Land Use. Human Nutritional requirements Males- 2500 calories; Females- 2000 calories Balanced...

Land Use

Human Nutritional requirements

• Males- 2500 calories; Females- 2000 calories• Balanced intake of fats, carbohydrates and

proteins. • Protein produces 4 calories of energy per gram

and should make up 30% of all calories• Carbohydrates also produce 4 calories of energy

per gram and should make up 60% of all calories• Fats produce 9 calories of energy per gram and

should make up 10% of all calories


• Only about 100 species of plants are commercially grown to meet human needs

• Of these Wheat and rice supply over half of the human caloric intake

• 8 species of animal protein supply over 90% of the worlds needs. • It takes about 16 pounds of grain to produce 1 pounds of meat• 20% of the worlds richest countries consume 80% of the worlds

mean production• 90% of grain grown in the US is for animal feed• By consuming grain directly instead of consuming the animals that

feed upon it there would be a 20-fold increase in the amount of calories available and an 8-fold increase in the amount of protein available.


• In terms of famine and malnutrition, 11 million children die each year from starvation and 850 million people are considered malnourished.

• Chronic undernourishment and vitamin/mineral deficiencies result in; stunted growth, weakness and increased susceptibility to illness.

Types of Agriculture

• Agroforestry: harvestable trees or shrubs are drown among or around crops or on pastureland as a means of preserving or enhancing the productivity of the land

• Alley Cropping: planting crops in strips with rows of trees or shrubs on each side. Increases biodiversity, reduces surface runoff and erosion, improves uptake of nutrients, modifies the microclimate for improved crop production, improves wildlife habitat.


• Crop Rotation: Planting a field with different crops from year to year to reduce soil nutrient depletion. Example: rotation corn or cotton which removes large amounts of nitrogen from the soil, with soybeans that replenish the nitrogen

• High-Input Agriculture: use of mechanized equipment, chemical fertilizers and pesticides

• Industrial Agriculture or Corporate Farming: characterized by mechanization, monocultures and use of synthetic inputs such as chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Emphasis on productivity and profitability.


• Intercropping: to grow more than one crop in the same field, especially in alternating rows or sections

• Interplanting: growing two different crops in the same area at the same time. To interplant successfully, plants should have similar nutrient and moisture requirements

• Low-input: Depends on hand tools and natural fertilizers; lacks large scale irrigation.


• Low-till, No-till or Conservation-till: Soil is disturbed little or not at all to reduce soil erosion. Has lower labor costs, reduces the need for fertilizer and saves energy.

• Monoculture: the cultivation of a single crop• Polyculture: planting a ploy of land with several

varieties of the SAME crop• Tillage: Conventional method in which the surface is

plowed which then breaks up and exposes the soil. This is then followed by smoothing the surface and planting. This method exposes the land to water and wind erosion


• Organic Farming: relies on crop rotation, green manure, compost, biological pest control and mechanical cultivation to maintain soil productivity an control pests. This practice excludes or strictly limits the use of synthetic fertilizers or pesticides. Doesn’t use plant growth regulators, livestock feed additives and GMOs

• Plantation: a commercial tropical agriculture system that is essentially export oriented. Involves the deliberate introduction and cultivation of economically desirable species of tropical plants at the expense of widespread replacement of the original native flora. Practices include; modifications or disturbance of the natural landscape through permanent removal or natural vegetation, changes in drainage channels, application of chemicals to the soil etc.

Types Of Agriculture

• Polyculture: Planting DIFFERENT crops in the same place, in imitation of the diversity of natural ecosystems. Avoids large stands of a single crop (monoculture). Includes; crop rotation, multicropping, intercropping and alley cropping. Often requires more labor but has several advantages over monoculture. The diversity of crops avoids the susceptibility of monocultures to disease. The greater variety of crops provides habitat for more species, increasing local biodiversity.

Green Revolution

• Occurred between 1950-1970• Involved planting monocultures, using high applications of inorganic

fertilizers an pesticides and the widespread use of artificial irrigation systems.

• Crop acreage increased by 25% but crop yield increased by 200%- it then reached a plateau since it was easer and more economical to increase production through different farming techniques than to buy more land

• The 2nd green revolution began in the 70s and continues today• It involves GMOs that produce the most yield per acer. • In its contrast with past agriculture practices in which famers panted a

variety of locally adapted plant strains. • Example: of all the wheat grown in the US today, 50% comes from 9

different genotypes

Criticisms of the Green Revolution• Unsustainable• Increasing food production in not synonymous with increasing

food security (famines are not can use by decreases in food supply buy by socioeconomic dynamic and a failure of public action)

• Produces monoculture of cereal grains, while traditional agriculture usually incorporates polyculture

• There has been a drop in productivity due to desertification and other forms of land degradation

• Necessary purchase of inputs led to widespread establishment of rural credit institutions that cause smaller farmers to go into debt and in many cases resulted in the loss of their land.

Criticisms of the Green Revolution

• Increased use of pesticides, necessary to limit the high levels of pest damage that happen in monoculture

• Salinization, water logging, and lowering of water levels in certain areas increase as consequences of increased irrigation

• Reduced agricultural biodiversity, as it relied upon only a few high-yield varieties of each crop. This led to the susceptibility of the food supply to pathogens that can be controlled by agrochemicals as well as the permanent loss of many valuable genetic traits bread into traditional varieties over thousands of years.

Genetic Engineering and Crop Production

• Genetic engineering involves moving genes from one species to another or designing gene sequences with desirable characteristics

• These include; pest, drought, mold and saline resistance, higher protein yields and higher vitamin content

• About 75% of all crops grown, derive from genetically engineered or transgenic crop species.

Genetic Engineering and Crop Production

• PROS: require less water and fertilizers, higher crop yields, less spoilage, faster growth which may mean greater productivity, resulting in lower operating costs, more resistant to disease, drought, frost and insects, may be able to grow in saltier soils.

• CONS: unknown ecological effects, less biodiversity, may harm beneficial insects, may pose allergen risk, may result in mutations with unknown consequences, may cause pesticide resistant strains

Case Study: Golden Rice

• Golden Rice is produced by splicing three foreign genes, two from the daffodil and one from bacterium, into a variety of rice that supplies vitamin A to populations that frequently suffer from vitamin A deficiency.

Irrigation • ¾ of all freshwater is used on crops• Worldwide, about 40% of all crop yields come from 16% of all cropland

that is irrigated.• Use of irrigation depends on the climate and the degree of

industrialization• Ex: Canada irrigates 10% of its crops, India irrigates 90% of its crops. • With inefficiencies (leakage, evaporation) up to 70% of irrigation water

is lost• A drip irrigation would solve these problems but would be expensive to

install and is only used on 1% of crops world wide.• Increases in population are outpacing the rate of land that is being

irrigated.• Sustainable irrigation is limited because of costs, depletion of water

sources, competition for water by urban areas, waterlogging and salinization.

Sustainable Agriculture

• 3 goals: environmental health, economic profitability and social and economic equity

• Specific strategies must take into account; topography, soil characteristics, climate, pests, local availability of inputs and grower’s goals.

• Costs of Agriculture; topsoil depletion, groundwater contamination, decline of family farms, continued neglect of the living and working conditions for farm laborers, costs in production and disintegration of economic and social conditions in rural communities.

Sustainable Agriculture- Efficient Use of Inputs

• Sustainable farmers maximize reliance on natural, renewable farm inputs with the goal to develop efficient, biological systems that don’t need high levels of material inputs.

• Approaches are those that are least toxic and most energy efficient and yet maintain productivity and profitability.

• Preventive strategies and other alternatives should be used before chemicals

Sustainable Agriculture- Selection of Site, Species and Variety

• Preventive strategies, when adopted early, can reduce inputs and help establish sustainable production systems

• When possible, pest-resistant crops should be selected that are tolerant of existing soil or site condition

• When site selection is an option factors such as soil type and depth, previous crop history and location should be looked at before planting

Sustainable Agriculture- Soil Management

• Systems that impair soil quality resulting in greater inputs of water, nutrients, pesticides and/or energy for tillage to maintain yields

• The soil is viewed as fragile and living medium that must be protected and nurtured to ensure its long-term productivity and stability

• Methods to protect and enhance soil; use cover crops, compost, manures, reducing tillage, maintaining soil cover with plants or mulches, regular additions of organic matter.

Sustainable Agriculture- Species Diversity

• By growing a variety of crops- farmers spread out the economic risk and are less susceptible to radical price fluctuations associated with supply and demand.

• Cover crops can have stabilizing effects on the agroecosystrem by holding soil and nutrients in place, conserving soil moisture with dead mulches and increasing the water infiltration rate and water-holding capacity.

Sustainable Agriculture- Species Diversity

• To increase diversity crops and livestock can be integrated in the same farming operation

• Growing row crops on more level land and pasture on steeper slopes will reduce soil erosion

• Planting pasture and forage crops in rotation enhances soil quality and reduces erosion

• Livestock manure can contribute to soil fertility• Livestock can buffer the negative impacts of low rainfall periods

by consuming crop residue that in plant-only systems would be considered crop failures.

• Feeding and marketing are flexible in animal production systems.

Types of Pesticides

• Biological: living organisms are used to control pests. Examples include; bacteria, ladybugs, milky spore disease, parasitic wasps and certain viruses

Case Study• Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a soil-dwelling bacterium that also occurs

naturally in the gut of caterpillars of various types of moths and butterflies, as well as on dark surfaces of plants

• Proteins produced by Bt are uses as specific insecticides• It works by secreting one or more toxins after being ingested by an insect• The toxins are often specific to a family of insects and because of their

specificity, these pesticides are regarded as environmentally friendly• Disadvantages:

– Constant exposure to a toxin can create evolutionary pressures for pests resistant to that toxin

• Advantages:– The level of toxin can be very high, thus delivering sufficient dosage to the pest– It is contained within the plant system therefore only those insects that feed on

the crop perish– It replaces the use of synthetic pesticides in the environment

Types of Pesticides

• Carbamates: also known as urethanes, affect the nervous system of pests. 100 grams of a carbamate has the same effect as 2,000 grams of a chlorinated hydrocarbon (DDT). They are more water soluble which brings a greater risk of them being dissolved in surface water and getting into the groundwater.

Case Study• Potato growers on eastern Long Island, NY used Aldicarb

(carbamate) from 1975-1979 to control the Colorado potato beetle and the golden nematode.

• In 1979 the residues were detected in well water- they found that more that 2,000 wells were in excess of NY health standards

• Studies in 1983 and 1984 showed contamination had increased in areas with a deep water table

• About 1,400 wells are still contaminated today• Aldocarb is highly water soluble and is persistent in the

environment• Since the contamination of NY wells were first reported, 26 other

states reported contamination as well.

Types of Pesticides

• Chlorinated Hydrocarbons: synthetic organic compounds that affect the nervous system of pests. They are highly resistant to decomposition and can remain in the ecosystem for up to 15 years. During 1950s, DDT was linked with the thinning of eggshells in certain species of birds such as the Bald Eagle

• Fumigants: used to sterilize soil and prevent pest infestation of stored grain

• Inorganic: Broad-based pesticides. Includes arsenic, copper, lead, and mercury. Highly toxic and accumulate in the environment.

Types of Pesticides

• Organic or Natural: Natural poisons derived from plants such as tobacco or chrysanthemum

• Organophosphates: Extremely toxic but remain in the environment for only a brief time. Examples include malathion to control mosquitoes and West Nile Virus

Pros and Cons of Pesticide Use

• PROS: kills disease carrying pests, increases food supply, more food means food is less expensive, newer pesticides are safer and more specific, reduces labor costs and makes agriculture more profitable

• CONS: Accumulate in food chains, pests develop resistance and create a pesticide treadmill, $5-10 in damages for ever $1 spent on pesticides, runoff and its effect on aquatic environments through biomagnification, inefficiency- only 5% of a pesticide reaches the intended pest, threatens endangered species and pollinators, and human health

Integrated Pest Management-IPM

• Is an ecological pest control strategy that uses a variety of methods

• When these methods are used in combination they can reduce or eliminate the use of traditional pesticides

• The aim of IPM is not to eradicate pests but to control their numbers to a manageable level

• Chemical pesticides are a last result• Employs a biological, physical and chemical aspect.

Integrated Pest Management• Polyculture• Intercropping• Planting pest-repellent crops• Using mulch to control weeds• Using pyrethroids or naturally occurring microorganism instead of toxic pesticides• Natural insect predators• Rotating crops often to disrupt insect cycles• Using pheromones or hormone interrupters• Releasing sterilized insects• Developing genetically modified crops that are more insect resistant• Regular monitoring through visual inspection and traps followed by record

keeping• Construction of mechanical controls such as traps, tillage, insect barriers or

agricultural vacuums equipped with lights

Relevant Laws

• Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Control Act (FIFRA) (1947): Regulates the manufacture and use of pesticides. Pesticides must be registered and approved. Labels require directions for use and disposal

• Federal Environmental Pesticides Control Act (1972): Requires registration of all pesticides in US commerce.

• Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA) (1996): Emphasizes the protection of infants and children in reference to pesticide residue in food

Forestry

• Forestry involves management, planting of new trees, and sometimes fires

• Ecological Services of Forests:– Providing wildlife habitat– Carbon Sinks– Affecting local climate patterns– Purifying air and water– Reducing soil erosion as they serve as a watershed,

absorbing and releasing controlled amounts of water– Providing energy and nutrient cycling

Tree Plantations

• Large, managed commercial or government owned farms with uniformly aged trees of some species (monoculture)

• They may not be native to the area and may be hybrids (genetically modified)

• The main use is for pump or lumber• Pine, spruce and eucalyptus are widely used due to their fast

growth rates• Trees are harvested by clear cutting• Short rotation cycles (25-30 years or 6-10 years in tropics) are

economically important factors• 5% of the worlds trees are grown in plantations but make up

20% of the timber used

Tree Plantation• 63% are grown in the worlds secondary-growth forests and 22% are old-

growth forests• Annually, tropical tree plantations yield much more wood (25 m/hectare)

than traditional forests (1-3 m/hectare) • Tree plantations don’t support food webs found in old-growth forests

and they contain little biodiversity. Decaying wood is absent which provides a vital link in an old-growth forest

• Conversion to tree plantation may result in draining wetlands and replacing traditional hardwoods

• Newer techniques allow leaving blocks of native species in the plantation • The Kyoto Protocol encourages use of tree plantations to reduce CO2

levels although carbon dioxide may eventually re-enter the atmosphere after harvesting.

Tree Plantations

• PROS: Practical methods for trees that require full or moderate sunlight in order to grow, efficient and economical methods. Genetically improved species of trees that resist disease and grow faster. Increases economic returns on investments. Produces high yield of timber at low costs and provides jobs

• CONS: Reduces recreation value of land, if planted on steeply sloped areas, will cause soil erosion, water pollution and flooding, reduces biodiversity, Promotes monoculture and tree plantations that are prone to disease or infestation through lack of diversity.

Old-Growth Forests

• Not been seriously impacted by human activities for hundreds of years. They are rich in biodiversity. Depletion of old-growth forests increase the risk of climate change. Many old-growth forests contain species of trees with high economic value but require a long time to mature

Old Growth Forests

• Characterized by: – Older and mixed-aged trees– Minimal signs of human activity– Multilayered canopy openings due to tree fall – Healthy soil profiles– Pit-and-mount topography due to tree falling and creating new

microenvironments by recycling carbon-rich organic material directly into the soil and providing substrate for mosses, fungi and seedlings

– Decaying wood and ground level layer that provides a rich carbon sink

– Indicator species– Dead trees (snags) that are necessary nesting sites for woodpeckers

and spotted owls– A fungal ecosystem

Forest Fires• Current forest fire frequency in the US is 4X the average for 1970-

1986. Totally area burned is 7X. • The US forest service has lengthened the wildfire season by 78 days• The change in wildfire frequency appears to be linked to annual

spring and summer temps. Longer, warmer summers have increased forest fires.

• Earlier springs lead to earlier snow melt and increased dry season• As forests burn they release CO2 into the atmosphere,

compounding problems of global warming• Another reason for the increase in forest fires is a change in fire

management philosophy• Any naturally started fire on federal land that is not threatening

resources is allowed to burn

Types of Forest Fire

• Crown Fires: occur in forests that have not had surface fires in a long time. Extremely hot. Burn entire trees and leap from tree top to tree top. Kills wildlife, increases soil erosion and destroys structures

• Ground Fires: occur underground and burn partially decayed leaves. Common in peat bogs. Difficult to detect and extinguish

Types of Forest Fires

• Surface Fires: burns undergrowth and leaf litter. Kills seedlings and small trees. Spares older trees and allows many wild animals to escape. Advantages: burns away flammable ground litter, reducing larger fires later, releases minerals back into soil profile. Stimulates germination for some species with serotinous cones (require heat to open and release seeds, such as giant sequoia and jack pint), helps keep pathogens and insects in check and allows vegetation to grow in clearings that provides food for deer, moose, elk, muscrat and quail

Methods to Control Fires

• Prevention: burning permits, closing parts of the forest during times of the year when the number of visitors in high and during period of drought, and education

• Prescribed burning: purposely setting controlled surface fires and setting small, prescribed fires to thin out underbrush in high-risk areas. It requires careful planning and monitoring.

• Other strategies include allowing fires to burn themselves out and creating large clear areas around structures

Management and harvesting

• Even-aged management- essentially the practice of planting trees• Uneven-aged management- maintain a stand with trees of all ages

from seedling to mature• Selective cutting- specific trees in an area are chosen and cut• High grading- cutting and removing only the largest and best trees• Shelterwood cutting- removes all mature trees within a limited time• Seed Tree cutting- Majority of trees are removed except for

scattered, seed-producing trees used to regenerate a new stand• Clear-cutting: all of the trees in an area are cut at the same time.

This technique is sometimes used to cultivates shade-intolerant trees

• Strip cutting- clear cutting a strip of trees that follows the land contour. The corridor is allowed to regenerate

Deforestation

• Conversion of forested areas to nonforested areas (used for livestock grazing, grain field, mining, urban sprawl etc)

• Natural deforestation can be from tsunamis, flooding, forest fire, volcanoes etc

• Can result in degraded environments with reduced biodiversity and reduced ecological services. Can threaten species with specialized niches, reduces habitats, decreased soil fertility and allows runoff into aquatic ecosystems

• Can cause changed in local climate patterns and increase the amount of CO2 released into the air from burning and tree decay.

• Indirect effects caused by edge effects and fragmented habitats can occur

Deforestation

• Alters the water cycle potentially increasing or decreasing the amount of water in the soil or groundwater.

• This then affects the recharge of aquifers and the moisture in the atmosphere.

• Shrinking forest cover lessens the landscape’s capacity to intercept, retain and transport precipitation.

• Lack of trees can increase runoff leading to flash flooding or more extreme floods.

Deforestation

• Contributes to decreased evapotranspiration. This lessens atmospheric moisture and precipitation levels- this affects areas downwind from the forest as well

• Forest can extract CO2 and pollutants from the air, thus contributing to biosphere stability and reducing the greenhouse effect.

• Forests are also a valued tourist attraction

Deforestation- Schools for thought

• Impoverished school: believes the major cause for deforestation is the growing number of poor people

• Neoclassical school: believes the major cause is “open-access property rights:

• Political-ecology: school thinks the major cause is entrepreneurs.

Case Study

• The Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest centered on how deforestation affects nutrient cycles

• The forest consisted of several watersheds each drained by a single creek Impervious bedrock was close to the surface which prevented seepage of water from one forested hillside, ally and creek ecosystem to another

• Conclusions: – In a mature forest, nutrients coming into the forest are balanced by nutrients

leaving the forest– Inflow and outflow of nutrients was low compared with levels being recycled– After deforestation occurred, water runoff increased, consequently soil

erosion increased which caused a large increase in the outflow of nutrients. Increases in outflow of nutrients caused water pollution

– Nutrient loss could be reduced by clearing trees and vegetation in horizontal strips. Remaining vegetation reduced soil erosion

Forest Management • Forests cover about 1/3 of all land surface- 80% of these are closed canopies

(tree crowns covering more than 20% of the ground) and 20% are open canopy (tree crowns covering less than 20% of the ground)

• 70% are located in N. America, the Russian Federation and S. America• The US is the largest area of timbering in the Pacific Northwest employing

150,000 people- a $7 billion per year industry• Forest account for 1/3 of the land in the US, 2/3’s are nonfederal lands• The Forest Service consists of 155 national forests, 22 grasslands and was

established in 1905– manages public lands in natural forests and grasslands (193 million acres) – protects and manages natural resources on National Forest System lands. – Provides community assistance and cooperation with state and local governments,

forest industries and private landowners to protect and manage nonfederal forests, rangelands and watersheds

– Provides international assistance in formulating policy and US support for the protection and management of the worlds resources

Relevant Laws

• Forest Reserve Act (1891): Gave the president authority to establish forest reservations from public domain lands

• Wilderness Act (1964): Created the legal definition of wilderness in the US. Currently 4 agencies in charge of more than 106 million acers of federal wilderness (National Park Service, US Forest Service, US Fish and Wildlife Service and Bureau of Land Management)

Relevant Laws

• Wild and Scenic Rivers Act (1968): Preserves and protects certain rivers with outstanding natural , cultural and recreational values in a free-flowing condition for the enjoyment of present and future generations. Classifies rivers as wild, scenic or recreational

• Multiple Use and Sustained Yield Act (1960, 1968): Directs the US Secretary of Agriculture to manage national forests for recreation, wildlife habitats and timber production through principles of multiple use and sustained yield.

Relevant Laws• Federal Land Policy and Management Act (FLPMA) (1976):

Along with the Taylor Grazing Act, outlines policy concerning the use and preservation of public lands in the US. Grants federal government jurisdiction on consequences of mining on public lands. Grants Bureau of Land Management responsibility to manage all public lands not within national forests or parks- a multiple use policy

• Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act (FRRRPA) (1976): Also known as the Notional Forest Management Act. Requires the secretary of agriculture to develop a management program for national forest lands based on multiple use and sustained yield principals Also addresses timber-harvesting rates, methods and locations

Relevant Laws

• National Forests Management Act (1976): Authorized the creation and use of a special fund in situations involving salvage of insect-infested, dead, damaged or drowned timber and to remove associated trees for stand improvement

• Healthy Forest Initiative (2003): Allows timber companies to cut down economically valuable trees in most national forests for 10 years. Timber companies in return must clear out small, more fire-prone trees and underbrush. Law may have consequences of increasing fires by accumulation of slash and increasing fire-prone younger trees.

Rangelands

Rangelands

• Are being compromised by overgrazing and desertification. The federal government is trying to manage and sustain the rangelands

Overgrazing• Occurs when plants are exposed to grazing for too long without

sufficient recovery periods• When a plant is grazed severely it uses stored energy in its roots to

support regrowth• As this energy is used, the roots die back• The degree to which the roots die back depends on the severity of

the grazing. • Rood dieback does add organic matter to the soil which increases

soil porosity, the infiltration rate of water and the soil’s moisture holding capacity.

• If sufficient time has passed, enough leaves will regrow and the roots will regrow as well.

• A plant is considered over grazed with it is regrazed before the roots recover.

• Overgrazing can reduce root growth by up to 90%

Overgrazing• Consequences:

– Pastures becoming less productive– Soils having less organic matter and becoming less fertile– Decrease in soil porosity– The infiltration rate and moisture holding capacity of the soil drops – Susceptibility to soil compaction increased– Desirable plants become stressed while weedier species thrice in

these harsher conditions– Biodiversity decreases by reducing native vegetation- leads to

erosion– Riparian areas are affected by cattle destroying banks and

streambeds – Eutrophication increased due to cattle wastes– Increases disease in native plants – Land is affected to the point that sustainability is threatened

Desertification

• Conversion of marginal rangeland or cropland to a more desert type of land

• Caused by: overgrazing, soil erosion, prolonged drought or climate changes as well as the overuse of resources such as nutrients and water

• 1. overgrazing results in animals eating all available plant life 2. rain washes away trampled soil since there isn’t anything to hold the soil down 3. wells, springs and other sources of water dry up. 4. what vegetation is left dies from drought or is taken for firewood 5. Weeds that are unsuitable for grazing may begin to take over 6. the ground becomes unsuitable for seed germination 7. wind and dry heat blow away the topsil.

Federal Rangeland Management

• Comprise 40% of the landmass in the US and are the dominate type of land in arid and semiarid regions

• 80% of lands in the western US are classified as rangelands• Serve purposes like:

– A habitat for a wide array of game and nongame animals– A habitat for a diverse and wide array of native plants– A source of high-quality water, clean air and open spaces– A setting for recreational hiking, camping, fishing hunting and

nature experiences– The foundation for low-input fully renewable food production

systems for the cattle industry.

Federal Rangeland Management

• Jurisdiction of public grazing rangeland is coordinated through the Forest Service and the Bureau of Land Management (BLM)

• Before 1995, grazing policies were determined by rancher advisory boards composed of permit holders

• After 1995, resource advisory councils were formed made up of diverse groups representing different viewpoints and interests

• 40% of all federal grazing permits are owned by 3% (about 2000) of all livestock operators.

• Federal grazing permits average about $0.05 a day per animal. Though the true cost of doing business would be about $10-20 per day per animal

Methods of Rangeland Management

• Controlling the number and distribution of livestock so that carrying capacity is not exceeded

• Restoring degraded rangeland• Moving livestock from one area to another to allow for rangeland

to recover• Fencing off riparian (stream) areas to reduce damage• Suppressing the growth of invasive plants• Replanting barren rangeland with native grass seed to reduce soil

erosion • Providing supplemental feed at selected sites• Locating water holes, water tanks and salt blocks at strategic

points that do not degrade the environment.

Rangelands

• Land administered by the BLM is inhabited by 219 endangered species of wildlife

• Livestock grazing is the 5th rated threat to endangered plant species, the 4th leading threat for all endangered wildlife and the number one threat to all endangered species in arid regions of the US

Relevant Laws

• Taylor Grazing Act (1934): Requires grazing permits on federal land

• Renewable Resources Planning Act (RPA) (1974): Mandates periodic assessments of forests and rangelands in the US. Directs that the assessment be conducted by the US forest Service and consider a broad range of renewable resources, including outdoor recreation, fish, wildlife, water, ranges, timber and minerals

• Public Rangelands Improvement Act (1978): Established a reaffirming a commitment to manage, maintain and improve rangelands so that they become as productive as feasible.

Urban Land Development

Planned Development

• There are more than 76 million residential and about 5 million commercial building in the US

• Together these buildings use 1/3 of all energy and 2/3 of all electricity consumed in the US

• Energy needs of buildings account for almost half of the sulfur dioxide emissions, ¼ of the nitrous oxide emissions and 1/3 of all carbon dioxide emissions

Planned Development

• Green building and city characteristic focus on whole-system approaches: – Energy conservation through government and private industry

rebates and tax incentives for solar and other less-polling forms of energy

– Resource-efficient building techniques and materials– Indoor air quality– Water conservation through the use of xeriscaping– Designs that minimize waste while utilizing recycled materials– Placing buildings near public transportation hubs that use a

multitude of venue (subway, bus, etc) – Creating environments that are pedestrian friendly by incorporating

parks, greenbelts and shopping areas in accessible areas– Preserving historical and cultural aspects while blending a natural

feeling and aesthetics of a community

Suburban Sprawl and Urbanization• Urbanization refers to the movement of people fro rural areas to

cities and the changes that accompany it. • Areas that are experiencing the greatest growth in urbanization

are countries in Asia and Africa• Asia alone has close to ½ of the worlds urban inhabitants even

though 60% of its population live in rural areas• Africa, which is generally considered overwhelming rural, now has

a larger urban population than N America• Reasons include: access to jobs, higher standards of living, easier

access to healthcare, mechanization of agriculture, access to education

• Nations with the most rapid increases in their urbanization rates are generally those with the most rapid economic growth

• From 1950-1990- the world’s economy increased fivefold

Urbanization Pros

• Uses less land- less impact on the environment• Better educational delivery system• Mass transit systems decrease reliance on fossil fuels–

commuting distances are shorter• Better sanitation systems• Recycling systems are more efficient• Large numbers of people generate high tax revenues• Urban areas attract industry due to availability of raw

materials, distribution networks, customers and labor pool

• Much of the pollution come from point sources, enabling focused remediation techniques.

Urbanization Cons• Impact on land is more concentrated and more pronounced (runoff

and flooding)• Overcrowded schools• Commuting times are longer because infrastructure can’t keep up

with growth• Sanitation systems have grater volumes of wastes to deal with• Solid-waste buildup is more pronounced. Landfill space becomes

scarce and costly • Large number of poor people place strains on social services

(wealthier people move to suburbs) • Higher population densities increase crime rates. Population

increase may be high than job growth• Since population densities are high, pollution levels are also high

(urban heat islands, ozone levels, water and soil pollution)

Transportation Infrastrcture

Federal Highway System

• About 160,000 miles important to nation’s economy, defense and mobility

• Although they receive substantial federal funding and comply with federal standards, they are owned, built and maintained by the states

• The system serves all major US cities. Unlike counterparts in most industrialized countries, interstates go through downtown areas and facilitate urban sprawl.

• The distribution of virtually all goods and services involve interstate highways at some point

• Residents of American cities commonly use urban interstates to travel to their jobs.

Federal Highway Systems

• An efficient and well-maintained federal highway system can have the following impacts:

• Less Pollutants: vehicles in stop and go traffic emit far more pollutants than they do without frequent braking and acceleration

• Reducing Greenhouse Gases: improving traffic flow and reducing congestion will decrease atmospheric carbon dioxide

• Improve Fuel Economy and Reduce foreign oil dependence: When vehicles are stuck in traffic, fuel economy goes down- modest improvements to the nation’s worse traffic bottlenecks would save 1 billion gallons of fuel each year

• Improve the Economy: Interstates return $6 in economic productivity for every $1 invested

• Improve Quality of Life: allows produces to be distributed through out the country in a short period of time.

Relevant Law

• Federal Aid Highway Act (1956): Authorized construction of the Interstate Highway System. Under the new law, the federal government agreed to fund 90% of the construction costs for interstates. States, in turn, would provide the remaining funds, administer the construction projects and operate the completed interstate highway.

Canals and Channels

• The term canal is another word for strait, which is defined as a narrow body of water that connect two larger bodies of water.

• Occur naturally or can be constructed• Repeated dredging of canals and channels is often

necessary because of silting• In the US, channels frequented by ships are

generally maintained by the US department of Interior and monitored and policed by the US Coast Guard.

Channels and Canals

• Panama Canal- 48-mile canal connects Pacific Ocean with the Atlantic Ocean. It allows water transport without having to circumnavigate South America

• Suez Canal- 163-mile canal that connects the Red Sea with the Mediterranean It allows water transport between Europe and Asia without traveling around Africa- 8% of the world’s shipping runs through here.

Roadless Areas and Ecosystem Impacts

• No roads= no development• Havens for fish and wildlife whose habitats in many

other forest areas have been fragmented or entirely destroyed

• They provide habitats for more that 1600 threatened, endangered or sensitive species and include watersheds that supply clean drinking water

• Roadless rule protects 60 million acers or 31% of National Forest Lands – 2% of the total land in the US

Relevant Law

• Roadless Area Conservation Rule (2001): This rule places about 1/3 of the national forest system’s total acreage off-limits to virtually all road building and logging.

• More than ½ of the national forest land is already open to such activity

• The plan protects 59 million acres of unspoiled national forest land in 39 states.

• It preserves all current opportunities for public access and recreation, including hiking, fishing, hunting, camping and mountain biking, as well as the revenue and jobs that these activities generate in local areas.

Public and Federal Lands- Management

• The BLM is responsible for managing 262 million acres of land, about 1/8 of the land in the US.

• BLM also manages about 300 million additional acres of subsurface mineral resources.

• Also responsible for wildlife management and preservation of 400 million acers

• Most of the lands BLM manages are in the W. US, including Alaska

• Dominated by extensive grasslands, forests, high mountains, arctic tundra and deserts

• The BLM manages a wide variety of resources and uses energy and minerals, timber, forage, wild horse, and burrow population, fish and wildlife habitats, wilderness areas, and archaeological, paleontological and historical sites

Relevant Law

• Federal Land Policy and Management Act (1976): Outlined policy concerning the use and preservation of public lands. Granted federal jurisdiction on consequences of mining on public lands

National Parks

• There are over 1100 national parks in the world. Many of them don’t receive proper protection from poachers, loggers, miners or farmers due to the costs involved

• In the US National Park System encompasses about 84 million acres, 4 million remain in private ownership.

• The largest area is in Alaska and is more that 16% of the entire system

• US national parks are threatened by high demand of large numbers of visitors, leads to congestion, eroded trails, noise and pollution

• Other threats include off-road vehicles, introduction of exotic species, commercial activities such as mining, logging grazing and land development.

National Parks

• Solutions for National Park Problems: – Reducing the amount of private land within national parks

through incentives to current owners– Providing education programs to the public– Setting quotas on attendance through advanced reservation

systems– Adopting a fee system that covers all external costs– Banning off-road vehicles– Vanning autos and instead provide shuttle buses to control traffic– Providing tax incentives for property owners near national parks

to use land grants– Conducting periodic and detailed wildlife and plant inventories.

Relevant Laws• Yellowstone National Park Act (1872): Preserves the watershed of the

Yellowstone River “for the benefit and enjoyment of the people”. For the first time, public lands were preserved for public enjoyment and were to be administered by the federal government

• National Park Service Act (1916): Established that national parks are to be maintained in a manner that leaves them unimpaired for future generations and established the National Park Service to manage the parks

• Outdoor Recreation Act (1963): Laid out the Interior Department’s role as coordinator for all federal agencies for programs affecting the conservation and development of recreation resources

• Wilderness Act (1964): Wilderness was defined by its lack of noticeable human modification or presence. Federal officials are required to manage wilderness areas in a manner conducive to retention of their wilderness character.

Relevant Laws

• Land and Water Conservation Fund Act (1965): Established a fund, administered by the National Park Service, to assist the states and federal agencies in meeting present and future outdoor recreation demands and the needs of the American people

• National Trails System Act (1968): Established a national system of recreational, scenic and historic trails

• Wild and Scenic Rivers Act (1968): Established a system of areas distinct from the traditional park concept to ensure the protection of each river’s unique environment. Is also preserves certain selected rivers that possess outstanding scenic, recreational, geological, cultural or historic values and maintains their free-flowing condition.

Wildlife Refuges• President Theodore Roosevelt designated 4 acre Pelican Island

off of Florida in 1903 as the first wildlife refuge, designed to protect breeding birds

• He designated another 52 refuges before he left office in 1909• The early refuges were established primarily to protect wildlife

such as the overhunted bison or birds killed by market hunters such as egrets and waterfowl.

• During the drought years of the Great Depression, refuges were created to protect waterfowl

• The system developed and the National Wildlife Refuge System consists of 547 refuges and more than 93 million acers and is managed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service.

Wetlands• Areas covered by water and support plants that can grow in water-

saturated soils• High plant productivity supports a rich diversity of animals.• Countries with the most wetlands are Canada, Russia and Brazil. • Wetlands were once about 10% of the land area in the US but have been

reduced to 5%, most wetlands are in Louisiana and Florida• Most wetland habitat loss- 90%- is due to conversion of the land to

agriculture and the rest is due to urbanization• 1/3 of all endangered species in the US spend some of their life in wetlands• Wetlands serve as natural water purification systems by removing

sediments, nutrients and toxins from flowing water• Wetlands along lakes and oceans stabilize shorelines and reduce damages

caused by storm surges, reduce risk of flooding and reduce saltwater intrusion

Wetlands

• Fens are wetlands characterized by continuous sources of groundwater rich in magnesium and calcium which makes the soil very alkaline. This groundwater comes from glaciers that have melted, depositing their water in layers of gravel and sans. Water sits upon layers of soil that are not permeable, thus keeping the water from sinking beneath the surface, the water is forced to flow along the surface where it picks up minerals in its path

• A Bog is a type of wetland that accumulates acidic peat, a deposit of dead plant material (pre-coal). Bogs are located in cold, temperate climates in boreal biomes in Western Siberia, parts of Russia, Ireland, Canada and Minnesota and Michigan. They are generally low in nutrients and highly acidic. Carnivorous plants have adapted to these conditions and use insects as their nutrients

Land Conservation Options1. Protect biodiversity, wildlife habitats and the ecological functioning of

public land ecosystems through careful monitoring and enforcement2. Adopt a user pay approach for extracting resources from public lands.

Eliminate govt subsidies and tax brakes to corporations that extract publically owned resources

3. Institute fair compensation for resources extracted from public land. Instead of the govt subsidizing the extraction of resources, the corporations should be paying the government fair market value for natural resources

4. Require responsibility for those who damage or alter public land5. Adopt uneven-aged management forestry practices that foster maintaining

a variety of tree species at various ages and sizes. This management technique fosters biological diversity, long-term sustainable production of high-quality timber, selective cutting and the principle of multiple use of the forests for recreation, watershed protection, wildlife and timber

6. Include ecological services of trees in estimating value

Land Conservation Options8. Reduce road building into uncut forest acres. Require restoration plans for those roads that are currently in place, and require such plans for future roads9. Coordinate with the Forest Service on leaving fallen timber and standing dead trees in place to promote nutrient cycling and providing wildlife habitats. 10. Grow timber on longer rotations11. Reduce or climate clear-cutting, shelter wood cutting or seed tree cutting on sloped land12. Rely on more sustainable tree-cutting methods such as selective and strip cutting13. Reduce fragmentation of remaining large forests14. Require certification of lumber that is cut according to sustainable forest practices15. Use sustainable techniques for tropical forests: educating settlers about sustainable forest practices and their advantages, monitoring and enforcing cutting based on sound ecological principles and reducing subsidies that encourage tropical deforestations, institute debt-for-nature and conservation easements, creating subsidies for sustainable practices and rehabilitation the area16. Solutions to urban land use problems include Zoning.

Land Conservation Options

• Preservation or Sustainable: to keep or maintain intact• Remediation: The act or process of correcting a fault or

deficiency• Mitigation: to moderate or alleviate in force or intensity• Restoration: to restore to former good condition. Ecosystem

restoration involves management actions designed to facilitate the recovery or reestablishment of native ecosystems. A central premise of ecological restoration is that restoration of natural systems to conditions consistent with their evolutionary environments will prevent their further degradation wile simultaneously conserving their native plants and animals

Mining

Pre-Extraction

• Before mining begins, economic decisions are made to determine if a site will be profitable The factors that enter into the decision include current and projected price, amount of ore at the site, concentration, type of mining required, cost of transporting the ore ti a processing facility and cost of reclamation

Site Development

• Samples are taken from an area to determine the quality and quantity of minerals in a location. Roads and equipment are brought in.

Extraction- Surface Mining

• Surface Mining: soil and rock overlying the mineral deposit (overburden) is removed and stored (spoilbank). Used where deposits are found near the surface, and where the overburden is relatively thin or where tunneling isn't an option. Surface mines are typically enlarged until the deposit is exhausted or the cost of removing large volumes of overburden makes it impractical.


• 5 main forms: – Strip mining: most commonly used to mine coal

or tar sand. Is the practice of mining a seam of mineral by first removing a long strip of overburden. Area stripping is used on fairly flat terrain to extract deposits over a large area. Overburden from one strip goes into the mined remain of the previous strip. Contour strip mining is when the strips go with the curvature of the land.


– Open-pit Mining: extracting rock or mineral from the earth in an open pit

– Mountain top removal: coal seam are removed and the soil is placed in adjacent lows such as hallows or ravines. Replaces previously steep topography with a relatively level surface

– Dredging: bringing up underwater mineral deposits. Usually employed to clear or enlarge waterways for boats AND to recover minerals relatively efficiently and cheaply

– Highwall Mining: uses continuous mining machine driven under remote control into the seam exposed by previous open-cut air operations. A continuous haulage system carries the coal from the mine to an open-air installation for stockpile and transport

Extraction- Underground

• Large shafts are dug into the Earth. There is less surface destruction and waste rock produced than in surface mining, but its unsafe.

• Often occurs below the water table so water must be constantly pumped out of the mine to prevent flooding

• When a mine is abandoned, the pumping ceases and the water floods the mine.

• This introduction of water often results in acid rock drainage which is caused by certain bacteria accelerating the decomposition of metal sulfide ions that have been exposed to air and water.

Extraction- In Situ

• With in situ leaching, small holes are drilled into a site

• Water-based chemical solvents extract the resource• Advantage: less-expensive since rocks don’t have to

be broken up or removed, shorter time to production, requires less surface ground disturbance and less mediation

• Disadvantages: fluids injected into the Earth are toxic and can get into groundwater

Processing• Involves intensive chemical processing during smelting• This is the method by which a metal is obtained from it’s ore, either as an

element or a simple compound• Usually accomplished by heating beyond the melting point, ordinarily in

the presence of reducing agents such as coke or oxidizing agents such as air

• A metal whose ore is an oxygen compound (iron zinc lead) is heated in a blast furnace to a high temp. The oxide combined with the carbon in the coke, escaping as CO or CO2.

• Other impurities are removed by adding flux, with which they combine to form slag.

• If the ore is a sulfide mineral (copper nickel lead) air or oxygen is introduced to oxidize the sulfide to sulfur dioxide and any iron to slag, leaving the metal behind.

Processing

• In cyanide heap leaching, goal ore is heaped into a large pile.

• Cyanide solution is then sprayed on top of the pile• As the Cyanide percolates down, the gold leaches

out and pools at the bottom• The gold extracted bay be only 0.01% of the total

ore processed. Liquid wastes containing cyanide and other toxins are kept in tailing ponds which eventually leak and enter groundwater.

Processing

• Tailings are the materials left over after the process of separating the valuable fraction from the ore

• Tailings represent and external cost of mining• In coal an oil sands mining, tailings refers

specifically to the fine wastes suspendered in water

Global Reserves

• 2 billion tons of minerals are extracted and used each year in the US.

• At the same time the US imports 50% of its most needed minerals

• As a mineral reserve becomes depleted, lower grades of ore are mined, which causes more processing and more pollution

• The US, Germany, and Russia represent 8% of the worlds population but they consume 75% of the most widely used metals, with the US consuming 20%

Global Reserve-Oil• A large portion of Earths global crude oil reserve—45-70%-- has

already been depleted. • It is estimated that there is a 50-year supply left on earth • ½ is thought to be in the middle east• The US owns 3% of the worlds oil reserves but used 30% of the oil

extracted worldwide each year• Increased competition for foreign oil by China and India increase

the worlds cost of oil• 2/3 of the oil used in the US if for transportation• ¼ is used for industry• Oil imports in the US increased from 52% in 1996 to a projected

70% by 2010

Global Reserve- Coal

• Coal is currently the worlds single largest source of fuel used to produce electricity

• China is the worlds largest producer• Global coal reserves are expected to last

about 300 years at current extraction levels

Global Resources- Natural Gas

• Most of the worlds natural gas reserves are located in the Middle East (34%).

• Europe, Russia and former USSR own 42% of the world reserves

• The US possesses 3% of the total natural gas reserve• Given US production levels, there is enough natural gat to

last about 75 years of domestic production• This estimate doesn’t take into account expected

increasing levels of domestic production or the potential opening of the currently restricted Arctic National Wildlife Reserve.

Relevant Laws

• General Mining Law (1872): Grants free access to individuals and corporations to prospect for minerals in public domain lands and allows them, upon making discovery, to stake claim to that deposit

• Mineral Leasing Act (1920): Authorizes and governs leasing of public lands for developing deposits of coal, petroleum, natural gas and other hydrocarbons, phosphates and sodium in the US. Previous to the act, these minerals were subjected to mining claims

• Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (1977): Established a program for regulating surface coal mining and reclamation activities

Fishing

Types of Commercial Fishing

• Bottom Trawling: uses a funnel-shaped net to drag the ocean bottom. Shrimp, cod, flounder and scallops. Analogous to clear-cutting forests. Species not wanted are called bycatch

• Drift Net: Long expanses of nets that hand down in the water. Traps turtles, seabirds and marine mammals. During the 1980’s, 10,000 dolphins, whales and millions of sharks were killed each year. 1992 UN voluntary ban on drift nets longer than 1.5 miles are helping

• Longline: placing very long lines with thousands of baited hooks. Swordfish, tuna, sharks, halibut and cod. Endangers sea turtles, pilot whales and dolphins.

• Purse Sein: surrounds large schools of fish spotted by aircraft with a large net. Net is then drawn tight. Tuna, mackerel, anchovies and herring.

Overfishing

• Oceans supply 1% of human food and represent 10% of worlds protein source

• China is responsible for about 1/3 of all fish harvesting • 1/3 of total catch is used for other consumption (fish oil,

fish meal, animal feed)• Another 1/3 is considered bycatch• Maximum sustainable yield is the largest amount of marine

organisms that can be harvested without causing the population to crash

• This yield is generally when a population is maintained at ½ the carrying capacity

Methods to manage fishing in a sustainable manner

• Regulate locations and number of fish farms and monitor their pollution output

• Encourage the production of herbivores fish species• Require and enforce labeling of fish products that

were raided or caught with sustainable methods• Set catch limits far below maximum sustainable yield• Eliminate govt subsidies for commercial fishing

Methods to manage fishing in a sustainable manner

• Prevent importation of fish from foreign countries that don’t adhere to sustainable harvesting methods

• Place trading sanctions on foreign countries that don’t respect the marine habitat, including countries with whale hunts

• Assess fees for harvesting fish and shellfish from public waters

• Increase penalties for fishing techniques that don’t allow for the escape of bycatch

• Ban the throwing back of bycatch• Monitor and destroy invasive species on ship ballast

Methods to restore habitats for freshwater fish

• Planting native vegetation on stream banks • Rehabilitate instream habitats• Controlling erosion• Controlling invasive species• Restoring fish passages around human-made

impediments• Monitoring, regulating and enforcing recreational

and commercial fishing• Protecting coastal estuaries and wetlands

Aquaculture

• Known as mariculture or fish farming• Involves stocking, feeding, protecting from predators, and

harvesting• Growing about 6% annually and provides 5% of total food

production worldwide (mostly in less developed countries)• Kelp makes up about 17% of all aquaculture output• Used to raise 80% of the mollusks, 40% of all shrimp and

75% of all kelp we use• Other common products include: seaweed, mussels,

oysters, shrimp, salmon, trout and catfish

Aquaculture

• Advantages: cold-blooded organisms convert more feed to usable protein Example: for every 1 million calories of feed requires, a trout raised on a farm produces about 35 g of protein whereas a chicken produces 15g and cattle produces 2 g.

• For every hectare of hectares, intense ocean farming can produce 58,000 kg of protein where normal harvesting only produces 10 kg.

Aquaculture• For it to be economical, the species must be marketable,

inexpensive to raise, trophically efficient, at a marketable size within 1-2 years, and disease resistant.

• Aquaculture creates dense monocultures that reduce biodiversity within habitats and requires large levels of nutrients in the water

• Offers possibilities for sustainable protein-rich food production and economic development in communities.

• However, on an industrial scale it poses sever threats; threats to biodiversity, accidental release of alien or modified organisms, transmission of diseases to wild stock, displacement of local and indigenous human communities, degradation of habitat.

Case Study: PCB• Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were banned in the US in the late 1970s are

slated for global phase-out under the treaty on POPs.• PCBs are highly persistent and have been linked to cancer and impaired fetal

brain development• Salmon farming has made salmon the third most popular fish in the US and

comprises 22% of all retail seafood. However, analysis of US govts data found that farmed salmon are likely the most PCB-contaminated protein source

• About 800,000 US adults have an increased cancer risk by eating PCB-contaminated salmon

• Farmed salmon are fattened with ground fishmeal and fish oils that are high in PCBs

• As a result, salmon farming operations that produce inexpensive fish unnaturally concentrate PBCs

• AND salmon contains 52% more fat than wild salmon.

Relevant Laws• Fish and Wildlife Act (1956): established a comprehensive national fish and

shellfish resource policy directed primarily to industry.• Anadromous Fish Conservation Act (1965): Authorizes the Secretory of

Interior to enter into agreements with states and other non-federal interests to conserve, develop and enhance the anadromous fish (fish that migrate from the sea to fresh water to spawn) resources of the US.

• Marine Mammal Protection Act (1972): Prohibits, with certain exceptions, taking of marine mammals in US waters and by US citizens on the high seas and the importation of marine mammals and marine mammal products to the US

• Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management Act (1976): Governs marine fisheries management in the US federal waters. Aids in the development of the domestic fishing industry by phasing out foreign fishing. To manage the fisheries and promote conservation. The Act created 8 regional fishery management councils. The 1996 amendment focused on rebuilding of overfished fisheries, protecting essential fish habitat and reducing bycatch

Relevant Laws

• Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act (1980): Assistance in training of state fish and wildlife enforcement personnel and assistance to states in the development and revision of conservation plans for nongame fish and wildlife

• United Nations Treaty on the Law of the Sea (1982): Defines the rights and responsibilities of nations in their use of the worlds oceans, establishing guidelines for business, the environment and the management of marine natural resources.

Global Economics

Global Economics

• The economy and the environment are intrinsically linked such that both are causes and effects and inputs and outputs of each other

• The environment contains all the resources that can be used in the economy.

• The use of resources for economic purposed continuously creates new environmental situations

• For example: while some resources are depleted and transformed from usable to unusable states, economic resources are used to expand additional resources. This occurs through increasing available supply of materials , opening land to agricultural production, transporting resources from locations where they are in surplus to areas of shortage and so on.

Global Economics

• Increased levels of economic activity and improvements in living standards have occurred since the end of WWII.

• People in wealthiest countries constitutes 15% of the global population and enjoy average incomes 20X greater that 85% of the population

• If the income of the poorest 85% were raised to only 1/3 of that of the richest countries, the level of total world production and consumption would have to double, with a similar increase in the use of resources

• Continued increases in living standards in poorer countries will increase carrying capacity of the planet.

Global Economics

• Until recently, developments in the local economies and local environments were dispersed and isolated

• The didn’t typically result in cumulative process that had widespread or global impact

• However, with greater increase in population there is a significant increase in global environmental disruption

• The effects of these disruptions have become increasingly interlinked

World Bank• Source of financial and technical assistance to developing

countries around the world• The world bank ,owned by 184 member countries, provides low-

interest loans, interest-free credit and grants to developing countries for education, health, building, communication and environmental issues

• In 2001, the Bank endorsed an environmental strategy to guide the banks actions in environmental areas; improving quality of life, quality of growth and “greening” of agriculture, water sanitation and other projects

• In 2005, they gave 13.8 billion dollars to the areas of biodiversity, conservation, climate change, international waters. Funded 740 million in projects to phase out ozone depleting substances and 1.6 billion into projects that reduce greenhouse gases

World Bank

• Also is the greatest single source of funds for dam projects, supplying 50 billion for construction of more than 500 large dams in 92 countries.

Tragedy of the Commons

• Garrett Hardin wrote “Tragedy of the Commons” in 1968

• It parallels what is happening world wide in regard to resource depletion and pollution

• Seas, air, water, animals and minerals are all commons are are for human use

• Those who exploit them become rich • The price of depleting the resources of the

commons is an external costs paid by the people of the earth.

Tragedy of the Commons

• Limits: – Economic decisions are generally short term, bases on reactions

in the world markets. Environmental decisions are long term– Land that is privately owned is subject to market pressure– Some commons are easier to control that others. Land, lakes,

rangeland. Deserts and forests are geographically defined and easier to control than air or open oceans. This is the problems with the US and the Kyoto Protocol

– Incorporating discount rates into calculation of resources would be an incentive for investors to bear the short term cost for a long term gain

– Breaking a commons into smaller, privately owned fragments the policies of governing the entire commons. Different standards and practices used on one area may or may not affect all other areas.

Land Use. Human Nutritional requirements Males- 2500 calories; Females- 2000 calories Balanced...

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