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What is Content Analysis?What is Content Analysis? Content AnalysisContent Analysis is a technique that enables is a technique that enables
researchers to study human behavior in an researchers to study human behavior in an indirect way, through an analysis of our indirect way, through an analysis of our communications.communications.
Types of communications are:Types of communications are: TextbooksTextbooks EssaysEssays PicturesPictures SongsSongs
A person or group’s conscious and unconscious A person or group’s conscious and unconscious beliefs, attitudes, or values are often revealed in beliefs, attitudes, or values are often revealed in their communication.their communication.
Applications of Content Analysis in Applications of Content Analysis in Educational ResearchEducational Research
Describe trends in Describe trends in schooling over timeschooling over time
Understand Understand organizational organizational patternspatterns
Show how different Show how different schools handle the schools handle the same phenomena same phenomena differentlydifferently
Infer attitudes, values, Infer attitudes, values, and cultural patterns and cultural patterns in different countriesin different countries
Compare the myths Compare the myths that people hold about that people hold about schoolsschools
Gain a sense of how Gain a sense of how teachers feel about teachers feel about their worktheir work
Gain some idea of how Gain some idea of how schools are perceivedschools are perceived
Also, can be used to Also, can be used to supplement more supplement more direct methods of direct methods of researchresearch
Categorization in Content AnalysisCategorization in Content Analysis
All procedures at some point convert All procedures at some point convert the descriptive information into the descriptive information into categoriescategories..
There are two ways this might be doneThere are two ways this might be done The researcher determines the categories before The researcher determines the categories before
any analysis begins. These categories are based any analysis begins. These categories are based on previous knowledge, theory, and experience.on previous knowledge, theory, and experience.
The researcher becomes very familiar with the The researcher becomes very familiar with the descriptive information collected and allows the descriptive information collected and allows the categories to emerge as the analysis continues.categories to emerge as the analysis continues.
See p. 488 for an example of this
Steps Involved in Content AnalysisSteps Involved in Content Analysis
Determine objectivesDetermine objectives by obtaining by obtaining information on the following:information on the following:
Formulate themes for organizationFormulate themes for organization Check other research findings for validationCheck other research findings for validation Obtain information useful in dealing with educational Obtain information useful in dealing with educational
problemsproblems Investigate possible relationships to test hypothesisInvestigate possible relationships to test hypothesis
Define TermsDefine Terms Clearly define terms before or during the studyClearly define terms before or during the study
Specify the Unit of AnalysisSpecify the Unit of Analysis
Steps Involved in Content AnalysisSteps Involved in Content Analysis(cont.)(cont.)
Locate Relevant DataLocate Relevant Data Develop a RationaleDevelop a Rationale
Conceptual link needed to relate data to the Conceptual link needed to relate data to the objectivesobjectives
Develop a Sampling PlanDevelop a Sampling Plan Techniques could involve:Techniques could involve:
Random sampleRandom sample Stratified samplingStratified sampling Cluster samplingCluster sampling
Formulate Coding Categories (Table 20.1)Formulate Coding Categories (Table 20.1)
Steps Involved in Content AnalysisSteps Involved in Content Analysis(cont.)(cont.)
Checking Reliability and ValidityChecking Reliability and Validity Test-retest methodTest-retest method Check manifest against latent contentCheck manifest against latent content
Analyze DataAnalyze Data CountingCounting Record the baseRecord the base Use descriptive statistical procedures such as Use descriptive statistical procedures such as
frequencies and/or percentagesfrequencies and/or percentages
Sample Tally Sheet Sample Tally Sheet (Table 20.2)(Table 20.2)
Number Number NumberNewspaper of Editorials Subjective of Pro-Abortion of Anti-AbortionID Number Location Circulation Coded Evaluationa Editorials Editorials
101 A 3,000,000 29 3 0 1102 B 675,000 21 3 1 1103 C 425,000 33 4 2 0104 D 1,000,000 40 1 0 8105 E 550,000 34 5 7 0
aCategories within the subjective evaluation: 1 = very conservative; 2 = somewhat conservative; 3 = middle-of-the-road; 4 = moderately liberal; 5 = very liberal.
Advantages of Content AnalysisAdvantages of Content Analysis
The following are considered The following are considered advantages of Content Analysis:advantages of Content Analysis: Useful means of analyzing interview and Useful means of analyzing interview and
observational dataobservational data Not limited by time and space to the study Not limited by time and space to the study
of present eventsof present events Relatively simple and economical with Relatively simple and economical with
regard to both time and resources, regard to both time and resources, compared to other forms of research compared to other forms of research methodsmethods
Disadvantages of Content AnalysisDisadvantages of Content Analysis
The following are considered The following are considered disadvantages of Content Analysis:disadvantages of Content Analysis: Usually limited to recorded informationUsually limited to recorded information Establishing validityEstablishing validity
Question remains as to the true meaning of the Question remains as to the true meaning of the categories themselvescategories themselves
Historical research findings might not be Historical research findings might not be considered important todayconsidered important today
Temptation to attribute a Temptation to attribute a causecause of a of a phenomenon vs. a reflection of itphenomenon vs. a reflection of it