, serow,

brown bear, leopard, rhesus macaqe, grey langur, Himalayan mouse hare, etc.

Avifauna includes a good population of pheasants and upland birds apart from other

species, both resident and migratory.

Map 8

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Gulmarg Biosphere Reserve

Area of this reserve is 180 sq. km. Reserved for Himalayan musk deer, leopard,

brown bear, black bear, red fox etc. Avifauna includes koklas, monal, Himalayan

snow cock, bearded vulture, griffon vulture, chukar, Kashmir roller, European

hoopoe, golden oriole etc. The areas vegetation constitutes more than 90 per cent

conifers. Avifauna includes pheasants and upland birds apart from other migratory

and resident birds. The principal species being koklas, monal, Himalayan snow cock,

bearded vulture, griffon vulture, chukar, Kashmir roller, European hoopoe, golden

oriole etc.

3.3.2 Cultural landscape

The physical landscape of Kashmir with some of the best sceneries in the world

attracted the kings and emperors who constructed numerous temples and palaces,

which are still present in elegance and grandeur. The region is, thus, dotted by a

number of gardens, shrines, monuments and historical sites (Bangroo, 2009).

3.3.2.1 Historical gardens

The gardens of Kashmir comprise of many fountains, large tanks, cascades and

monumental pavilions, mighty chinars and lush-green lawns. Shalimar Bagh

(Garden), the abode of love, was laid by Mughal Emperor Jahangir in 1619 A.D. It

lies 18 km to the east of the heart of Srinagar city. Nishat Garden (Garden of Pleasure

of Delight) is the biggest of all Mughal gardens in Kashmir. It is situated on the bank

of the Dal Lake with Zabarwan hills at the back. It has twelve terraced flower beds

and hence alternately known as ‘Garden of Terraces’. Cheshma Shahi (the royal

spring) garden was laid by Ali Mardan Khan, the Mughal Governer of Kashmir on the

advice of Shah Jehan in 1632 A.D. and is the smallest of all the Mughal gardens in

Kashmir. Naseem Bagh is the oldest Mughal garden in Kashmir laid by Akbar after

the construction of Hari Parbat Fort. Nageen Bagh lies between the Fort and the

Naseem Bagh. It is just the remains of the once picturesque garden which attracts only

a few tourists these days. Nehru Park is another garden, named after the first Prime

Minister of India. The garden at Achhabal is surrounded by a stone wall and some

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very large chenars and the ruins of a ‘Hamam’ (Turkish bath). In Bijbehara there are

the most remarkable ruins of a garden along the side of river Jhelum. The garden, now

called Wazir Bagh, was the site of a garden laid by Dara Shikoh, the eldest son of

Shah Jehan. The garden has some magnificent chinars, one of which has a width of 17

metres and is said to be oldest in Kashmir. Harwan Garden is of historical interest

because of the presence of an ancient Sadardhavana (a wood of six arhats), where,

according to Kalhana, the well known Buddhist teacher, Nagarjuna, had his residence.

A garden was laid out in front of Mattan spring by Asaf Jah by order of Shah Jahan.

3.3.2.2 Religious shrines

Shankaracharya Temple, owing to its location, is one such structure which no visitor

the city of Srinagar can miss. It lies on the top of the Takht-i-Suleman (Throne of

Solomon) hill. The temple is believed to have been built about 2000 years ago by

King Gopaditya. Hazratbal Shrine is the greatest shrine of Muslims in Kashmir and

lies on the bank of Dal lake. This shrine was originally built by the Mughal Emperor

Shah Jahan and is famous for the repository of a sacred hair of the Prophet

Muhammad. The temple at Mattan is dedicated to Vishnu and this temple is sacred to

Hindus. A garden was laid out in front of this spring by Asaf Jah by order of Shah

Jahan. Khirbhawani shrine is dedicated to Ragina Devi or Khir Bhawani and is

located in the village Tulmula. The water spring here is believed to change colour

from purple during the calm and peaceful days to blue during the days of turmoil and

danger. The holy cave of Shri Amarnathji is situated at an altitude of 3883 metres, in a

long glacial gorge high among the eastern mountains, contains self formed ice lingam,

which increases or decreases with the waxing and waning of the moon. Naturally

formed ice lingam is the symbol of ‘Lord Shiva’. Chatti Padshah , the famous Sikh

shrine is situated just outside the Kathi Darwaza (the southern gate). It contains the

holy Granth Sahib that dates back to Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. Jama Masjid is the

mosque built by Sultan Sikandar in 1404 A.D.Other shrines of importance are

Charar-e-Sharif, Shah Hamdan Mosque, Baba Rishi, Raghunath Temple,

Dyaneshwar, mosque of Saint Madin Sahib, Umanagri (Brariangan) Temple and

many more.

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3.3.2.3 Ancient monuments and historical sites

Ancient monuments of very great archaeological interest, which disclose the existence

of a lost civilisation, are numerous in Kashmir. “All over Kashmir there lie in ruins

the classical temples of the past (O’Connor, 1920)”. The ruins have remained an

attraction to the travellers since earlier days.

In the city of Srinagar, the first ancient edifice that one sees is the temple of

Narendrasvamin (which was built by Lkhana Naraindraditya, who reigned in Kashmir

from 178 to 191 A.D.). It has turned into a Ziarat and is called Narpirasthan. Pathar

Masjid is a stone mosque built by Noor Jahan, Queen of Jehangir. Temple at Buniyar

is said to have been built in the 5th century of the Christian era. The temple at

Narayan Thal stands in a small tank on the right bank of the Jhelum near Baramulla.

The temple Narendreshvara was built by Narendraprabha, queen of Partapaditya II,

who reigned in Kashmir from 634 to 689 A.D. There are two large stone temples on

the road-side of Pattan. These, which bore the name of Shankara-Gaurisha and

Sugandheshvara, were built by Shankaravarman who reigned in Kashmir from 883 to

902 A.D. and his queen Sugandha. There is also a stone stupa here at the 19th mile

from Srinagar. Pari Mahal (fairies Palace), also called Kantilun, is an old ruin

standing grandly on a spur of the Zabarwan mountain on the southern side of the Dal

lake.

Martand Temple, called Martandeshvara, is said to have been built by king Kamadeva

(3005-2936 B.C.) with large, ornamented and beautifully carved stones, erecting it to

the height of 50 yards. Martand or the Temple of the Sun is a figure of mystic

significance to the worshippers of the sun. King Avantivarman, who reigned in

Kashmir from 855 to 883A.D. built a city on the right bank of the Jhelum river.

Avantipura temple tells the tale of Avantivarman as a great builder. Pandrethan is an

old temple standing in the middle of a tank at Pandrenthan, 6 kilometres from

Srinagar. It was erected during the reign of King Partra (921-31 A.D.) by his prime

minister Meru, who dedicated it to Mahadeva under the title of Meru Vardhana

Svamin. Mosque at Pantachhuk is a wooden mosque erected by Hubba Khatoon, wife

of Yusuf Shah Chak who ruled in Kashmir in 1578-84 A.D. Near Sopore, at

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Map 9 Distribution of Early Historical Sites in

Kashmir Region

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Parihaspura, are the ancient Buddhist monuments. It has a Buddhist temple (Chaitya)

a monastery and stupa. Harwan Buddhist ruins, situated in north-west Kashmir, dates

back to 300 AD from the time of the Kushan civilisation. To the west of the Dal lake,

is the Hari parbhat hill. An ancient Mughal Fort, assumed to be built during the 18th

century by an Afghan governor, Atta Mohammad Khan. A long stretch of walls is

seen around the hill and it was constructed in 1590 AD by Mughal emperor Akbar.

Atop the Takht-i-Sulaiman hills, in the south-east of Srinagar, sits the sacred temple of

Shankaracharya. A site constructed in honour of Lord Shiva around 250 BC, this

temple is regarded as the oldest shrine in Kashmir valley. It is here that the

philosopher Shankaracharya stayed during his visit to Kashmir 10 centuries ago.

Khanka Maula is a shrine in Srinagar dedicated to Mir Syed Ali hamdani or Shah

hamdan. It was possibly built in the late 14th or early 15th century. Budshah tomb, an

excellent representation of a typical Shahmiri style of architectural brilliance, is the

final resting place of the mother of Sultain Zain-ul-Abidin (1420 AD to 1470 AD) in

Srinagar.

3.3.2.4 Towns and Cities

Srinagar is the most sought-after tourist city in the state of J&K. Earlier it was called

the town of Kashmir (Thomson, 1852). It is the major attraction of the region, having

central location and enjoys the status of summer capital of the state of Jammu and

Kashmir. Having temperate-cum Mediterranean type of climate it is ideal location to

spend the summers. The city was founded by Pravarasena-II (79-139 A.D.) and lies

on both sides of Jhelum river. It has been referred to as the ‘Asiatic Venice’ or the

‘Venice of East’ due to the intersection of many canals. The city has been charmed by

a number of fresh water lakes, of which Dal is the most famous. Beautiful gardens

laid out by the Mughal Emperors around the Dal Lake make this city more attractive.

These include Shalimar, Nishat, Nasim, Nagin, Chashma Shahi and Harvan Garden.

The best experience comes from the House boats that dot the Dal and other lakes.

Apart from these there are many heritage sites exhibiting a marvellous blend of

architecture and grandeur.

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Pahalgam is another town exclusively developed because of tourism. Pahalgam

literally means ‘village of shepherds’. Lying at an altitude of 2195 metres it is one of

the loveliest tourist spots in the valley. Lidder river, with its crystal clear waters, is the

life line of this summer resort. The valley here is covered with thick forests on all

sides with their peaks having permanent snow-covered peaks. Other tourist towns of

the region are Verinag, Kokernag, Achhabal, Qazigund, Pampore, Awantipora,

Bijbehara etc.

3.3.3 Tourism Activities

With diverse tourism products available within the region of Kashmir a visitor has

many activities on offer to enjoy, ranging from highly adventurous to incredibly

relaxing ones, with one thing being common to all, i.e. enjoyment for the visitor.

Trekking, sports, shopping etc. are some of the activities preferred by a majority of

visitors.

3.3.3.1 Trekking

Lying within the womb of the highest mountains of the world, Kashmir region offers

some of the magnificent trekking trails, with many beautiful camping grounds and

other attractions along the way. According to Bruce (1911) Kashmir is mountaineers

paradise with some of the world’s highest peaks there considering the Nanga Parbhat,

Nun Kun, Mount Haramoukh, Kolahoi, Tattakutti, as “the best-known mountains of

Kashmir, but there are innumerable others, most of them unnamed and unclimbed, of

about 5000 metres and over. And even these “third-raters,” as mountaineers call them,

are higher than Mont Blanc, the highest peak in the Alps. Therefore, one can imagine

how immense the scale of the Himalayas is. June, July and August are the ideal

months for journeys over glaciers and for mountain climbing, although trekking is an

all season temptation in Kashmir. Some of the important places of trekking and hiking

are shown in Table 3.3.

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Table 3.3 Important places of trekking and hiking in Kashmir region

Places of hiking and trekking

Height (in metres)

Afarwat 4420 Amarnath 5372 Harmukh 5160 Kolahai 4270 Kausarnag 3965 Qazinag 4720 Mahadev 3500 Nangaparbat 8115 Khilin 3050 Sheshnag 6470 Kajinag 3700 www.koausa.org/Geography/ch5.1.html

Trekking in Liddar valley

This is one of the most picturesque valley and is easily accessible. Pahalgam as base

one can plan and arrange many treks into the interior of the country.

i. Pahalgam to Amarnath: This is a 39 km. trek and can take 5 days for onward-

return journey

ii. Pahalgam to Kolahoi glacier: It is 35 km trek which can be trekked in 3 days.

(Pahalgam to Aru; Aru to Lidderwat and from Lidderwat to Kolahoi)

iii. Pahalgam to Tarsar and Marsar Lake

iv. Pahalgam to Sonmarg or Lidder to Sindh valley: This is about 74 km. trek.

Pahalgam to Aru; Aru to Lidderwat; Lidderwat to Sekwas; Sekwas to

Khemsar; Khemsar to Kulan and Kulan to Sonmarg.

v. Sonmarg to Amarnath: It is a very straight trek From Sonmarg to Baltal 13 km

and Baltal to Amarnath again 13 km.

Trekking in Sindh valley

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i. Wangat to Gangabal lake: This trek is via Srinagar to Wangat; Wangat to

Trunkol and Trunkol to Gangabal lake.

ii. Sonmarg to Vishansar and Krishansar lake: ‘Sonamarg to Thajiwal; Thajiwal

to Shitkari bridge; Shitkari bridge to Nichnai (13 km); Nichnal to Vishansar

(13 km) and Vishansar to Krishansar.

iii. Sonamarg to Wangat: It is Sonamarg – Krishansar/Vishansar/Gadsar/Satsar –

Gangabal – Trunkhol – Naranag/Wangat.

Other Treks in Kashmir Region

i. Bandipur to Harmukh: From Bandipore to Erin; Erin to Kudara; Kudara to

Sarbal lake; Sarbal to Kunda Pani and Kunda Pani to Harmukh peak.

ii. Gulmarg to Alpathar Lake: 5 km. from Gulmarg to Khilanmarg; then

Khilanmarg to Alpathar lake, 8 km.

iii. Gulmarg to Tosamaidan: Tosamaidan is one of the most beautiful margs of

Kashmir. It can be accessed from Gulmarg via Ferozpore nallah. The path is

steep but fit for ponies through forests and margs.

iv. Gulmarg to Lienmarg: A 16 km trek through lovely forests which takes one

day only.

v. Aharbal to Kousernag: Aharbal to Kungwattan to the Lake kousernag (13 km).

vi. Narmarg: Wullar lake to Alsu and Alsu to Narmarg.

vii. Srinagar to Yusmarg: It can be taken via Nagam and Tsar.

viii. Yusmarg to Chitta Pothar or sangisafaid, Dodha Pathri and Sunset Peak.

3.3.3.2 Sports

Like nature’s own playground Kashmir offers an inexhaustible variety of sporting

activities. Sports here can be divided into three categories viz. water sports, winter

sports and other sports.

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Water sports

At the Nagin lake there are facilities for water skiing and other aquatic sports. Like

Nagin lake, Dal lake also attracts aquatic sports activities. Water sports facilities are

also available at Manasbal Lake. Moreover, white water rafting is offered at Lidder

river, which has been attracting a large number of tourists.

Winter sports

In the valley of Kashmir, Gulmarg enjoys some unique natural advantages to make it

a splendid winter sports resort. Gulmarg has some of the finest Ski slopes in the world

and its nursery slopes are ideal for beginners and children. Winter sports season

usually starts from the middle of December and lasts till the end of March. The fine

ski slopes offer excellent skiing, ski-bobbing, ice skating, curling and tobogganing.

What is more unusual this varied terrain lends itself to all types of skiing, ski racing,

cross country skiing, ski trekking, High Mountain skiing and ski-jumping. Apart from

Gulmarg, Sonamarg and other resorts are also offering winter sports opportunities.

Other sports

Gulmarg, the ‘Queen of Hill Stations’, houses in it world’s highest 18 hole golf course

which is the most beautiful also. Most of the India’s Golf championships were held on

the Gulmarg course – Nedou’s Cup, Calcutta Challenge Trophy, Hill Vase Trophy,

Robin Trophy and Kashmir Festival Trophy, etc. The manufacturers of Wills cigarette

have been organising their ‘Northern India Golf Championship’ since 1976 every

year. Some of the finest golf courses are also available in Srinagar and Pahalgam. One

more golf course, and perhaps the best, is being developed at Bungus, Kupwara.

In this region one can enjoy exciting Angling and excellent hunting. One of the

famous attractions of the tourists in the state is trout fishing, having variety and

quality. Almost all the hill streams are full of trouts. Trout fishing is one of the most

exciting and most rewarding sports available to all who come to valley. An Angler

has more than 60 beats at his disposal in the Kashmir valley to choose. Aharbal and

Pahalgam are the best sites for angling.

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Riding in the Kashmir is one more fascinating activity at the disposal of visitors.

Riding through the dense forests and along the river banks of the region has its own

charm. While ridding one comes across different scenic splendours and get excited

while crossing the different adventurous tracks. Hundreds of horses and ponies are

available at Pahalgam, Sonmarg and Gulmarg.

Recently paragliding has been started at Sonamarg, which is supposed to increase the

tourist volume to this resort.

3.3.3.3 Shopping

For the keen shopper, Kashmir is a handicraft lover’s delight. Beauty abounds in

Kashmiri artifacts, paper machie lacquered and painted in floral designs, wood

carvings and screens, carpets, soft and fine in typical oriental style and designs. Few

places in the world as small as Kashmir offer such a variety of skilled craftsmanship.

In the bazaars of Srinagar one can have plenty of fur and leather articles, juicy fruits

as well as dry fruits for which it is known in the whole world.

3.3.4 Miscellaneous attractions

3.3.4.1 Fairs, festivals and events

The Tourism Department has recently started many fairs, festivals and events to

attract tourists and enhance their level of satisfaction. Tulip festival is one such

festival which has been very successful in attracting tourists world over. Tulip festival

in Kashmir has found its place in the luxury travel magazine of UK, ‘Traveller’ as one

of the five spectacular festivals in the month of April (Bhandara, 2012) along with the

Japanese Cherry Blossom, Melbourne International Comedy Festival, World

Shakespeare Festival, London; and the Monte Carlo Spring Arts Festival at Monaco.

The Indira Gandhi Memorial Tulip Garden in Srinagar, in which the festival is held, is

a riot of colors with over 1.2 million tulips of 70 varieties in bloom. The festival lasts

for the first three weeks of April and attracts a large number of domestic and foreign

visitors.

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Arts and Crafts Festival is organised in Srinagar every year, showcasing the best

handicrafts of the region. A large fair is held each month on the 8th and 15th days of

the bright fortnight, especially of May-June at Tulmul Spring. South to the Shalimar

gate is the famous spring of Gupta Ganga at which a fair is annually held on the

Baisakhi day. Many other festivals are organised in the region annually, e.g. Urs at

Charar-e-Sharief and hazratbal Mosque, which attract many local visitors.

3.3.4.2 Climate

The climate of the Kashmir region is very salubrious and invigorating. The weather is

supposed to be having many health benefits. For chest cases, the climate here is more

suitable than the climate of England. For convalescents, from acute disease of those

who are weakened by prolonged fever or over-strain, nervous disease, dyspepsia, etc.

Kashmir is eminently suitable during the summer and autumn. Climate of Kokernag is

suited for lung complaints. The climate of Pahalgam has proved efficacious for

patients suffering from cough and tuberculosis, low appetite, dyspepsia and physical

debility. Tangmarg at the foot of Gulmarg is very useful for lung complaints and there

is sanatorium for tuberculosis patients at Tangmarg. The elevations of Gulmarg and

Sonamarg are too good many of those who suffer from heart disease and are having

susceptible asthma (Bandhu, 1989). Adams (1867) compares the spring of Kashmir

with the European climate and remarks, “it was a lovely spring morning, and so like

home, that I could scarcely persuade myself I was not in some beautiful nook in Old

England.”

3.3.4.3 Ephemeral landscape

As mentioned earlier in this chapter, Kashmir’s landscape has an advantage of falling

in the category of ‘landscape ephemera’. Landscape ephemera or ‘Ephemeral

landscape’ changes its appearance with the change in weather, seasons, the growth

and decay of plants and so on. Any season is a good season for any visitor to choose

Kashmir for a holiday (Adams, 1867). About the summer months Adiar (1899) says

“one might spend one’s time worse than by passing the months of April and May in

Kashmir, which surely at this time of year must be hard to beat anywhere for beauty.

The trees, meadows, and even houses, are covered with many-coloured flowers, while

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the whiteness of the snows, still low down on the mountain-sides, forms a brilliant

background to every picturesque scene.” In autumn season all the trees and plants

shed their leaves and the landscape changes its character totally. And in winter the

snow covers and conceals the landscape and attracts the visitors for winter sports,

especially skiing.

3.4 Tourism types in Kashmir

Kashmir has at least something to offer to almost everyone. From luxury to adventure

the valley offers many opportunities for tourism. Although various visitors enter the

valley with different objectives and motives but most of the visitors actually involve

in many activities and hence cannot be strictly categorised into a particular type of

tourism. For example, a tourist coming on a pilgrimage tour to Amarnath Cave also

visits Pahalgam and other resorts; enjoys the stay in houseboats and may involve in

activities like rafting etc. However, it can safely be categorised that Kashmir region

offers the following major tourism types.

1. Aesthetic Tourism: The majority of foreign as well as domestic arrivals visit

Kashmir to have a sight of the region’s exotic, unsurpassed and matchless beauty,

in the from of scenic splendour and the beauty of the cultural heritage to satisfy

their aesthetic instinct.

2. Religious/Pilgrimage Tourism: Lakhs of devout Hindus visit the region every

year to fulfil their religious and spiritual thirst by climbing an altitude of 5486 m

above sea level to have a glimpse of the Amarnathji Cave. It is considered as the

Mecca of Hindus. Hazratbal is similarly important for local people who pay a visit

to have a glimpse of the holy relict of Prophet there. Apart from these two major

religious places Kashmir valley has many sacred sites which are considered holy

by both Hindus and Muslims.

3. Cultural/Heritage Tourism: Kashmir, with its land full of ancient monuments,

historical places and rich cultural heritage, is a hunting ground for the tourists to

quench their thirst of intellectual curiosity. Here visitors visit various ancient

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monuments, places of historical importance or centres of cultural heritage

frequently.

4. Climate Tourism: Domestic tourists mainly come to Kashmir Valley to beat the

hot weather at their home places. Kashmir with comparatively low temperature

attracts most of the tourists to its salubrious and invigorating climate during the

summer season.

5. Adventure Tourism: People from various parts of the world make adventure by

climbing or trekking those peaks and routes of the region which involve all types

of risks but provide a sense of achievement which very few can have. Every

corner of the region has some adventure for those who are real adventurists.

6. Sports Tourism: Playing golf, skiing, hunting, boating, shooting and angling is

something which only this region of India can offer. Famous trout fish and other

sports attract many to visit and stay in the valley.

7. Winter Tourism: Many tourists are attracted to see the snowfall, which covers

the valley with white sheet during winter a rare scene to have in plains. Skiing is

one of the best activities to do in Gulmarg from January to March and recently

many domestic as well as foreign tourists have shown their keen interest to enjoy

the winter in Kashmir. The ski resort of Gulmarg is ranked amongst the top five

destination in the world by UK based luxury travel magazine ‘Traveller’

(Bahadur, 2011).

8. Health Tourism: The Mughal Emperors made Kashmir valley a health-resort and

fed their love for nature. (Koul, 1925). The climate of the Kashmir region is, on

the whole, salubrious and invigorating. The weather is supposed to be having

many health benefits (already mentioned in section 3.3.4.2).

9. Convention tourism: Facility of Convention Complex in the region has brought

the state on the map of convention tourism, where people travel to attend

conventions relating to their business, profession or education.

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10. Honeymoon: Kashmir landscape has been romanticised by poets, painters as well

as politicians and laureates since ages. Its natural scenery, romantic Houseboats

and Shikaras make it an ideal location for newly wed couples to spend their

valuable time there. Kashmir has been recently recommended as an ultimate

honeymoon destination by UK based travel magazine ‘Traveller’ for the month of

July along with Iceland and Botswana (Shewakramani, 2013).

3.5 Landscape Assessment

Based on the foregoing discussion an assessment of the natural and cultural landscape

of Kashmir has been attempted. Landscape and visual assessment is considered as an

essential environmental management tool and has been in use since 1970’s (The

Landscape Institute & Institute of Environmental Management and Assessment,

2002). It is also observed that these concerns are due to increasing pressure for change

in the landscape and equally growing need to protect the landscapes with high scenic

qualities that are considered to be diminishing. In addition, the task of assessing,

designating and protecting the character and qualities of the landscapes are also

through institutionalized programs such as, Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty

(AONB), Special Landscape Area (SLA) of UK (Scott & Bullen, 2004), International

Union for Conservation of Natural Resources (IUCN) and so on.

It is vehemently emphasised that the visual experience of the landscapes is

comparable to any commodity or services consumed by the end user and can be

equated to a resource. Landscape has been referred to as ‘visual resource’ that cannot

be substantiated on quantitative economic terms. Zube et al. (1975) had considered

the landscape as a qualitative ‘intangible resource’. Moreover, growing demand for

tourism experiences in high quality natural environments has created a need to

recognize aesthetics as tourism resources (Williams et al, 1996).

Substance of landscape encompasses the whole of our external environment, ranging

from highly nurtured urbanscapes to un-nurtured natural wildlands. The nature and

pattern of buildings, streets, open spaces and trees; and their interrelationships within

the built environment; are equally important parts of our landscape heritage.

Landscape is important because it is a valuable recreational resource, archaeological

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and historical evidence, habitat for all living beings, and it contributes to our quality

of life, evokes sensory, cultural and spiritual responses (Purushothaman, 2013).

Tourism is a system that functions more than an industry (Gunn, 1994), and exists on

an inter-correlated web of economy and culture and environment. Tourism sustains

when these three layers of the system interplay among each other optimally and

strengthens the system further. Nevertheless, among the above said three layers, the

environment and environmental settings, i.e. ‘the landscape’, sets the base for tourism

system without which the other two become incongruous (Purushothaman, 2013).

Hence, landscape settings are a major and fundamental base for tourism development.

The landscape preference value can be a good precedent to tourism planning and

regional planning process (Craik, 1975; 1983). This is strengthened by Peter Williams

W. et al (1996) stating , ‘Growing demand for tourism experience in high-quality

natural environments has created a need to recognize landscape aesthetics as tourism

resource’ and further stating that the inherent subjectivity must be recognized keeping

track of what really counts for tourist as attraction. Donert and Light (1996) identified

‘Heritage Solution’, as a process of using the past to regenerate the present as a

strategy to alternative tourism. Heritage tourism can also be act as supplementary to

natural landscape. However it is noted that landscape preference studies are an

integral part of landuse decision and tourism planning fields and as means to

understand the value of the landscape perceived by the ‘landscape users’ and general

public.

3.5.1 Landscape components

Landscape consists of physical and cultural, visual and perceptual components.

Physical components are categorized into universal or primary components and local

or secondary components. Primary components include vegetation, water, landform

and builtform. Although perceptual components viz. civic and space related are also

used in most of the studies but here the analysis has been restricted to the four primary

physical components and one cultural component. The mere presence or absence of

these four primary components and their combination determines the quality of the

landscape. The primary components are further divided into secondary and even

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tertiary components, which are more determined by the local character of the

landscape and are, hence, site specific. For example, water is the primary physical

component available almost everywhere, but the same water components can be in the

form of rivers, streams, canals, lakes, ponds, wetlands, backwaters, sea or oceans.

3.5.2 Landscape preferences

Tourist movement in the Kashmir valley depends on the recreational opportunities

provided. Different tourists have different demands, depending upon their attitude,

socio-economic status, age etc. Some may demand solace, calm and loneliness; others

like to party and enjoy crowds. Some may prefer to stay in comfortable hotels while

others love adventure and may prefer to spend their nights in tents and camps. Some

like to travel alone while others move in groups. Younger people may want to go for

trekking while older ones won’t be comfortable in walking. The preferences may

range form liking of natural wild places like forests to the art appreciating and urban

tourists. Since landscape is the amalgamation of different components (both physical

and cultural) the combination of these components makes a particular landscape

unique. Kashmirscape is a unique combination of four primary components viz.

vegetation, landform, water and builtform. Subdivisions of these primary components

determine the diversity in a particular destination. The preferences for primary

landscape components available within the region are given in Table 3.4.

Table 3.4 Preference for primary landscape components

Primary Landscape Components

Order of Preference

Vegetation (V) I

Landform (L) II

Water (W) III

Builtform (B) V

Heritage (H) IV

Source: Field Survey

The table shows that the visitors’ preference for vegetation has got the highest rank,

followed by landform, water, heritage and builtform. The mean score of secondary

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landscape component preference is given in Table 3.5. In the vegetation category

Forests are most preferred, followed by meadows and agricultural tracts. Mountainous

and hilly areas are highly preferred when compared to flat lands. Lakes and springs,

because of their unique nature, are more preferred than rivers and wetlands. Builtform

in Kashmir has got a very low score, while historical monuments are more preferred

than the religious and cultural components.

Table 3.5 Preferences for secondary landscape components (N=500)

Primary Landscape Component

Secondary Landscape Components

Mean score (out of 9)

Order of preference

Vegetation

• Forest • Agriculture • Meadows

8.20 5.79 7.93

I III II

Landform • Flat/Plain • Plateau • Hill & Valley • Mountainous

5.10 5.49 7.52 7.69

IV III II I

Water • River/Canal • Lake • Glacial Lake • Springs • Marshy/wetland

6.36 7.73 6.12 6.86 4.09

III I

IV II V

Builtform • Rural • Urban

2.73 2.10

I II

Heritage • Religious • Historical • Cultural

6.88 7.12 6.80

II I

III Source: Field Survey Preference Scale: 1 = least preferred; 9 = most preferred

When preference scores of different tourist types are compared (Table 3.6), variations

are found. Foreign tourists generally give a higher preference for the heritage

component (M = 7.25; S.D. = 0.19), followed by vegetation (M = 6.89; S.D. = 0.32),

landform (M = 6.72; S.D. = 0.53) and water (M = 5.77; S.D. = 0.99). For domestic

tourists it is the vegetation which has got the highest score (M = 7.88; S.D. = 0.78),

followed by water (M = 6.96; S.D. = 0.37). However, one thing common between the

two is their least preference for the builtform, for which foreign visitors’ overall mean

score is 1.13 only and for domestic visitors it is 5.11. Local excursionists have shown

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highest preference for landform (M = 7.02; S.D. = 1.03) and the lowest preference is

for heritage (M = 2.98; S.D. = 1.76).

Table 3.6 Preference for primary landscape components by different types of visitors

Primary Landscape Components

Tourists (N=500)

Foreign Domestic Local Total

M1 S.D. M2 S.D M3 S.D. M4 S.D. Vegetation (V) 6.89 0.32 7.88 0.78 6.58 0.57 7.12 0.85 Water (W) 5.77 0.99 6.96 0.37 5.91 1.08 6.21 0.76 Landform (L) 6.72 0.53 6.25 0.98 7.02 1.03 6.66 1.07 Builtform (B) 1.13 0.39 5.11 1.13 4.15 1.32 3.46 1.09 Heritage (H) 7.25 0.19 5.75 1.16 2.98 1.76 5.33 0.92 Rating scale ranges from: 1 = least preferred; 9 = most preferred Source: Field Survey

The foreign visitors show more preference for the heritage components, because most

of the foreign travellers are from Europe where the physical landscape is more or less

identical to Kashmir. So they appreciate the cultural landscape more than its physical

or weather components. Domestic tourists prefer vegetation, especially forests, more

because such temperate forests are not available in the mainland India. The least

preference of local tourists for the heritage component reflects the lack of knowledge,

and hence the appreciation, of the historical and cultural heritage of their own region.

The visitors were asked to rate their liking of the landscape components they have

encountered while on their visit to the Kashmir region, on the likeness scale whose

values ranged from 1 (least liked) to 9 (most liked). The mean likeness scores are

given in the Table 3.7. The combination of mountain and forest is the most liked

landscape, with mean score of 8.53, followed by meadow within a forest (M = 8.53).

Components with a very high likeness score (M ≥ 7.00) include glaciers, forests,

lakes, rivers and meadows with different combinations. Cultural landscape and lakes

with houseboats fall under ‘High Liked’ category (M = 6.00 – 7.00), whereas, marshy

lands, rural areas and large urban cities fall under ‘Low liked’ category (M = 3.00 –

4.00). Only small urban towns got a score so low that it is categorised into very low

liking category (M ≤ 3.00). This shows that the smaller urban towns are acting as an

eye sore for the visual preference of the visitors. Generally the landscape components

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Table 3.7 Likeness rating of landscape components available within Kashmir region (N=500)

Landscape Components and combinations

Mean Likeness Score (out of 9)

Likeness category

Mountains with dense forest 8.72 VH Meadows within the forests 8.53 VH High altitude mountain lakes 7.61 VH Rivers with natural course 7.54 VH Lakes without Houseboats 7.47 VH Forests without roads & hotels 7.45 VH Forests with roads & hotels 7.25 VH Glaciers 7.23 VH Lakes with Houseboats 6.89 H Cultural landscape 6.17 H Orchards & other plantations 5.95 M Agricultural lands 5.76 M Open lands 5.73 M Mountains with sparse forests 5.33 M Mountains without forest 5.31 M Rivers with modified banks 5.21 M Marshy Lands 3.99 L Rural areas 3.65 L Large urban cities 3.55 L Small urban towns 2.12 VL Overall 6.22 H Likeness scale: 1 = least liked; 9 = most liked VH=Very High, H=High, M=Medium, L=Low, VL=Very Low Source: Field Survey

in their natural state got higher likeness score than the modified landscapes. Overall

likeness of the Kashmirscape is high (M = 6.22).

Table 3.8 Perception of the landscape quality of Kashmir region

Tourists (N=500) Foreign (n1=120)

Domestic (n2=251)

Local (n3=129)

Extremely Beautiful Landscape (EBL) 24 98 111 Beautiful Landscape (BL) 87 127 18 Moderately beautiful Landscape (MBL) 9 12 0 Slightly Beautiful Landscape (SBL) 0 11 0 Neutral Landscape (NL) 0 3 0 Slightly ugly landscape (SUL) 0 0 0 Moderately ugly landscape (MUL) 0 0 0 Ugly landscape (UL) 0 0 0 Extremely Ugly Landscape (UL) 0 0 0 Rating scale values are 1 = Extremely Ugly Landscape, 9 = Extremely Beautiful Landscape Source: Field Survey

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Nevertheless, when the respondents were asked to rate the beauty of the overall

landscape of the region, 46.6 % found it ‘extremely beautiful’, while no respondent

considered it ugly (Table 3.8), irrespective of the place of origin. This testifies the

quality of the landscape that the region of Kashmir possesses.

3.5.3 Traversed landscape assessment

Landscape is an endless continuity of experiences and a continuous system of mutual

relation between natural and cultural dimensions to a traveller in motion. So, the

perceived visual landscapes draws the attention of all types of travellers on road, for

the component parts or composed character, it displays. The experience of the

travelers, traversing in the landscape, is affected by the presence of existing or

changes brought about in the Landuse pattern, landform, water and builtform. It is

also observed that population density and urbanization affect landscape preferences.

Travellers are important stakeholders of visual consumptions of the landscapes,

between the tourist destinations as attractions (Purushothaman, 2013).

Tourists visiting the Kashmir region make Srinagar their base point, from where,

depending upon the itinerary, any of the nine entry points, which are mostly the

towns, are traversed through to visit the respective destinations. Almost all the tourist

resorts lie at about the same distance from Srinagar (Table 3.9). Since landscape is an

important resource for tourism development. Similarly, roadside landscape qualities

are considered crucial for travel and tourism. And so the traveler’s perception and

preferences as to what makes an attraction, has a vital role in landscape as well as

tourism planning (Gunn, 1997 & 1979).

Only 17 per cent of the respondents (domestic and foreign) use air transport as their

mode of travel to visit Kashmir. Rest of the visitors use either bus or hired taxi or

private vehicle. Even those visitors who use air transport need the surface transport

for visiting different resorts within the Kashmir region. A tourist may spend hours on

road while moving from one destination to other. Therefore, the visual quality of

these traversed landscapes need to be satisfying. Visitors were asked to rate their

experience of travel while going from Srinagar to five different resorts (1 = least

satisfactory; 5 = most satisfactory). Among these five vistas three (Srinagar to

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Gulmarg; Pahalgam and Sonmarg) are most used and two (Srinagar to Watlab and

Aharbal) are least travelled. Travellers were most satisfied with the vista 2 (Srinagar

to Pahalgam) and least satisfied with the vista 4 (Srinagar to Watlab). Further, the

Table 3.9 Distance between Srinagar and other tourist resorts of Kashmir region

Tourist Resort Distance from

Srinagar (in Km)

Time (approx.)

Main town traversed

Gulmarg 45 >1 hour Kunzer, Magam, Tangmarg Pahalgam 96 ̴ 2 hours Pampore, Awantipore, Bijbehara,

Anantnag Sonamarg 76 >1 hour Ganderbal, Kangan, Liddarwat 117 >2 hours Anantnag Aharbal 66 >1 hour Shopian, Pulwama Dodhpathri 50 >1 hour Budgam Yusmarg 47 >1 hour Budgam, Chadoora, Charar-e-Sharief Watlab 58 >1 hour Pattan, Sopore Daksum 97 ̴ 2 hours Pampore, Awantipora, Bijbehara,

Anantnag, Achabal Lolaab 120 ̴ 2 hours Pattan, Sopore, Handwara, Kupwara Bungus 150 ̴ 3 hours Pattan, Sopore, Handwara, Kupwara Verinag 80 >1 hour Pampore, Awantipora, Bijbehara,

Anantnag, Doru Kokernag 77 >1 hour Pampore, Awantipora, Bijbehara,

Anantnag, Achabal Achabal 62 >1 hour Pampore, Awantipora, Bijbehara,

Anantnag

Ganderbal 21 ̴ 30 min - Gangabal 66 >1 hour Ganderbal Chandanwari 109 >2 hours Pampore, Awantipora, Bijbehara,

Anantnag

Aru 100 ̴ 2 hours Pampore, Awantipora, Bijbehara, Anantnag

www.koausa.org/Geography/ch5.1.html

visitors were asked about the experiences with different landscape components and

settings while traversing the landscape. The results (Table 3.11) reveal that near towns

and villages a large proportion of the visitors found the experience very unpleasant. In

open areas, on the other hand, very pleasant experience was revealed by about 40 per

cent of the visitors. Overall experience has been unpleasant, as 37.3% of the

respondents revealed.

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Table 3.10 Visitor satisfaction of vistas travelled

Vista No.

Vista Mean Score Order of satisfaction

1 Srinagar to Gulmarg 3.06 II 2 Srinagar to Pahalgam 3.21 I 3 Srinagar to Sonamarg 3.04 III 4 Srinagar To Watlab 2.73 V 5 Srinagar to Aharbal 2.89 IV

Source: Field Survey

Table 3.11 Experience of road travellers on the traversed landscape

Experience of Road Travellers

Per cent of responses Very

Pleasant Pleasant Average Unpleasant Very

unpleasant View near towns 0.9 6.8 36.2 23.8 32.3 View near villages 8.1 15.5 38.3 19.5 18.6 View in open areas 41.9 28.3 24.7 4.8 0.3 Overall experience 5.7 18.1 31.5 37.3 7.4 Source: Field Survey

3.6 Summary

The landscape of Kashmir region is of a very high quality. Moreover, it is the only

natural resource abundant in the otherwise resourceless (in terms of minerals) region.

One important characteristic of this intangible resource is its association with the

fragile ecosystems. If such a landscape is put to industrial use and if ‘chimneys’ are

given a green signal in the region, the delicate ecological relationships will be easily

disturbed, rendering this biologically rich area misbalanced. Instead, if this magical

combination of physical and cultural landscape components is put to the use it

deserves, i.e. recreation, it will bring economic development without changing the

basic structure and character of the landscape. Landscape assessment, in terms of

visitor preferences and attitudes, shows that the human intervention with the natural

landscape is downgrading the quality for which Kashmir is famous. Seeing the

increasing importance of the landscapes many countries have put forth laws and plans

to preserve them. For example, the designation of 38 regions as Areas of Outstanding

Natural Beauty (AONB) in England under the 1949 National Parks Act had the

primary aim of preserving and enhancing the beauty of these areas for recreation

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purpose. Kashmir region needs to introduce such a plan under which the areas having

extraordinarily beautiful landscapes are protected under legislation and managed in

such a manner that their natural beauty is enhanced.