L01

Faculty of Information Technology & Faculty of Information Science and Technology , Multimedia University Malaysia

TEP1281 Ethics and Professional Conduct

Lecture 1:

Introduction to

Cyber Ethics

Session 2, 2011/2012


Course Information

• The ethical and moral issues that confront in the

information technology field.

• The issues of professional conduct and responsibilities

to society as an information technology professional will

be examined.

• TEP1281 course will give you:

– Understanding of theory and principles

– Hands on Experiences

– Practical Knowledge


Lecturers / Tutors

Course Coordinators:

Nor’ain Mohd Yusoff

[email protected]

Neo Han Foon

[email protected]

Lecturers / Tutors:

Amy Lim

[email protected]

Chan Gaik Yee

[email protected]


Course Requirements

• Coursework:

Components Mark Distributions

Mid Term 20%

Project 20%

Quiz Choose 2/3 10%

Final Exams 50%

• Please refer to MMLS and Lecture Plan for more

information and update matters.

• Text Book: Tavani, Herman T. (2011). Ethics and

Technology: Controversies, Questions and Strategies for

Ethical Computing (3rd Ed.). USA: John Wiley & Sons,

Inc.


Contents

1. Defining Key Terms: Cyberethics Vs

Cybertechnology

2. The Cyberethics Evolution: Four Development

Phases in Cybertechnology

3. Are Cyberethics Issues Unique Ethical Issues?

4. Cyberethics as a Branch of Applied Ethics.

5. A Comprehensive Cyberethics Methodology

6. A Comprehensive Strategy for Approaching

Cyberethics Issues


What is Cyberethics?

• Cyberethics is the study of moral, legal, and

social issues involving cybertechnology.

• It examines the impact that cybertechnology has

for our social, legal, and moral systems.

• It also evaluates the social policies and laws that

we frame in response to issues generated by the

development and use of cybertechnology.

1


What is Cybertechnology?

• Cybertechnology refers to a wide range of computing and communications devices

– from standalone computers, to "connected" or networked computing and communications technologies, to the Internet itself.

• Cybertechnologies include:

– hand-held devices (such as personal digital assistants);

– personal computers (desktops and laptops);

– large mainframe computers.

1


What is Cybertechnology? (Continued)

• Networked devices can be connected directly to the Internet.

• They also can be connected to other devices through one or more privately owned computer networks.

• Privately owned networks include both:

– Local Area Networks (LANs),

– Wide Area Networks (WANs).

1


Why the term “Cyberethics”?

• Cyberethics is a more accurate label than

computer ethics, which can suggest the study of

ethical issues limited either to:

– computing machines,

– computing professionals.

• Cyberethics is also more accurate than Internet

ethics, which is limited only to ethical issues

affecting computer networks.

1


Four Phases Developmental Phases in

Cybertechnology

• Phase 1 (1950s and 1960s)

• Phase 2 (1970s and 1980s)

• Phase 3 (1990 – present)

• Phase 4 (Present – Near Future)

2


Phase 1 (1950s and 1960s)

• Computer technology emerged in the late 1940s, when some analysts confidently predicted that no more than six computers would ever need to be built.

• The first phase of computing technology (1950s and 1960s) consisted mainly of huge mainframe computers that were unconnected (i.e., stand-alone machines).

• One ethical/social question that arose during Phase 1 dealt with the impact of computing machines as “giant brains” and what that meant for being human.

• Another question raised during this phase concerned privacy threats and the fear of Big Brother.

2


Phase 2 (1970s and 1980s)

• In Phase 2 (1970s and 1980s), computing machines and communications devices began to converge.

• Mainframe computers and personal computers could be linked together via privately owned networks such as LANs and WANs.

• Privacy concerns arose because confidential information could easily be exchanged between networked databases.

• Intellectual property issues emerged because personal computers could easily duplicate proprietary software programs.

• Computer crime was possible because people could break into the computers of large organizations.

2


• During Phase 3 (1990-present), the availability of Internet access to the general public has increased significantly.

• This has been facilitated by the phenomenal growth of the World Wide Web.

• The proliferation of Internet- and Web-based technologies in this phase has raised ethical and social concerns affecting:

– free speech,

– anonymity,

– jurisdiction.

Phase 3 (1990 – present)

2


• As cybertechnology evolves in Phase 4, computers will likely become more and more a part of who or what we are as human beings.

• James Moor (2005) notes that computing devices will soon be a part of our clothing, and even our bodies.

• Computers are already becoming ubiquitous, and are beginning to “pervade” both our work and recreational environments.

• Objects in these environments already exhibit what Philip Brey (2005) calls “ambient intelligence,” which enables “smart objects” to be connected to one another via wireless technology.

Phase 4 (Present – Near Future)

2


Table 1-1: Summary of 4 Phases of Cyberethics

Phase Time Period Technological Features Associated Issues

1 1950s-1960s Stand-alone machines (large mainframe computers)

Artificial intelligence (AI), database privacy ("Big Brother")

2 1970s-1980s Minicomputers and PCs interconnected via privately owned networks

Issues from Phase 1 plus concerns involving intellectual property and software piracy, computer crime, privacy and the exchange of records.

3 1990s-Present

Internet and World Wide Web Issues from Phases 1 and 2 plus concerns about free speech, anonymity, legal jurisdiction, virtual communities, etc.

4 Present to

Near Future

Convergence of information and communication technologies with nanotechnology research and bioinformatics research, etc.

Issues from Phases 1-3 plus concerns about artificial electronic agents ("bots") with decision-making capabilities, bionic chip implants, nanocomputing research, etc.

2


Are Cyberethics Issues Unique?

• There are two points of view on whether cybertechnology has generated any new or unique ethical issues:

(1) Traditionalists argue that nothing is new –crime is crime, and murder is murder.

(2) Uniqueness Proponents argue that cybertechnology has introduced (at least some) new and unique ethical issues that could not have existed before computers.

3


Distinguish between Unique Technological Features

and Unique Ethical Issues

• Both sides seem correct on some claims, and both seem to be wrong on others.

• Traditionalists underestimate the role that issues of scale and scope that apply because of the impact of computer technology.

• For example, cyberstalkers can stalk multiple victims simultaneously (scale) and globally (because of the scope or reach of the Internet).

• Cyberstalkers can also operate without ever having to leave the comfort of their homes.

3


Distinguish between Unique Technological Features and

Unique Ethical Issues(Continued)

• Uniqueness proponents tend to overstate the effect that cybertechnology has on ethics per se.

• Walter Maner (2004) argues that computers are uniquely fast, uniquely malleable, etc.

• There may indeed be some unique aspects of computer technology.

3


• But uniqueness proponents tend to

confuse unique features of technology with

unique ethical issues.

• Their argument is based on a logical

fallacy:

Cybertechnology has some unique technological

features.

Cybertechnology generates some ethical issues.

Therefore, some of the ethical issues generated by

cybertechnology must be unique.

3




• Traditionalists and uniqueness proponents are each partly correct.

• Traditionalists correctly point out that no new ethical issues have been introduced by computers.

• Uniqueness proponents are correct in that cybertechnology has complicated our analysis of traditional ethical issues.

3




• So we must distinguish between any:

(a) unique technological features;

(b) (alleged) unique ethical issues.

• Consider two scenarios from the text:

(1) computer professionals designing and coding a

controversial computer system;

(2) software piracy.

3




Alternative Strategy for Analyzing the Uniqueness Issue

• James Moor (2000) argues that computer technology generates “new possibilities for human action” because computers are logically malleable.

• Logical malleability, in turn, introduces policy vacuums.

• Policy vacuums often arise because of conceptual muddles.

3


Case Illustration of a Policy Vacuum: Duplicating Software

• In the early 1980s, there were no clear laws regarding the duplication of software programs, which was made easy because of personal computers.

• A policy vacuum arose.

• Before the policy vacuum could be filled, we had to clear up a conceptual muddle: What exactly is software?

3


Cyberethics as a Branch of Applied Ethics

• Applied ethics, unlike theoretical ethics,

examines "practical" ethical issues.

• It analyzes moral issues from the vantage-point

of one or more ethical theories.

• Ethicists working in fields of applied ethics are

more interested in applying ethical theories to

the analysis of specific moral problems than in

debating the ethical theories themselves.

4


Cyberethics as a Branch of Applied Ethics (continued)

• Three distinct perspectives of applied

ethics (as applied to cyberethics):

– Perspective # 1:Professional Ethics

– Perspective # 2:Philosophical Ethics

– Perspective # 3:Descriptive Ethics.

4


Perspective # 1: Professional Ethics

• According to this view, cyberethics is the field that identifies and analyzes issues of ethical responsibility for computer professionals.

• Consider a computer professional's role in designing, developing, and maintaining computer hardware and software systems.

• Suppose a programmer discovers that a software product she has been working on is about to be released for sale to the public, even though it is unreliable because it contains “buggy” software.

• Should she “blow the whistle”?

4


Professional Ethics

• Don Gotterbarn (1995) has suggested that computer ethics issues are professional ethicsissues.

• Computer ethics, for Gotterbarn, is similar to medical ethics and legal ethics, which are tied to issues involving specific professions.

• He notes that computer ethics issues aren’t about technology per se.

– For example, we don’t have automobile ethics, airplane ethics, etc.

4


Criticism of Professional Ethics Perspective

• Is Gotterbarn’s model for computer ethics too narrow for cyberethics?

• Cyberethics issues affect not only computer professionals; they effect everyone.

• Before the widespread use of the Internet, Gotterbarn’s professional-ethics model may have been adequate.

4


Perspective # 2: Philosophical Ethics

From this perspective, cyberethics is a field of

philosophical analysis and inquiry that goes

beyond professional ethics.

Moor (2000) defines computer ethics as:

...the analysis of the nature and social impact

of computer technology and the

corresponding formulation and justification of

policies for the ethical use of such technology.

[Italics Added.]

4


Philosophical Ethics Perspective (continued)

• Moor argues that automobile and airplane technologies did not affect our social policies and norms in the same kinds of fundamental ways that computer technology has.

• Automobile and airplane technologies have revolutionized transportation, resulting in our ability to travel faster and farther than was possible in previous eras.

• But they did not have the same impact on our legal and moral systems as cybertechnology.

4


Philosophical Ethics: Standard Model of Applied Ethics

• Philip Brey (2004) describes the “standard methodology” used by philosophers in applied ethics research as having three stages:

1) Identify a particular controversial practice as a moral problem.

2) Describe and analyze the problem by clarifying concepts and examining the factual data associated with that problem.

3)Apply moral theories and principles to reach a position about the particular moral issue.

4


Perspective #3: Descriptive Ethics

• The professional and philosophical perspectives both illustrate normative inquiries into applied ethics issues.

• Normative inquiries or studies are contrasted with descriptive studies.

• Descriptive investigations report about “What isthe case.“

• Normative inquiries evaluate situations from the vantage-point of the question: “What ought to bethe case?”.

4


Descriptive Ethics Perspective (continued)

• Scenario: A community’s workforce and the introduction of a new technology.

• Suppose a new technology displaces 8,000 workers in a community.

• If we analyze the issues solely in terms of the number of jobs that were gained or lost in that community, our investigation is essentially descriptive in nature.

– We are simply describing an impact that technology X has for Community Y.

4


Descriptive Ethics Perspective (continued)

• Descriptive vs. Normative Claims

• Consider three assertions:

(1) "Bill Gates served as the Chief Executive Officer of Microsoft Corporation for many years.”

(2) "Bill Gates should expand Microsoft’s product offerings.“

(3) “Bill Gates should not engage in business practices that are unfair to competitors.”

Claims (2) And (3) are normative, (1) is descriptive; (2) is normative but nonmoral, while (3) is both normative and moral.

4


Figure 1-1: Descriptive vs. Normative Claims

Descriptive vs. Normative Claims

Descriptive Normative(Report or describe what is the case) (Prescribe what ought to be the case)

Non-moral Moral

Prescribe or evaluate

in matters having to

do with fairness and

Obligation (e.g., criteria

for just and unjust

actions and policies).

Prescribe or evaluate

in matters involving

standards such as art and sports

(e.g., criteria for a good painting

or an outstanding athlete).

4


Some Benefits of Using the Descriptive Approach

• Huff & Finholt (1994) claim that when we

understand the descriptive aspect of social

effects of technology, the normative ethical

issues become clearer.

• The descriptive perspective prepare us for our

subsequent analysis of ethical issues that affect

our system of policies and laws.

4


Table 1-2: Summary of Cyberethics Perspectives

Type of Perspective Associated Disciplines

Issues Examined

Professional Computer Science

Engineering

Library/Information Science

Professional Responsibility

System Reliability/Safety

Codes of Conduct

Philosophical Philosophy

Law

Privacy & Anonymity

Intellectual Property

Free Speech

Descriptive Sociology

Behavioral Sciences

Impact of cybertechnology on governmental/financial/ educational institutions and socio-demographic groups

4


A Comprehensive Cyberethics Methodology

• Technology seems neutral, at least initially.

• Consider the cliché: “Guns don’t kill people, people kill people.”

• Corlann Gee Bush (2006) argues that gun technology, like all technologies, is biased in certain directions.

• She points out that certain features inherent in gun technology itself cause guns to be biased in a direction towards violence.

5


Is Cybertechnology Neutral?

• Bush uses an analogy from physics to illustrate the bias inherent in technology.

• An atom that either loses or gains electrons through the ionization process becomes charged or valenced in a certain direction.

• Bush notes that all technologies, including guns, are similarly valenced in that they tend to "favor" certain directions rather than others.

• Thus technology is biased and is not neutral.

5


Brey’s Methods

1. A “Disclosive” Methods for Cyberethics

2. An Interdisciplinary and Multilevel Method for Analyzing Cyberethics Issues

6


A "Disclosive" Method for Cyberethics

• Brey (2004) believes that because of embedded biases in cybertechnology, the standard applied-ethics methodology is not adequate for identifying cyberethics issues.

• We might fail to notice certain features embedded in the design of cybertechnology.

• Using the standard model, we might also fail to recognize that certain practices involving cybertechnology can have moral implications.

6


Disclosive Method (Continued)

• Brey notes that one weakness of the “standard method of applied ethics” is that it tends to focus on known moral controversies

• So that model fails to identify practices involving cybertechnology which have moral implications but that are not yet known.

• Brey refers to these practices as having morally opaque (or morally non-transparent) features, which he contrasts with "morally transparent” features.

6


Figure 1-2: Embedded Technological Features

Having Moral Implications

Embedded Technological Features Having

Moral Implications

Known Features Unknown Features

Transparent Features Morally Opaque Features

Users are aware of

these features but do

not realize they have

moral implications.

Examples can

include:Web Forms

and search-

engine tools.

Users are not even

aware of the

technological features

that have moral

implications

Examples might

include data-mining

technology and

Internet cookies.

6


A Multi-disciplinary and Multi-level Methods

for Cyberethics

• Brey’s disclosive method is multidisciplinary

because it requires the collaboration of:

– computer scientists,

– philosophers,

– social scientists.

6


• Brey’s scheme is also multi-level because the

method for conducting computer ethics research

requires three levels of analysis, i.e., a:

– disclosure level,

– theoretical level,

– application level.

A Multi-disciplinary and Multi-level Methods

for Cyberethics (Continued)

6


Table 1-3: Three Levels of Brey’s Model of

Computer Ethics

Disclosive Computer Science

Social Science (optional)

Disclose embedded features in computer technology that have moral import

Theoretical Philosophy Test newly disclosed features against standard ethical theories

Application Computer Science

Philosophy

Social Science

Apply standard or newly revised/ formulated ethical theories to the issues

Level Disciplines Involved Task/Function

6


References

Chapter 1

Tavani, Herman T. (2011).

Ethics and Technology:

Controversies, Questions and

Strategies for Ethical

Computing (3rd Ed.).

USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

(ISBN: 978-0-470-50950-0 pbk)


Thank YouCopyright 2011

FIT/FIST

Thank you

L01

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