Kuliah 11 - Pengumpulan Data
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Transcript of Kuliah 11 - Pengumpulan Data
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EDU 5900
REKA BENTUK PENYELIDIKAN
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PENGUMPULAN DATA
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OB
J
E
K
T
I
F
Memahami konsep pengumpulan data dalam penyelidikan.
Mengetahui kaedah-kaedah pengumpulan data dalam penyelidikan
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Data-collection techniques allow us to systematically collect information about our objects of study (people, objects, phenomena) and about the settings in which they occur.
In the collection of data we have to be systematic. If data are collected haphazardly, it will be difficult to answer our research questions in a conclusive way.
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Train
researchers to
collect
observational
data
Procedures for
Administering the Data
Collection
Respect individuals and sites
during data gathering
(ethics)
Develop
standard written
procedures for
administering an
instrument
Obtain
permission to
collect and
use public
documents
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There are many methods of collecting primary
data and the main methods include: questionnaires
interviews focus group interviews
observation case-studies
diaries critical incidents
portfolios.
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Various data collection techniques can be used such as:
Using available information Observing Interviewing (face-to-face) Administering written questionnaires Focus group discussions
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1. Using available information
Usually there is a large amount of data that has already been collected by others,
although it may not necessarily have been analyzed or published. Locating these
sources and retrieving the information is a good starting point in any data collection
effort.
E.g.: information system data, census data, unpublished reports and
publications in archives and libraries
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2. Observing
OBSERVATION is a technique that involves systematically selecting, watching and
recording behaviour and characteristics of living beings, objects or phenomena.
Participant observation: The observer takes part in
the situation he or she observes. Non-participant observation: The observer watches
the situation, openly or concealed, but does not participate.
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Observations of human behaviour can form part of any type of study, but as they are time consuming they are most often used in small-scale studies.
Observations can also be made on objects.
If observations are made using a defined scale they may be called measurements. Measurements usually require additional tools. For example, we use thermometers for measuring body temperature.
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3. Interviewing
An INTERVIEW is a data-collection technique that involves oral questioning of respondents, either
individually or as a group.
Answers to the questions posed during an interview can be recorded by writing them down (either during the interview itself or immediately
after the interview) or by tape-recording the responses, or by a combination of both.
Interviews can be conducted with varying degrees of
flexibility. The two extremes, high and low degree of
flexibility
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For example: When studying sensitive issues such as teenage pregnancy
and abortions, the investigator may use a list of topics rather than fixed questions. These may, e.g., include how
teenagers started sexual intercourse, the responsibility girls and their partners take to prevent pregnancy (if at all), and the actions they take in the event of unwanted pregnancies.
The investigator should have an additional list of topics ready when the respondent falls silent, (e.g., when asked about abortion methods used, who made the decision and who paid). The sequence of topics should be determined by the flow of discussion. It is often
possible to come back to a topic discussed earlier in a later stage of the interview.
High degree of flexibility
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Less flexible methods of interviewing are useful when the researcher is relatively knowledgeable about expected answers or when the number of respondents being interviewed is relatively large.
Then questionnaires may be used with a fixed list of questions in a standard sequence, which have
mainly fixed or pre-categorised answers.
Low degree of flexibility
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Face - to - face interviews have a distinct
advantage of enabling the researcher to establish
rapport with potential participants and therefor
gain their cooperation. These interviews yield
highest response rates in survey research. They
also allow the researcher to clarify ambiguous
answers and when appropriate, seek follow-up
information. Disadvantages include impractical
when large samples are involved time consuming
and expensive.(Leedy and Ormrod, 2001)
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Telephone interviews are less time consuming
and less expensive and the researcher has ready
access to anyone on the planet who has a
telephone. Disadvantages are that the response
rate is not as high as the face-to- face interview
but considerably higher than the mailed
questionnaire. The sample may be biased to the
extent that people without phones are part of the
population about whom the researcher wants to
draw inferences.
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Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI)
is a form of personal interviewing, but instead of
completing a questionnaire, the interviewer brings along
a laptop or hand-held computer to enter the
information directly into the database. This method
saves time involved in processing the data, as well as
saving the interviewer from carrying around hundreds of
questionnaires. However, this type of data collection
method can be expensive to set up and requires that
interviewers have computer and typing skills.
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The main advantage of face to face interviews is that
the researcher can adapt the questions as necessary,
clarify doubts and ensure that the responses are
properly understood by repeating or rephrasing the
questions.
The disadvantages of the interview include cost and
possibility of bias. It is very costly to conduct many
interviews over large geographical areas as it may involve
training interviewers, transportation and accommodation
out of town. The very flexibility of an interview is also an
opportunity for researcher bias to influence the data
collected. Facial or verbal cues may influence the
answers the participants give.
Advantage
Disadvantages
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4. Administering written questionnaires
A WRITTEN QUESTIONNAIRE (also referred to as self-administered
questionnaire) is a data collection tool in which written questions are presented
that are to be answered by the respondents in written form.
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Paper-pencil-questionnaires
can be sent to a large number of people and
saves the researcher time and money. People are
more truthful while responding to the
questionnaires regarding controversial issues in
particular due to the fact that their responses are
anonymous. But they also have drawbacks.
Majority of the people who receive questionnaires
don't return them and those who do might not be
representative of the originally selected
sample.(Leedy and Ormrod, 2001)
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Web Based Questionnaires
A new and inevitably growing methodology is the use of
Internet based research. This would mean receiving an e-
mail on which you would click on an address that would
take you to a secure web-site to fill in a questionnaire. This
type of research is often quicker and less detailed. Some
disadvantages of this method include the exclusion of
people who do not have a computer or are unable to
access a computer. Also the validity of such surveys are in
question as people might be in a hurry to complete it and
so might not give accurate responses.
(http://www.statcan.ca/english/edu/power/ch2/methods/met
hods.htm)
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A written questionnaire can be administered in different ways, such as by:
Sending questionnaires by mail with clear instructions on how to answer the questions and asking for mailed responses;
Gathering all or part of the respondents in one place at one time, giving oral or written instructions, and letting the respondents fill out the questionnaires; or
Hand-delivering questionnaires to respondents and collecting them later.
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The response rate is usually small which requires
a second or even a third mailing. A further more
important disadvantage of this method is that
different participants may interpret the questions
differently and certain questions can be
completely misunderstood by many or all of the
participants. To avoid this problem, questions
would have to be simple
The Negative Side to Postal Questionnaires
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Advantages of this method include:
Doubts regarding the meaning of the questions can be clarified to ensure that the participant is answering the
questions in the sense that the researcher intended,
The importance of the research can be personally presented to the participants and its significance explained to them to
motivate honest answers by emphasizing their contribution
to the research,
It requires fewer skills than interviewing, and hence relatively low skilled assistants can be recruited to perform
this task to speed up the research, and
It ensures better response rates because there is a personal face to the questionnaires as personal persuasion usually increases interest.
Personally Administered Questionnaires
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The main disadvantage seems to be that the researcher may introduce his personal bias by
giving facial or verbal expressions, which may
put the participant at unease.
Further in explaining questions differently to different people, participants may be in fact
answering different questions as compared to
those whom the questionnaire was mailed.
Personally Administered Questionnaires
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5. Focus group discussions (FGD)
A focus group discussion allows a group of 8 - 12 informants to freely discuss a certain subject with the guidance of a
facilitator or reporter.
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Telephone surveys may consist of polls, interview or
questionnaire survey conducted over the telephone.
Compared to mailed questionnaires or personal
interviews, they can cover a wider geographical area in
a shorter time. However the disadvantage is the higher
cost compared to mailed questionnaire but there can
be substantial cost savings compared to personal
face-to-face interviews.
6. Telephone Surveys
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Anonymity of the telephone survey varies; the lack of face to face
contact can both be an advantage and disadvantage. Personal cues
cannot be given or received, hence there cannot be an accusation of
researcher bias. However, this is not conducive to getting a greater
insight into the perceptions, feelings and thoughts of the interviewee.
Further, interviewees may not be easy with a faceless researcher as
they may fear lack of confidentiality of their views.
In this research, the length of the questionnaire and the nature of the
questions which required some thought was not suitable for
administration over the phone. Hence the telephone was used only to
fix appointments for interviews to hand over questionnaires and make
presentations to academics, in some cases before handing the
questionnaires to staff.
Telephone Surveys
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Institutional or
organizational
(e.g., school
district)
Parents of participants who are
not considered adults
Campus approval (e.g., university or college) and
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
What Permissions Are
Needed:
Obtaining Permission
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As we develop our data collection techniques, we need to consider whether our research procedures are likely to cause any physical or emotional harm. Harm may be caused, for example, by: Violating informants right to privacy by posing sensitive
questions or by gaining access to records which may contain personal data;
Observing the behavior of informants without their being aware (concealed observation should therefore always be crosschecked or discussed with other researchers with respect to ethical admissibility);
Allowing personal information to be made public which informants would want to be kept private, and
Failing to observe/respect certain cultural values, traditions or taboos valued by your informants.
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
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Several methods for dealing with these issues may be recommended:
Obtaining informed consent before the study or the interview begins;
Not exploring sensitive issues before a good relationship has been established with the informant;
Ensuring the confidentiality of the data obtained; and Learning enough about the culture of informants to ensure it is
respected during the data collection process.
If sensitive questions are asked, for example, about family planning or sexual practices, or about opinions of patients on the health services provided, it may be advisable to omit names and addresses from the questionnaires.
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS