Kurian IAS

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    UNIT I

    ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT MBA

    UNIT IEnvironment and its components Ecology Forest wild

    life Biotic and abiotic environment Agricultural fisheries-

    cycling of materials in the ecosystem eco friendly farming

    Lithosphere atmosphere- hydrosphere stratosphere Food chain-

    climate change Carbon credit

    1.Environment The term may be defined in a number of ways (in the

    context of human beings)

    Environment is the sum total of all social, economical, biological,

    physical and chemical factors which constitute the surroundings of

    humans, who are both the creators and moulders of the

    environment.

    The terms environment means surroundings, in which the

    organisms live.

    Environment is sum total of influences which modify and

    determine the development of life and its characteristics.

    It is the sum of all biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) factors that

    surround and potentially influence an organism (ie, Environment is

    the physical and Biotic Habitat that surround us)

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    ie, - Environment creates favourable conditions for the existence

    and development of living organisms.

    - Some component of Environment serve as resource (e.g. soil,

    water, etc) while others act as regulatory factor (eg.

    Temperature, light, etc)

    - Different components of the environment are interlinked and

    interdependent

    - Everything we need to survive comes from air, water, soil and

    energy

    - The quality of our lives depends completely on the health

    and vigor of the web of living things that clean, the air and

    water, create soil, capture sunlight and provides us with food

    and resources.

    I. (A) Organisms and Environment

    - Nature consists of two very much complex

    interdependent mutually reactive and interrelated

    entities the organisms and the Environment

    - The organisms can survive only in appropriate

    environments interact with each other, and are

    influenced by the whole complex of Environmental

    factors.

    (a) Organism

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    - It is a form of life composed of mutually

    interdependent parts that maintain various vital

    process

    - It is a creature such as a single-celled life form (plant

    or animal) or something that has interdependent

    parts.

    - Single celled microorganisms were the first forms of life

    to develop on earth

    Examples: Bacteria, protozoa, fungi, algae viruses

    - Organisms/micro organisms live in any part of the

    Biosphere including soil, hot springs, on the ocean

    floor, high in the atmosphere and deep inside rocks,

    within the Earths crust.

    - Microorganisms are crucial to nutrient cycling in

    Ecosystems, as they act as decomposers.

    - As some Microorganisms fix nitrogen, they are a vital

    part of the nitrogen cycle.

    - Recent studies indicate that airbone micro organisms

    may play a role in precipitation and weather.

    - Micro organisms are often referred to as microbes, but

    this usually used in reference to pathogens.

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    - Micro organisms are also exploited in Biotechnology

    both in traditional food and beverage preparation and

    in modern technologies based on genetic engineering.

    I(b)Types of Environment

    Environment may be divided into the following categories

    (i) Natural Environment (ii) Anthropogenic Environment

    (Man-made Environment)

    I(b) 1. Natural Environment

    The Environment that comes into existence without

    interference of man is called Natural Environment

    - Natural Environment includes such as air, water, soil,

    land, forest, wild life, flora, fauna

    -

    - This environment operates through aself- regulatingmechanism, therefore any change brought about by

    one component of the Environment is counter

    balanced by some other changes in another component

    of the Environment.

    - The Natural Environment isnever static, the changes

    may sometimes be negligible, while at other times,

    they may be drastic. These changes may be either

    beneficial or harmful to the living in the Environment.

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    - That means Natural Environment operates through

    self-regulating mechanism called Homoeostatic

    Environment Mechanismie, any change in the

    Natural ecosystem is brought by Natural process is

    counter balanced by changes in other components of

    the Environment.

    I (b) 2. Concept of Homeostasis (Equilibrium)

    - The challenge of every cell is to maintain intracellular

    conditions that may differ from the external

    environment, yet still communicate with Environment

    - The term Homeostasisfound byWalter Cannon

    (1929)

    - Constancyof milieu interne(stability of its internal

    environment) as essential for the existence of free-

    living organisms ie the ability of a cell to sustain its

    intracellular and extra cellular milieu.

    - Broadly defined,homeostasisrepresents the sum of

    the physiological process, in an organism, a multi

    cellular system, or a cell that maintain the relative

    stability of its internal environment, and thus provide

    the basis for its survival and function.

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    - Maintenance of the internal milieuis an active

    process requiring the intricate the interaction of

    numerousbiochemicalandbiophysicalprocesses,

    using or utilizing most of metabolic energy of the cell.

    - Homeostasisis controlled on two different levels. One

    is the maintenance of the individualintracellular

    milieu. The other is the maintenance of theextra

    cellular milieu, within a multi cellular organization.

    I (b) 3. The Natural Environment of the Earthis divided

    into four realms, namely (i) Lithosphere

    (ii)Hydrosphere(iii)Atmosphere(iv)Biosphere(The

    four spheres of the earth)

    - i.e. The area near the surface of earth can be divided

    into fourinter-connected geo-spheres

    - The names of the four spheres are derived from the

    Greek words for (1) Stone (litho), (2) Water (Hydro) (3)

    Air (atmo) and (4) life (Bio)

    Fig: Four realms of Earth

    I (b) 3.1 Lithosphereis the solid shell of the planet. It is therigid outer most shell of a rocky planet. It can be

    identified on the basis of its mechanical properties.

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    - On the Earth it comprises thecrustand the portion of

    theupper mantleie, the crust and the upper mantle

    form the lithosphere.

    - The lithosphere extends from the surface of the Earth

    to a depth of 70-100 km.

    1.b 3.1 (a) Earth Crust

    - The outer most layer is called Earths crust

    - The crust is inorganic and is composed of rocks

    minerals and soil.

    - The thickness of the crust varies. Crust has two parts

    (i) continental (ii) oceanic Under the oceans the crust

    is only about (5-10 km) thick. Under the continents,

    the crust thickens to about 35 km and reaches depth

    upto 60 km.

    1 (b) 3.1 (b) Mantle

    - Below the crust is the mantle and mantle makes up

    the largest volume of Earths interior. The mantle has

    two parts (i) Anupper layer(ii) and alower mantle.

    - (i)Upper Mantle

    Beneath the crust is a layer of rock materials that is

    also solid, rigid and relatively cool, but is made up of

    dense material. This layer is called the upper mantle,

    and it varies in depth from 50-100 km, below Earth

    surface.

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    - The combination of the crust, and this upper part of

    the upper mantle, which are both composed of

    relatively cool and rigid rock material, is called the

    lithosphere.

    1 (b) 3.1 (c)Temperature of Below Lithosphere

    - 1000oC. So there is some molten material at this depth

    (about 10%)

    1 (b) 3.2Hydrosphere

    It includes the surface water and its surrounding interface-

    liquid components of earth)

    - It includes all liquid and frozen surface waters, ground

    water held in soil and rock and atmospheric water

    vapour.

    - Due to the range of surface temperatures and

    pressures, water exist in all three states: solid (ice),

    liquid (water) and gas (water vapour) on earth.

    - So the hydrosphere includes all the water on the

    Earth. Most of which is contained in the oceans. The

    presence of water on Earth, gives it the nameBlue

    planet

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    - The Earths hydrosphere consists chiefly of the ocean,

    but technically include clouds, inland, seas, lakes,

    rivers and underground water.

    - The abundance of water onEarthis a unique feature,

    that distinguishes ourBlue planetfrom others in

    the solar system.

    - Approximately70.8percent of the Earth is covered by

    water.

    - The Hydrosphere plays a key rolein the development

    and sustenance of life.

    - The Hydrosphere like the atmosphere is alwaysin

    motion. The motion of rivers and streams can be seen

    easily, while the motion of water within lakes and

    ponds is less obvious. Some of the motions of oceans

    and seas can be seen easily, while the large scale

    motions that move water greater distance, such as

    between tropics and poles or between continents are

    more difficult to be seen.

    - These types of motions are in the form of currents,

    that move warm waters, in the tropics toward the poles

    and colder water from the polar regions, toward the

    tropics. These current exist on the surface of the ocean

    and at great depths in the ocean (upto about 4 km)

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    - The characteristics of the ocean which affects its

    motion are its temperature and salinity.

    I (b) 3.2 (a)Water cycle or Hydrological cycle

    - Central to any discussion on Hydrosphere is water

    cycle. The water cycle also known as the Hydrological

    cycle or the H2O cycle describes the continuous

    movement of water on above and below the surface of

    the earth ie, the movement of water from the earth

    surface to atmosphere through hydrological cycle.

    - The mass of water on Earth, remainsfairly constant,

    over time, but the partitioning of the water, into major

    rivers of ice, fresh water, saline water and atmospheric

    water is variable depending on a wide range o climatic

    variables.

    - The water moves from one reservoir to another, such

    as from river to ocean, or from the ocean to

    atmosphere, by the physical process ofevaporation,

    condensation,precipitation,infiltration,runoffand

    substance flow. In doing so the water goes through

    different phases : liquid, solid (ice) and gas (vapour).

    So due to the range of surface temperature and

    pressures, water exist in all three states : solid (ice),

    liquid (water) and gas (water vapour) on earth.

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    - The water cycle involves theexchange of energy,

    which leads to temperature changes. For instance,

    when waterevaporates,it takes up energy from thesurroundings and cools the Environment. When it

    condenses, it releases, energy and warms the

    Environment. These heat exchange influence climate.

    - Water cycle is also essential for the maintenance of

    most life and ecosystem on the planet.

    1 (b) 3.3.Atmosphere (Atmosphere of Earth)

    - Atmosphere is a layer of gases, surrounding the

    planet earth and that is retained by Earths gravity or

    simply the layer of gases surrounding the earth is

    called the atmosphere.

    - It (Earths atmosphere) is a complex fluid of gases, as

    suspended particles, did not have its origin in the

    beginning of the plant.

    - The atmosphere as of today has been derived from the

    Earth itself byChemical- Bio-chemical reactions.

    - Atmosphere forms an envelop of gaseous around the

    earth.

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    - The atmosphere protects the life on Earth by

    absorbing ultraviolet-solar radiation, warming the

    surface through heat retention (green house effect)

    and reducing temperature extremes between day and

    night (the diurnal temperature variation).

    - The gases like Nitrogen, Oxygen, Argon, CO2and water

    vapour, etc together make up the total volume of

    Atmosphere.

    - Earths Atmosphere, which is mostly nitrogen.

    - Its current composition is the product of Billions of

    years of Biochemical modifications of the paleo

    atmosphere by living organisms.

    1 (b) 3.3 (a)Atmospheric composition

    There areeleven most abundantgases found in the Earths

    atmosphere by volume. Of the gases listed; nitrogen, oxygen, water

    vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and ozone are

    extremely important to the Health of Earths Biosphere. Of these

    Nitrogen and oxygen, together constitute about 99% of the gas in

    the atmosphere.

    Average composition of the Atmosphere up to an attitude of 25 km

    No. Gas Name Chemical Formula Percentage volume

    1. Nitrogen N2 78.08%

    2. Oxygen O2 20.95%

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    3. Argon Ar 0.93%

    4. Carbondioxide CO2 0.036%

    5. Neon Ne 0.0018%

    6. Helium He 0.0005%

    7. Methane CH4 0.00017%

    8. Hydrogen H2 0.00005%

    9. Nitrous Oxide N2O 0.00003%

    10. Ozone O3 0.00004%

    11. Water H2O 1-4%

    1 (b) 3.3(b).Structure of Atmosphere

    Principal Layers (Atmospheric Stratification)

    Earths Atmosphere can be divided (calledAtmospheric

    Stratification)intofive mainlayers. From the highest to lowest.

    (i) Exosphere : >700 Km (>440 miles)

    (ii) Thermosphere : 80 to 700 Km (50-440 miles)

    (iii) Mesosphere : 50 to 80 Km (31 to 50 miles)

    (iv) Stratosphere : 12 to 50 Km (7 to 31 miles)

    (v) Troposphere : 0 to 12 Km (0 to 7 miles)

    1 (b) 3 (b)(i)Exosphere

    - It is the outer most layer of Earths Atmosphere (ie, the

    upper limit of the atmosphere).

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    - It is located at the top of thethermosphereat an

    attitude of about 700 Km above the sea level to about

    10,000 Km.

    - The exosphere merges with the emptiness of outer

    space where there isno atmosphere.

    - This layer is mainly composed of extremely low,

    densities of hydrogen, helium and several heavier

    molecules including nitrogen, oxygen and carbon

    Dioxide closer to exobase.

    - The atoms and molecules, are so far apart, that they

    can travel, hundred of kilometers, without colliding

    with one another. Thusexosphereno longer behaves

    like a gas and the particlesconstantlyescape in to

    space.

    1 (b) 3 (b)(ii)Thermosphere

    - Thermosphere is the second highest layer of Earths

    Atmosphere. It lies at the lower boundary of the

    exosphere and hence it is also referred to asexobase.

    - The lower part of the thermosphere, from 80 Km to

    550 Km above the Earths surface contains the

    ionosphere.

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    - This atmospheric layer, undergoes a gradual increase

    in temperature with height. The temperature of this

    layer can rise as high as 1.500oC (2,700oF).

    (iii) Mesosphere

    The third highest layer of Atmosphere, occupying the region

    above the stratosphere.

    - It extends from thestratopauseat an attitude of

    about 50 Km tomesopauseat 80-85 Km above the

    sea level.

    - Temperature drops with increasing attitude to the

    mesopause that marks, the top of this middle layer of

    atmosphere.

    - It is the coldest place on atmosphere has an average

    temperature around 85oC.Just below, the

    mesopause, the air is so cold.

    - The Mesosphere is also the layer where most meteors

    burn upon atmospheric entrance.

    (iv) Stratosphere

    - The Stratosphere is thesecond lowestlayer of

    Earths Atmosphere. It lies above the troposphere and

    is separated from it by thetropopause.

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    - This layer extends from the top of the troposphere at

    roughly 12 Km above Earths surface to the

    Stratopause at an attitude of about 50 to 55 Km.

    - Stratosphere defines a layer, in which temperature rise

    with increase in attitude.

    - This rise in temperature is caused by the absorption of

    ultraviolet radiation (UV) from the sun, by the ozone

    layer. Although the temperature may be 60oC at the

    Tropopause, the top of the stratosphere is much

    warmer and may be near 0oC.

    - The stratospheric temperature profile creates very

    stable, atmospheric conditions, so the stratosphere,

    lacks the weather producing air turbulance that is so

    prevalent in the troposphere. Consequently the

    Stratosphere is almost completely free of clouds and

    other forms of weather.

    (v) Troposphere

    - The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earths

    Atmosphere. It extends from the Earths surface to an

    average height of about 12 Km, although this attitude

    varies from about 9 Km (30,000 ft) at poles of 17 Km

    (56,000 ft) at the equator, with some variation due to

    weather.

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    - The troposphere is bounded above the tropopause.

    - Temperature usually declines with increasing attitude,

    in the troposphere. The lowest part of the troposphere

    (ie, Earth surface) is the warmest section of the

    troposphere, because the troposphere is mostly heated

    through energy transfer from the surface.

    - The troposphere containsroughly 80% of the mass

    ofthe Earths atmosphere. Thetroposphere is denser

    than all its overlying atmosphere layers, because, a

    larger atmospheric weight sits on the top of the

    troposphere and causes, it to be most severely

    compressed. Fifty percent of the total mass of the

    atmosphere is located in the lower 5.6 Km (18,000 ft)

    of the troposphere. It is primarily composed of

    Nitrogen (78%) and Oxygen (21%) with small

    concentration of other trace gases.

    - Nearly all atmospheric water vapour or moisture is

    found in the Troposphere, so it is the layer, where most

    of Earths weather take place.

    - Most conventional aviation actively takes place in the

    troposphere and it is the only layer, that can be

    assessed by propeller driven aircraft.

    1 (b) 3 (c) Other layers of Atmosphere

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    (1) Ozone layer (2) Ionosphere (3) Planetary Boundary

    Layer

    1. Ozone Layer

    It is contained within the Stratosphere. The ozone

    concentrations in the stratosphere are about 2 to 8

    PPM (Parts Per Million), which is higher than in the

    lower atmosphere.

    - The ozone layer is mainly located in the lower portion

    of the stratosphere from about 15-35 Km, though thethickness varies seasonally and geographically.

    - About 90% of the ozone in our atmosphere is

    contained within the stratosphere.

    2. Ionosphere

    The Ionosphere is a region of the atmosphere, that is

    ionized by Solar Radiation. It is responsible for

    auroras. During the day time hours, it stretches from

    50 to 1,000 Km, which includes the Mesosphere

    Thermosphereand parts of theExosphere. However,

    ionization in the mesosphere, largely cease during the

    night, So auoras are normally seen only in the

    thermosphereandlower exosphere.

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    - The ionosphere forms the inner edge of

    magnetosphere. It has practical importance, because

    it influences, for example, radio propagation on earth.

    3. Planetary Boundary Layer

    The planetary boundary layer, is the part of the

    troposphere that is closes to Earths surface and is

    directly affected by it, mainly through turbulent

    diffusion. During the day, the planetary boundary

    layer usually is well-mixed, where as at night it

    becomes, stably stratified, withweak or intermittent

    mixing.

    - The depth of the planetary boundary layer ranges

    from, as little as about 100 meters on clear, calm

    nights to 3000 m or more during the afternoon in dry

    regions.

    1 (b) 3 (d) Physical properties of Atmosphere

    (i) Pressure

    The average atmospheric pressure at sea level.

    - Average atmosphere pressure at sea level is 1 standardatmosphere (atm) = 10.3 KPa (Kilo Pascals)

    But Atmospheric pressure = Total weight of the air above

    Total area

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    Ie, Total weight of the air above unit area, where

    the pressure is measured.

    - Thus the air pressure varies with location and weather

    - Atmospheric pressure decreases exponentially with

    attitude, dropping by half every 5-6 Km (18,000 ft).

    - In summary, the mass of Earth Atmosphere is

    distributed approximately as follows.

    50% is below 5.6 Km (18,000 ft)

    90% is below 16 Km (52,000 ft)

    99.99997% is below 100 Km

    - Commercial airliners typically cruise between 10 Km

    (33,000 ft) and 13 Km (43,000 ft) where thinner air improves

    fuel economy.

    (ii)Temperature & Speed

    - Temperature decreases with attitude starting at sea

    level but variations, in the trend begin above 11 Km.

    - In the stratosphere, staring above 20 Km, the

    temperature increases with highest due to heating

    within the ozone layer caused by capture of significant

    ultraviolet radiation, from the sun, by the dioxin and

    ozone gas in this region.

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    - Still another region of increasing temperature with

    attitude occurs at very high attitudes, in the

    thermosphere above 90 Km.

    (iii) Sound

    Speed of sound depends only on temperature and not

    on the gas pressure or density.

    (iv) Density & Mass

    - The density air at sea level is about 1.2 Kg/m2.

    - Atmospheric density decreases as the attitude

    increases.

    1 (b) 3.4 Biosphere

    - The Biosphere is the thin shell oforganic matteron

    surface of earth comprising all the living things.

    - It encompasses all zones on the earth in which life is

    present ie, entire Bio-resources of the earth.

    - It developed on earth since 4.5 Billions year through

    evolutionary process.

    - It is a part of Earth which includes, air, land, surface

    rocks and water, an all components with in which life

    occurs.

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    - It is the life-zone of earth and includes all living

    organism.

    - It occupies theleast volumeof all the spheres, but it

    is the cause of majority of the flow of matter through

    nature.

    - Relative to the volume of earth, the Biosphere, is the

    onlyvery thin surface layer, that extends from

    11,000 meters ie, 8 km below sea level to 15,000

    meters ie, 8 km above in to the atmosphere. At the top

    of the lithosphere, throughout hydrosphere and into

    the lower atmosphere, life of diverse types (Biosphere)

    exist. Biosphere layer there fore extends over most of

    the surface of earth. It includes the upper layers of the

    Earths crust and the thin layer- These bioresourcesand their surrounding constitute Biosphere, where

    man kind is acting as the most evolved creature .Crust

    and the thin layer soil that support life.

    - Biosphere is responsible for the grand scale, recycling

    of energy and matter on earth.

    - Biosphere is the global sum of all eco systems.

    - It is therefore termed as thezone of life on earth, a

    closed system and largelyself-regulating.

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    - By the most general bio physiological definition the

    Biosphere is theglobal ecological system, integrating

    all living beings and their relationship, including theirinteraction with the element.

    1 (b) 3.4 (a)Biome

    With in the Biosphere there are several major regions,

    containing specific types of Ecosystems. These major regions

    are calledBiomes.

    - Biomes are then recognized by the types of dominant

    ecosystems tropical rain forest, temperate forests,

    deserts, prairies and Arctic Tundra.

    - A Biome is ahomogeneous ecologicalformation that

    exist over a vast region, such as tundra or steppes.

    - The Biosphere comprises all of theEarths Biomes

    the entirely of places, where life is possible from the

    highest mountains to the depth of the oceans.

    - The Biosphere contains great quantities of elements

    such as carbon, nitrogenand oxygen. Other

    elements, such as phosphorous, calciumand

    potassiumare also essential to life, yet are present in

    smaller amounts. At the ecosystems and biosphere

    levels, there is a continual recycling of all these

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    elements which alternate their mineral and organic

    states.

    - Biomesare regional ecosystems and the Biosphere isthe largest of all possible ecosystems.

    I (b), 2. Man made or Anthropogenic Environment (Human

    Impact on Environment)

    - The environment which has been modified by human

    activities is called man made activities.

    - Human impact on the Environment or anthropogenic

    impact on the Environment includes impacts onbio

    physical Environments,biodiversityand other

    resources.

    - Man is the Highest of all the creatures on this earth.

    He is modifying the environment according to his own

    needs and ways without taking into account its

    consequences.

    - Increase in the scientific technologies which are the

    product of Human brain is now deteriorating the

    environment.

    - The term anthropogenicdesignates an effect of

    object resulting from Human activity.

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    - The term is sometimes used in the context of pollution

    emissions that are produced as a result of human

    activities but applies broadly to all major, human

    impacts on Environment.

    Few examples of Human impacts on the Environment

    or (Anthropogenic factor) are:

    (1) Environmental impacts caused by the application of

    Technology (leading to negative Environmental

    consequences)

    (2) The Environmental Impact of agriculture, varies based

    on vide variety of Agricultural practices employed

    around the world.

    (3) Environmental Impact of fishing: Such as (i) Over

    fishing (ii) Pollution (iii) Poor fishery management

    (4) Environmental Impact of Irrigation Due to Over

    irrigation

    - Over irrigating the field causes, the problems of

    water logging and increases the salinity of the

    soil (changes in the quality of soil and water)

    (5) Continuous cutting of trees Deforestation

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    - Deforestation increases, soil erosion, loss of

    fertility and loss of water, accelerating the

    process of desertification

    (6) Overgrazing leads to Barren land : Heavy grazing by

    the increasing cattle population in grass lands, is

    continuously denuding the land area, resulting in the

    land becoming barren

    (7) Excessive ploughing leads to desertification

    - Excessive ploughing makes the soil particles

    loose and leads to desertification.

    (8) Conversion of pastures to arable land ultimately leads

    to desertification

    - Where large areas of pasture lands are converted

    to arable land, soil is let loose and is easily

    blown by winds, further increasing the problems

    of desertification.

    (8) Excessive use of fertilizers :- Top soil becomes loose

    pollution

    - Owing to excessive use of fertilizers, the top soil

    becomes loose, and is blown, away by the wind.

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    III. Components of Environment or Biotic and Abiotic

    Components of Environment

    - Natural Environment includes all the living and non-

    living components occurring naturally on Earth.

    - The Biological components of the ecosystem, that is

    the Biotic components interact with the physical

    entities (abiotic components)

    - The scientific study of the interaction of Biotic

    components with each other and with abiotic

    components is known as Ecology

    (a) Abiotic Components

    - The abiotic components are also known as abiotic

    factors

    - The way in which plants and animals grown and carry

    out their activities, is a result of several abiotic factors

    - The abiotic factors in Ecology consists ofnon-living,

    physicalandchemical factorsof the Environment

    Examples of abiotic components (physical factors) are

    air water, soil, rocks, etc.

    The Chemical factors of abiotic components aregas,

    acids, inorganic elementsandcomponents(such as

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    soil, water, calcium, oxygen and variety of organic

    components such as humus and different climatic

    conditions, such as light, temperature, wind

    precipitation)

    - All of these factors, affect different organisms to

    different extents. For examples, if there is little or no

    sunlight then plants maywither and diefrom not

    being able to get enough sunlight to do

    photosynthesis.

    - Abiotic components are essential for the living world,

    as life cannot exist without abiotic factors (such as

    sunlight, water, air and minerals).

    - Thequality of the abiotic environmentis a critical

    factor for life. Water for examples, cannot only vary in

    terms of availability, but also in terms of

    characteristics such as turbidity, alkalinity, PH

    levels, amount of dissolved oxygen and the

    concentration and combinations of various chemicals.

    - Changes in the abiotic environment can affect the

    conditions of living organisms and vice-versa.

    - Human activities are currently resulting in

    considerable changes, in the abiotic environment of

    Earth, including changes in the global cycles, hence

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    causing harmful environmental effects such as global

    warning.

    - So the abiotic or non-living components include

    climatic and edaphic factors. The climatic factors

    include temperature, humidity, rain snow fall, etc.

    - The edaphic factors comprise the soil, substratum etc.

    (b)Biotic components of Environment

    - Biotic components are the living things that shape an

    Ecosystem (ie, the living organisms from the Biotic

    Components of Environment).

    - ABiotic factoris any living component that affects

    another organism, including animals that consume

    the organisms in question and the living food that the

    organisms consumes.

    - Each Biotic factor needs food and energy to work and

    for proper growth. Biotic factors include human

    influence also.

    - Based on the role the biotic components in the

    ecosystem, they are categorized in to three main

    categories.

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    Producers, ie,auto tropes: eg. Plants they convert

    the energy (from Photo synthesis) in to food (in the

    transfer of sunlight, water and carbon dioxide into

    energy)

    Ie, producers are organisms, that synthesise

    organic substances. Example- plant.

    Consumersie, heterotophs eg. Animals, they

    depend upon producers (occasionally other

    consumers) for food (that is consumers are

    organisms that feed on other organisms).

    Consumers are of three types(i) primary

    consumers(ii)secondary consumers(iii)tertiary

    consumers.

    Decomposersie, detritivores eg. Fungi and

    bacteria. They break down chemicals from

    producers and consumers (usually dead) into

    simpler form, which can be reused.

    - Ie, These aresaprophytes micro organisms that feed

    on dead and decayed waste matter

    - The non-green organisms like the fungi and some

    bacteria, which are in capable of producing their food,

    live on the dead and decaying plant or animal parts.

    IV. Ecology

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    (A) Definition: Ecology is the study of the relationship

    between living organisms and their environment

    - It is the study oforganisms in their naturalhabitat.

    - It is the study onthe set of relationship of a particular

    organisms with its Environment.

    - Ecology proceeds atthree levels: (1) theindividual

    organisms (2) the population (consisting of

    individuals of the same species and (3) the

    community(consisting of number of populations)

    - At thelevel of the organisms, ecology deals with how

    individuals are affected by and how they affect their

    Environment? For example: Is the green house effect a

    real danger? and what are the implications for human

    life as the earth heats up further?

    - At the level ofpopulationecology (population ecology)

    deals with the presence or absence of particular

    species and with trends and fluctuations in their

    numbers. It is concerned with interrelationship of co-

    actions between individuals within and between

    species. Co-actions may be beneficial to participants or

    harmful to them.

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    - Community ecologydeals with the composition or

    structure of communities and with the natural

    resources, affected by them.

    - Ecologisttry to predict what will happen to

    organisms, populations or communities under a

    particular habitat.

    - The topic of interest to ecologists include thediversity,

    amount (biomass), number (population) of

    organisms, as well as competitionbetween them

    within and among ecosystems

    - Ecology is aninterdisciplinary fieldthat includes

    Biology and Earth science.

    - It is usually considered as a branch of Biology.

    - The wordecology(Okologie) was coined in1896 by

    the German Scientist Ernst Haeckel(1834-1919)

    - Ancient Greek Philosophers, such asHippocrates and

    Aristotle, laid the foundations of ecology in their

    studies on Natural History.

    - Modern Ecology transformed into more rigorous

    science in the late 19thcentury.

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    - Evolutionary concepts on adaptationand natural

    selectionbecame corner stones, of modern ecological

    theory.

    - Ecology is not synonymous with environment,

    environmentalism, natural history or

    environmental science.

    - It is closely related toevolutionary biology, genetics

    and ethology.

    - An understanding of how biodiversity affects ecological

    functions, is an important area in ecological studies.

    Role of Ecologists

    - Ecologists try to predict, what will happen to

    organisms(any form of life, it includes, all plants and

    animals),Populations(group of individuals organisms

    of the same species living within an area) or

    communities(any assemblage of populations in a

    prescribed area or physical habitat that has

    characteristics, in addition to its individual and

    population components) under a particular habitat.

    - Ecologists, seek to explain.

    Life processes, interactions and adaptations

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    The movement of materials and energy through living

    communities.

    The successional development of Ecosystems and

    The abundance and distribution of organisms and

    biodiversity in the context of environment

    (C) Ecologyis a human science as well.

    (i) There are many practical applications ofecology

    inConservation Biology.Wet land Management,

    natural resource management (agro ecology,

    agricultural, forestry, agro forestry, fisheries) City

    Planning (urban ecology) Community health

    economics, basic and applied science and human

    social interaction (human ecology).

    (ii) Ecology is a multi-disciplinary science. Because of

    its focus on the Higher levels of the organization of life

    on earth and on the interrelations between organisms

    and their environment, ecology draws, heavily on many

    other branches of science, especially Geology and

    Geography, Meterology, Pedology, Chemistry and

    Physics. Thus, ecology is said to be aholistic science,

    one that over arches old disciplines, such as biology,

    which in this view become sub-disciplines,

    contributing to ecological knowledge.

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    (iii) The termsEcologyis sometimes confused with the

    term Environmentalism.Environmentalism is a

    social movement aimed at the goal of protecting

    natural resourcesof the environment and which may

    involve political lobbying, activism, education and so

    forth.

    (iv) Ecology is the science that studies, living

    organisms and their interactions with the

    Environment. As such ecology involves scientific

    methodologyand does not dictate what is right or

    wrong. However findings in ecology may be used to

    support or counter various goals, assets or actions of

    environmentalists.

    (v) Disciplines of Ecology :

    Ecology is a broad science, which can be subdivided

    into major and minor sub-disciplines. The major sub-

    disciplines include

    (1) Physiological ecology of (eco physiology)

    (2) Behavioural ecology

    (3) Population ecology

    (4) Community ecology (or synecology)

    (5) Ecosystem Ecology (which studies the flow of

    energy and matter through eco system)

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    (6) Medical Ecology

    (7) Landscape Ecology

    (8) Evolution Ecology

    Ecology can be sub-divided on the basis ofTarget group

    (1) Annual Ecology (2) Plant Ecology (3) Insict Ecology

    (4) Human Ecology, etc

    Basic concepts of Ecology are:

    (1) Ecological unit (2) the ecosystem (3) energy flow (4)

    nutrient cycles (5) species interaction (6) productivity (7)

    Ecological challenges

    IV (D)Eco system

    - An Ecosystem is abiotic assemblage of plants,

    animals and microbes(a community of living

    organisms) taken together with their physio-chemical

    environment.

    * The Physio chemical environment are :

    (1) Light, temperature, humidity, rain, mineral, soil,

    etc.

    (2) Gases acids, water, inorganic elements, organic

    substances, etc.

    - ie, an Ecosystem is a community of living

    organism, in conjunction with non-living

    components.

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    - The Ecosystem concepts was introduced by the British

    Ecologist,Arthur Tansleyin 1935.

    - An ecosystem consists of two components (i)Biotic

    and (ii)Abiotic

    Biotic components consists of (1) Producers

    (2) Consumers (3) Decomposers.

    The essentialAbiotic componentsconsists of(1) Water

    (2) Nitrogen (3) Soil (4) Mineral,etc.

    - In an ecosystem theBiological cyclingof material is

    maintained by threegroups viz (1) Producers

    (2)Consumersand (3)Decomposers/recyclers

    - In an ecosystem thebioticandabiotic components

    are regarded as linked together through nutrient

    cyclesandenergy flow.

    - The Energy that flows, through Ecosystem is obtained

    primarily from the sun. It generally enters the system

    through photosynthesis.

    - Energydoes not recycle through an ecosystem. But

    chemicals do

    - Eco systems are (1) Natural Ecosystemand

    (2)Artificial Ecosystem

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    - Natural Ecosystems are (1)Terrestrial (Forest, grass

    land, dessert)(2)Aquatic (Fresh water, marine)

    - Artificial Eco systems are (1)Lentic(standing water)

    Lake, pond, swamp (2)Lotic(Running water)- River,

    spring stream.

    (a)Major Ecosystems are :

    (1) Forest Ecosystem (2) Grass Land Ecosystem (3) Desert

    eco system (4) Aquatic Ecosystem

    Few examplesof Ecosystems in Indiaare

    (1) Mountains Himalayas

    (2) Mountains Nilgiris

    (3) Indo-gangetic plains.

    (b)Biome and Ecosystem

    - In Ecology, a Biome is a majorregional group of distinctive

    plantandanimal communitiesbest adapted to regions

    physical natural environment, latitude, elevation, terrain.

    - Biomes are defined asthe worlds major communities,

    classified according to the predominant vegetation and

    characterized by adaptations of organisms to that particular

    Environment.

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    - Anecosystem is often much smaller than a Biome,

    although the size varies.

    - Biome ismajor habitat type

    Classification: Biomes are classified in various ways (five major

    types)

    (1)Aquatic (2) Desert (3) Forest (4) Grass Lands (5) Tundra

    (c)Major Biomes of the World

    Mountain (High Elevation)

    Tundra

    Temperate Forest

    Marine/Island

    Desert

    (d) Biome in Local name

    Biomes are often known in English by local names.

    For example : a temperate grass land or shrub land biome is

    known commonly a steppein Central Asia Praisie inNorth

    America,Pampas inSouth America.

    - Tropical grassland are known asSavannain Australia

    Climate is a major factordetermining the distribution of

    Terrestrial Biomes. Most important climate factors, are (1) Latitude

    (2) Humidity (3) Elevation

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    Tropical Dry Forest

    Cold climate Forest

    Grass land

    Savannah

    Tropical Rain Forest

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    IV (e)Cycling of materials in the Ecosystem

    The movement of materials in an ecosystem ismaterial cycling.

    The conceptcyclesin Ecology refers tocirculationof certain

    elements like water or carbon, in the atmosphere. The circulation is

    from the Environment organisms and back to the Environment.

    It is also called nutrient cyclingor mineral cycling, because

    elements such as (1) Nitrogen (2) Phosphorous (3) Potassium are

    minerals that provide nutrient to plants.

    - Materials move through ecosystem in a cycle of

    productionandconsumption. The most important element

    are carbon, hydrogen and oxygen which are required for

    photosynthesisand nitrogen, phosphorous, sulphur,

    calcium and magnesium which are required for the

    construction of proteins and other structuralcompounds

    in the bodies of living organisms.

    - Potassium and some minor elements (iron, copper,

    boron, zinc, manganese) are also necessary to plant growth.

    - These elements are transferred from soil and water to

    green plants when the plants grow (ie, production). They are

    returned to soil and water whenever, carbon chains are

    broken, apart during consumption.

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    - Consumersuse the carbon chains in their food, as

    building blocks, for their bodies. When consumers derive

    more, mineral nutrients from their bodies than they need for

    their own, bodies, they release, the extra minerals, into their

    environment. For example, nitrogen is excreted as ammonia

    or urea. The minerals return to the soil where they serve as

    nutrients for plants.

    - Most of the micro organisms aredecomposerswhich

    consume, the bodies, of dead plants, animals and othermicro organisms, to obtain the carbon, (chain building

    blocks) that they need for their growth. They release, any

    surplus, mineral nutrients from their food into the

    environment, where the mineral nutrients are available for

    use by plants. The basic function of discomposes, in the

    ecosystem is in many ways similar to consumers.

    IV (E) A metaphor for material cycling and energy flow in ecosystem

    - Let us consider a plot of water on a stove. A fire heats the

    water at the bottom of the pot changing it to a higher energy

    level (hot objects have a higher energy level than the cold

    objects). Because the warmer water is lighter in weight than

    cold water, the heated water rises to the top of the pot while

    the heated water is at the top of the pot, it becomes cooler as

    heat energy moves from the heated water to the cooler air

    above. After losing heat, the water (which is now cooler and

    heavier) sinks to the bottom of the pot, to replace, newly

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    heated water, that is rising. The result iswater circulation

    a physical cycle. The fire is the energy input to the system

    and the heat loss, from the water at the top of the pot, is the

    energy output the system.

    - Because of the energy input (the fire) the water in the pot is

    self-organising. It makes, its own structure. The water in

    the pot forms amaterial cycle, but the energydoes not

    cycle. Energy enters the pot from fire, moves from the

    bottom of the pot to the top with the heated water and

    leaves, the pot as low-level heat. This known asenergy flow.

    If the fire (the energy input) is turned off, the water, in the

    pot stops cycling energy stops flowing and the water loses its

    self-organizing structure.

    V. Matter cycle / Bio- Geo Chemical Cycles (Cycling of materials

    in the Ecosystem or Nutrients cycle or substance turnover)

    - Movement of nutrient within an ecosystem is called

    Biogeochemical cycles or Nutrient cycle.

    - In Earth Science Biogeochemical cycle or substance

    turnover, or cycling of substanceis a path wayby

    which a chemical substance moves through both biotic

    (Biosphere) and abiotic (Lithosphere, atmosphere and

    hydrosphere) Components of Earth.

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    - A cycle is a series of change whichcomes back to the

    starting pointand which can be repeated.

    - Waterfor example is always recycled through water

    cycle: Water undergoes evaporation, condensation and

    precipitation falling back to earth.

    - Elements, chemical compounds and other forms of

    matter are passed from one organism to another and

    from one part of the Biosphere, through Bio chemical

    cycles.

    - The term Biogeochemical cyclestell us that

    Biological, geological and chemical factors are all

    involved.

    - The circulation of chemical nutrients like carbon,

    oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorous, calcium, water, etc

    through the biological and physical world are, known

    as Bio chemicals.

    - In effect the element is recycled although in some

    cycles, there may be places (called reservoirs) where

    the element is accumulated or held for a long period of

    time (such as an ocean or lake for water)

    - SoReservoirsare those parts of cycle where the

    chemical is held in large quantities for a long period of

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    time. The length of time a chemical is held in an

    exchange pool or reservoir is termed itsresidence

    time.

    - The oceans are a reservoir for water, while a cloud is

    anexchange pool(where the material/water held for

    shorter period of time). Water may reside in an ocean

    for thousand of years, but in a cloud for a few days

    only.

    - TheBiotic communityincludes all living organisms.

    This community may serve an exchange pool and also

    serve to move chemicals from one stage of cycle to

    another.

    For instance, the trees of the tropical rain forest bring

    water up from the forest floor to be evaporated into the

    atmosphere. The energy for most of the transportation

    of chemicals from one place to another, is provided

    either, by the sun or by the heat released from the

    mantle, and core of the earth.

    V (a)Important matter cycles or biogeochemical cycles are:

    1. The Carbon cycle

    2. The Nitrogen cycle

    3. The Oxygen cycle

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    4.The Phosphorous cycle

    5.The Sulfur cycle

    6.The Water cycle

    7.The Rock cycle

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    V (b)Newly studied Bio geochemical cycles are

    1). The mercury cycle, 2) The Human Caused cycle of

    atrazine. They affect some species.

    - They are relativelyunknown cycles

    - As the Bio geochemical cycles describe the movement

    of substance, on the entire globe, the study of these is

    inherently multi disciplinary. The carbon cycle may be

    related to research in ecology and atmosphericsciences.

    - Biogeo chemical dynamics, would also be related to the

    fields of geology and pedology (soil study)

    V (c)Two types of Material cycles

    There are two types material cycles (i) the gaseous cycle

    and (ii) the sedimentary cycle.

    In the gaseous cycle of the material cycle, the element

    or compound can be converted to a gaseous form, diffuse through

    the atmosphere and they arrive over land or sea, to be used by the

    Biosphere, in a much shorter time.

    - In a gaseous cycle the air is the reservoir or oceans

    (via evaporation).

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    - The gaseous cycles include those of nitrogen, oxygen,

    carbon and water.

    In the sedimentary cycle, the compound or element, isreleased from the rock by weathering, then follows, the movement

    of running water either, in solution or as sediment to the sea.

    Eventually, by precipitation and sedimentation these materials are

    converted into rock. When the rock is uplifted and exposed to

    weathering the cycle is completed.

    - In the sedimentary cycle, Earth Crust is the reservoir.

    - Sedimentary cycle include those of iron, calcium,

    phosphorous and other earth bound elements.

    VI. AGRICULTURE

    1. Definition: Agriculture or Farming is the cultivation of animal,

    plant and other life forms for food, fibre, bio fuel, medicinals and

    other products used to sustain and enhance human life.

    - Agriculture was not only for growing food for people

    and animals but also for growing other things like flowers,

    ornamental plants, nursery plants, animals, etc.

    - Agriculture was the key development dates back to

    thousands of years.

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    - Until the Industrial Revolution, the vast majority of

    Human population laboured (labored) in agriculture.

    2. Subsistence Agriculture

    Pre industrial agriculture was typically subsistence

    agriculture/self sufficiency agriculture in which the farms raised

    most of their crops for their own consumption, instead of crash

    crops for trade.

    In other words, the Subsistence Agriculture means growing

    only enough to feed the farmer his family and his animals.

    3. Agriculture in India

    The written history of agriculture in India dates back to

    Rig Vedawritten about 1100 B.C.

    - The Rig Veda hyms for example, describes, ploughing,

    fallowing, irrigation, fruit and vegetables cultivation. Other

    historical evidence suggests, rice and cotton were cultivated

    in the Indus Valley. The middle ages saw irrigation channels

    reach a new level of sophistication in India. Land and Water

    Management systems were developed with the aim of

    providing uniform growth.

    - Today India ranks second world wide in farm output.

    Agriculture and allied sectors like forestry and fisheries

    accounts for 13.7% of the G.D.P in 2013.

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    - The Economic contribution of Agriculture in Indias GDP is

    steadily declining with countrys broad based economic

    growth. Still agriculture, is demographically, thebroadest

    economic sectorand plays a significant role, in the overall

    socio-economic fabric of India.

    4. Agriculture and colonism

    - Over 2500 years ago, Indian Farmers had discovered

    and begun many species and sugar cane.

    - Prior to 18thcentury cultivation of sugar cane was

    largely confined to India.

    - Sugarcane does not grow, in cold, frost prone climate.

    Therefore tropical and semi tropical colonies were sought.

    - The history and past accomplishments of Indian

    Agriculture thus influenced, in part,colonism, first slavery,

    then slavery like indentured labor practices in the new

    world.

    5. Indian Agriculture since 1947

    - 68 years, since its independence, India has made immense,

    progress towardsfood security(to be sure that, there is

    enough food for everyone). Indian population has tripled, but

    food-grain production, more than quadrupled, there has

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    thus been substantial increase in available food grain per

    capita.

    6. Green Revolution in India

    - Prior to the mid 1960s India, relied on imports and

    food aid to meet domestic requirements. However, two years

    of severe drought in 1965 and 1966, convinced India to

    reform its agricultural Policy and that India, could not rely

    on, foreign aid and foreign imports for food security. India

    adopted significant policy reforms, focused on the goal of

    food grain self sufficiency. This ushered in IndiasGreen

    Revolution.

    - It began with the decision to adoptsuper yielding,

    disease resistant, wheat varieties in combination with better

    farming knowledge to improve productivity.

    - The Indian state of Punjabled Indias Green

    Revolution and earned itself the distinction of being the

    countrys bread basket.

    - The initial increase in production, was centered on the

    irrigated areas of the Indian states of Punjab, Haryana and

    Western Uttar Pradesh. With both the farmers and

    Government officials focusing on farm productivityand

    knowledge transfer, Indias total food grain, production

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    soared. A hectare of Indian wheat farms, that produced on

    average of 0.8 tonnes of wheat in 948, produced 4.7 tonnes

    of wheat in 1975, from the same land. Such rapidly growths

    in farm productivity enabled India to becomeself-sufficient

    by the 1970s. By 2000, Indian farms were adopting wheat

    verities , capable of yielding 6 tonnes of wheat per hectare.

    - With agricultural policy success in wheat Indias

    Green Revolution Technologyspread to rice. However,

    since irrigation infrastructure, was very poor, Indian farmer

    innovated with Tube wells, to harvest ground water. When

    grains from the new technology reached their limits in the

    states of initial adoption, the technology spread in the 1970s

    and 1980s to the states of Eastern India- Bihar , Odisha and

    West Bengal.

    - In the 1980s Indian Agricultural policyshifted to

    evolution of a production pattern in line with the

    demand pattern leading to a shift, in emphasis, to other

    agricultural commodities like oil seed, fruit and vegetables.

    Farmers began adopting, improved methods and

    technologies in dairying, fisheries and livestock and meeting

    the diversified food needs of Indias growing population.

    - As with rice the lasting benefits of improved seeds and

    improved farming technologies now largely depends on,

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    whether India develops infrastructure such as irrigation

    network, flood control systems, etc.

    - Indias Agricultural economy isundergoing structural

    changes between1970 and 2011, the G.D.P share of

    Agriculture has fallen from 43 to 16%. This is not because of

    reduced importance in Agriculture or a consequence of

    Agricultural policy. This is largely because of rapid growth in

    services, industrial output non agricultural sectors in India

    between 2000 to 2012.

    (7) Environmental Impact of Agriculture

    (1) Change of climate (2) Deforestation (3) Genetic Engineering

    (4) Irrigation (5) Pollutants (6) Soil retrogruism and degradation (7)

    Waste

    1. Change of climate

    - Climate change and Agriculture are interrelated

    processes.

    - Agriculture has been shown to produce significant

    impacts on climate change, primarily, through the

    productionand release of green house gases, such as

    carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide, but also by

    altering the Earths Land corer, which can change its ability

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    to absorb or reflect heat and light, thus contributing to radio

    active forcing.

    - Land use change such as deforestationand

    desertification together with use of fossil- fuels are the

    major anthropogenic sources of Co2is Agriculture itself with

    major contributor to increasing methane and nitrous oxide

    concentration in earths atmosphere.

    - Agriculture becomes more dependent on fossil-basedinputs.

    - Intensification of rice production leads to

    agricultural waste

    - Ultimately Leads to production of methane with

    atmosphere.

    2. Deforestation

    - One of the causes of deforestation is to clear land for

    pasture or crops.

    3. Genetic Engineering: Genetic Engineering has caused

    controversies. Seed contamination is problematic. In genetic

    Engineering seed contamination may refer to unwanted

    genes found in a seed or pieces of DNA from other genetically

    engineered seeds. It (seed contamination) is the mixing of

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    seeds used for Agriculture with other seeds, which are not

    desirable. (An example is mixing corn seed with weed seed).

    - Contamination in this area is most likely caused by

    other genetically engineered seeds cross pollinating,

    with unchanged seeds. The new seeds, that are

    produced will have significantly altered DNA than the

    parent seed. This mutation could potentially then be

    passed down to generation. It is possible that the

    alterations could affect plant growth and development.

    - Preventing seed contamination in genetic engineering

    is fairly difficult, almost impossible. It is simply a

    matter of separating pure seeds from contaminated

    ones. This will keep a supply of unaltered seeds for

    future use, if they are allowed to cross pollinate.

    - Government agencies, especially within the United

    States are setting up programes to stop seed

    contamination from generate Engineering.

    4. Irrigation

    Irrigation can lead to a number of problems.

    Depletion of underground aquifers throughover

    drafting.

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    Poor management of wastes water, chemicals may lead to

    water pollution.

    Deep drainage (from over-irrigation) may result in rising

    water tables, which in some instances, will lead to problems

    of irrigation salinity requiring water table control by some

    form of subsurface land drainage.

    Irrigation without adequate drainage leads to salinistion.

    Irrigation with saline or high-sodium water may damage soil

    structure owing to formation of alkaline soil.

    Runoff causing surface water and ground water aquifer

    hydrologic cycle water pollution.

    5. Pollutants (Environmental impact of pesticides

    Land and water are contaminated through chemical

    fertilizers (chemical pollution). Chemical fertilizer is the source of

    Nitrous Oxide.

    - Sprayed insecticides, herbicides, reach of a destination

    other than their target species, because they are

    sprayed or spread across, entire agricultural fields.

    - Runoff can be carry pesticides, into aquatic

    environment, while wind can carry them to other

    fields, grazing areas, human settlement.

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    6. Soil retrogression and degradation

    They are tworegressive evolutionprocesses associated

    with the loss of equilibrium of stable soil.

    - Retrogression is primarily due to soil erosion and it is

    the main factor for soil retrogression. To certain extent

    it is a natural evolution.

    - But Degradation is an evolution different from Natural

    evolution. It is related to Human activities.

    Such as (i) road which increase impermeable surface,

    lead to streaming and ground loss.

    - Agriculture increases the risk ofsoil erosion, through

    its disturbance of vegetation, by way of

    Overgrazing of animals

    Crop removal

    Monoculture planting

    7. Waste: Plastic culture, the use of plastic materials, in agriculture,

    raises problems around how to carry out the recycling of

    agricultural plastics.

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    Land use

    conversion

    Row cropping

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    - The term plastic culturerefers to the practice of

    using plastic materials in agricultural applications.

    - The use ofplastic cultureis growing rapidly

    - One significant component of plastic culture is the

    disposal of used plastics. Few Technologies exist for

    recycling the plastics. But more environmental friendly

    plastic culture and recycling are to be developed.

    VI (a)Sustainable agriculture

    Sustainable Agriculture can be understood, as an eco

    system approachto agriculture.

    - The exponential population increase in recent decades

    has increased the practice of agriculture land

    conversion to meet demand for food, which in turn,

    has increased the effects on the Environment.

    - Sustainable Agriculture : integratesthreemain goals.

    (1)Environmental Health

    (2)Economic Profitability

    (3)(3) Social and Economic Equality

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    Sustainable agriculture is the act of farming using the

    principles of Ecology, the study of relationship between

    organisms and their environment.

    - The phrase sustainable agriculture, was coined by an

    Austrial Agricultural Scientist Gordon McClymont

    Definition of Sustainable Agriculture

    It is defined anintegrated system of plant and animal

    production practiceshaving a sitespecific application, thatwill last over, the long term.

    For example :

    Enhance environmental qualityand the

    natural resource base up on which this

    agricultural economy depends.

    Satisfy humanfood and fibre needs

    Make the most efficient on ofnon-renewable

    resources and on-farming resources and

    integrate, where, appropriate, natural biological

    cycles and controls.

    Sustain the economic viabilityof farm

    operations.

    Enhance, the qualityof life for farmersand

    society as a whole.

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    VII. Eco friendly Farming

    - Modern Intensive Agriculture has created ecological

    impacts. Over the few decades, of modern Agricultural

    activities, it was realized that sustainability of

    production and consequent environment damage was

    rampant. As such, there needs, an alternative practice

    where more ecological rationale will be adopted into

    sustaining agricultural production. Eco-friendly

    farming is one of the alternative measures proposedfor sustainable agriculture.

    VII (a)Few problems of Eco-friendly farming

    (1) Use of Renewable Energy in Eco-friendly faming

    Twelve percent of global green house gas emissions come

    from agriculture. It is one of the drawbacks of modern

    Agriculture.

    - Six to nine percentage of farm expenses are energy

    related. These comes the question renewal sources for

    farming.

    - Using renewable energy in agriculture has benefits for

    both the economy and the Environment and many

    farms, around the world are using the abundance of

    on-site renewable resources to produce energy.

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    - With expenses of land and a need to source power to

    remote locations, solar energy is well suited for life on

    the farm.

    - Photo synthesis to photovoltaicsis one of the

    principles of Eco-friendly farming.

    (2) Use of wind power for farms

    - Wind energy is another alternative for energy in Eco-

    friendly farming. Hence it is also an important

    resources in farms.

    - The majority of this energy comes from large scale

    wind farms. Wind turbines can be installed along

    crops or even on the same land where animals gaze

    on.

    - The turbines can generate, enough energy to power the

    farm or even produce extra energy to sell back to the

    grid.

    VII (b)Better utilization of Waste

    Waste not, want not: Producing Energy from Waste

    - The energy from agricultural waste can be converted to

    Biogas. Biogas is comprised mostly ofmethane, the

    same compound that gives natural gas its power and

    can be used in Turbines designed for natural gas.

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    - Anaerobic digesters can be used to convert, animal

    waste to Biogas. In addition, to generating electricity,

    these microbes also treat the waste and produce

    fertilizer.

    - From solar power to microbial digestionis also

    one principles of Eco-friendly farming.

    VII (c)Use Organic farming methods

    - Organic farming is a form of eco-friendly farming. The

    organic farming methods combines scientific knowledge of

    ecology and modern technology with traditional farming

    practices based n naturally occurring biological processes.

    VII (d)The principal method of Organic farming includes

    (1)Crop rotation

    (2)Green manuers

    (3)Compost

    - Organic farming is an ecological production

    management system that promotes and enhance

    biodiversity, bio cycles and soil biological activity.

    - It is based on minimal useoff-farm inputsand on

    management practices, that restore, maintain and enhance

    the ecological harmony.

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    ((4) Biological Pest control and

    (5)Mechanical cultivation

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    - Organising farming strictly limits or excludes, the use

    of various methods such as

    (i) Chemical Fertilisers

    (ii) Pesticides

    (iii) Plant growth regulations such as use of hormones,

    antibiotics in live stock, genetically organized

    organisms to reasons including sustainability health

    and safety

    - Organic agricultural methods are internationallyregulated

    and legallyenforced.

    VIII.Climate change

    - Climate change is theaverage weatherpattern in a

    place over many years.

    - Climate in our place on the globe controls the weather

    we live.

    - Weatheris the mix of events that happen everyday in

    out atmosphere including temperature, rainfall and

    humidity.

    - The termweatherrefers to the short term properties

    of the atmosphere (such as temperature pressure,

    humidity, rainfall, sunshine, cloud cover and wind, etc)

    at a given place and time.

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    - Theaverage weatherof an area including general

    pattern of atmospheric conditions, seasonal variations

    and weather extremes averaged over a long period oftime is calledclimate.

    - Thus,weather refers to the hourly, daily, a weekly

    changes, in the above properties, climate reflects

    long periods such as season or years.

    - The most generaldefinition of climate change is a

    change in the statistical properties of the climate

    systemwhich considered over long periods of time,

    regard less ofcause.

    - The climate is largely determined by the temperature

    and rainfall of an area.

    Climate change is caused by factors such as Biotic

    process, variation in solar radiations, received by the

    Earth, plate tectonics and volcano rivers.

    - Certain Human activities have also been identified as

    significant causes of recent climate change often

    referred to asGlobal warming

    - So in the context of environmental policy, the term

    climate change has became synonymouswith

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    anthropogenic global warming. Within scientific

    journals, global warming refers to surface

    temperatureincrease, while climate change includes

    global warming and everything else that increase

    green house gas levels, will affect.

    VIII (a)Forcing Mechanisms for climate change

    - Factors that can shape climate are called forcing

    mechanisms of climate forcing.

    - Forcing mechanisms can be either internal or

    external.

    VIII (b)Internal forcing Mechanisms

    They are natural processes within the climate system.

    The examples include :

    (1) Type and distribution of species.

    (2) The changes in ocean currents.

    VIII (c)External Forcing Mechanisms

    (1) Orbital variations

    - Slight variations in Earth orbit lead to changes in the

    seasonal distribution of sunlight reaching the Earths

    surface.

    Three types of orbital variations are :

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    (1) Variations in the Earths eccentricity

    (2) Changes in the tilt angles, earths axis of rotation

    (3) Precession of the Earth axis

    - Combined together these variations produce

    MilanKovitch Cycles: which have a large impact on climate and

    are notable for their correlation to glacial and interglacial periods.

    VIII (d)Evidence for climate change

    Evidence for climate changes is taken from a variety of sources

    than can be used to reconstruct the past climates.

    (1) Historical and archaeological evidence

    - Corresponding changes in the agricultural pattern,

    human settlement

    - Climate change have been linked to the collapse of

    various civilizations.

    (2) Glaciers

    - Glaciers are considered among the most sensitive

    indicators of climate change.

    - Their size is determined by Mass balance between

    snow and melt output.

    - As temperature warm, glaciers retreat unless snow

    precipitation increases to make up for the additional

    melt.

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    (4) Arctic sea ice loss

    The decline in Arctic sea ice, both in extent and thickness

    over the last several decades is further evidence for rapid

    climate changes.

    (4)Vegetation: A change in the type, distribution and the

    coverage of vegetation may occur due to a change in the

    climate.

    - Some changes in climate may result in increased

    precipitation and warmth resulting in improved plant

    growth and the subsequent sequestration of air born

    Co2. A gradual increase in warmth in a region will lead

    to earlier flowering and fruiting items, driving a change

    in the timing of life cycles of dependent organisms.

    (5) Pollen Analysis

    - Different groups of plants have pollen, with distinct

    shapes and surface structures and since the outer

    surface of pollen is composed of a very resilent

    material, they resist decline.

    - The changes in the types of pollen found in different

    types of sediment in takes, or river deltas indicate

    change in plant communities.

    (6) Dendro climatology:is the analysis of tree ring growth pattern

    to

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    determine, past climate variations. Wide and

    thick rings indicate a fertile well watered growing

    period. Whilst thin, narrow rings, indicate a time

    of lower, rainfall and less-than-ideal growing

    conditions.

    (7) Seal level change: Using (1) Allimeter measurements (2) From

    Satellite orbit (3) Coral reefs (4) Coastal

    sediments (5) Marine terraces, etc

    VIII (e)Inter governmental panel on climate change (IPCC)

    - It is a scientific inter governmental body under the

    auspices of the United Nations, setup at the request of

    member of Governments.

    - Established in 1988. It is open to all members of the

    UN and WMO (World Meteorological Organisation)

    - The IPCC doesnot carryout research nor does it

    monitor climate related dataor relevant parameters.

    It bases its assessmentmainly on peer reviewedand

    published scientific / technical report.

    - The IPCC Secretariat is hosted by WMO. Head

    Quarters at Geneeva.

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    - IPCC in now chaired byMr. Rajendra K.Pachauri

    elected in May 2002. The former Chairman was

    Robert Watson.

    - The ultimate purpose of IPCC is to stabilize green

    house gas concentrations in the atmosphere, at a

    level, that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic

    (human induced) interference with the climate

    system.

    - Thousands of Scientists and other experts contribute

    (on a voluntary basis, without payment form IPCC) to

    writing and reviewing reports, which are then reviewed

    by Government. The IPCC reports contain a

    summary of policy makerswhich is subject to line

    by line approval delegates from all participating

    Governments. Typically this involves the Governments

    of more than 120 Countries.

    VIII (f)Aims of IPCC

    To asses scientific information relevant to

    (1) Human induced climate change

    (2) Options for adaptation and migration.

    VIII (g)Tackling climate change

    (1) The emissions of green house gas has to be reduced

    (2) Forest conservation

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    (3) Transport : More fuel efficient vehicles. Transport to rail

    and public transport systems. Promote non-motorised

    transport (cycling, walking)

    (4) Buildings : Efficient lighting, more efficient electrical

    appliances, passive & active solar design for heating and

    cooling.

    (5) Industry : (1) More efficient electrical equipment (2) material

    recycling (3) control of gas emissions.

    (6) Forest Afforestation: use of forestry products forbio energy

    to replace fossil fuel use.

    (7) Agriculture Improved crop and gazing land management

    to increase, soil carbon storage, reduce NO2emissions,

    dedicated energy crops to replace fossil fuel use.

    (8) Waste : Waste incineration with energy recovery composing of

    organic waste, controlled waste water treatment, recycling

    and waste minimization.

    IX.Carbon credit

    (a) Introduction

    - A carbon credit is a generic term for any tradable

    certificate or permit, representing the right to emit one

    tonne of Carbon dioxide or the mass of another Green

    House Gases (GHGS).

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    - On carbon credit in equal to one metric tone of Carbon

    Dioxide or in some market, Carbon dioxide equivalent

    gases.

    (b) Definition

    - The Collins English Dictionary defined a Carbon

    Credit as a Certificate showing that a Government or

    company has paid to have certain amount of Carbon

    Dioxide removed from the Environment.

    (c) Background

    - The burning of fossil fuel is a major source of Green

    House Gas Emissions especially for power, cement

    and other industries which rely on fossil fuels (coal,

    electricity derived from coal, natural gas and oil)

    - The major green house gases emitted by these

    industries are Carbondioxide, Methane, Nitrous

    Oxide, Hydro flouro Carbons (HFCS)etc. all of which

    increase, the atmospheric ability to trap infrared

    energy and thus affect the climate.

    - The concept ofCarbon creditcame to existence, as a

    result of increasing awareness of the need for

    controlling emissions. The IPCC has observed that

    Policies that provide a real or implicit price of

    Carbon could create, incentives for producers and

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    consumers to significantly invest in low GHG

    Products, technologies and processes. Such

    policies could includes economic instruments,

    Government findings and regulations.

    - The mechanism was formalized in theKyoto Protocol

    and international agreement between more than 170

    countries.

    (d)Kyotos Flexible Mechanism

    The Kyoto protocol provides threemechanisms that enable

    counties or operations in developed countries to acquiregreen house

    gas credits.

    Under joint implementation (JI) a developed country with relatively

    high cost of domestic green house reduction would set up a project

    in another developed country.

    Under theClean Development Mechanism(CDM), a developed

    country, can sponsor a green house reduction project in a

    developing country, where the cost of Green House reduction

    project activities is usually much lower, but the atmospheric effect

    is globally equivalent. The developed country would be given,

    credits for meeting its emission, reduction targets while the

    developing country would receive the capital investment and clean

    technology or beneficial change in land use.

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    Under theInternational Emission Trading (IET)Countries can

    trade in the International Carbon Credit market to cover, their

    short fall, in Assigned amount Units. Countries with Units can sell

    them to countries that are exceeding their emission.

    (e)How can you make money from Carbon Credit ?

    Carbon dioxide, the most important gas produced by the

    combustion of fuels, has become a cause for global panic (global

    warming) as its concentration in the Earths Atmosphere has been

    rising alarmingly. This devil, however is now turning into a profitthat helps people, countries, consultant, traders, Corporations and

    even farmers, earn Billions of rupees. This was an unimaginable

    trading not more than a decade ago.

    Carbon creditis a part ofInternational Emission trading

    norms. They incentivise companies or countries that emit less,

    Carbon. The total annual emissions, arecappedand the market

    allocates a monetary value to any short fall, through trading

    business can exchange, buy or sell carbon credits in international

    markets at the prevailing market price.

    India and China are likely to emerge as thebiggest, sellersand

    Europe is going to thebiggest buyersof Carbon Credits.

    Last year global Carbon Crediting was estimated as 5 Billion U.S

    Dollars with India Contribution at around one Billion. India is one

    of the countries that havecreditsfor, emitting less Carbon. India

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    and China have surplus, credits to offer to countries that have a

    deficit.

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