Kodak Films

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Preface

_____________________________________________________________________

Good films-those that effectivelycommunicate the desired message,be it factual, emotional, persuasional,

or whatever are the result of an almostmagical blend of ideas andtechnology. If any of these ingredientsis not fully understood by thefilmmaker the outcome could be a filmthat falls short of the mark.

The "idea" ingredient is welldocumented, for beginner andprofessional alike. Books coveringvirtually all aspects of the aestheticsand mechanics of filmmaking abound-how to choose an appropriate filmstyle, the importance of sound, how towrite an effective film script, the basicelements of visual continuity, etc.

The "technology" ingredient is alittle harder to get to because,although equally important, it is less

glamorous and may even intimidatethe uninformed. With that very realpossibility in mind, we have producedthis guide, EASTMAN ProfessionalMotion Picture Films (Her). In it youwill find technical but easy-to-read-and-apply facts applying technical filmdata to your particular situation, thebest ways to use filters, how soundtracks are made, arranging for safeprojection and storage, etc. Andfinally, we have provided you with abroad overview of the services offeredby your motion picture film laboratory.This final section will give you a better

understanding of what happens (andwhy) during this final phase of theFilmmaking process.

For those of you who need theultimate in technical film facts, theappendices are filled with detailedlistings of national and internationalfilm standards, publications, and evena lengthy glossary/index that is cross-referenced to the text.

And so, regardless of whether youare a student or savant of filmmaking,whether you are creating orcommissioning films, whether yourbudget is meager or multimillion, thisguide will help you choose the filmsyou need to get the best resultspossible.



I n t roduc t ion

______________________________________________________

Thomas Alva Edison, the world-renowned inventor, involved with anunsavory peep show parlor on NewYork City's fashionable Park Avenue?A shocking revelation that made allthe gossip columns in the summer of1884?

Hardly. But, these questions dohighlight the fact that Edison's creativegenius enabled the budding science ofstill photography to move intocommercially viable "motion pictures"by the late 1800s. Working closely

with another celebrated inventor ofthat day, George Eastman, Edisonwas able to combine Eastman's newEASTMAN Transparent Film (a stripof clear cellulose nitrate coated withblack-and-white photographicemulsion) and a heavily modifiedKodak still camera to produce the firstreal motion picture. A device forviewing these moving images, theKinetoscope, was also developed andfirst shown at the 1893 ChicagoWorld's Fair. The public reaction tothis exciting new medium was

overwhelming-Kinetoscope parlorssprang up in all major citiesworldwide, and the demand for newtitles seemed insatiable.

In those early days, thefascination of viewing unstaged"captured motion" waves breaking onthe shore, people milling in a citysquare, a locomotive thundering

silently toward the camera wassufficient to draw large crowds.

The real power of this fledgling

medium, that of telling a story with moving images , was just beingdiscovered by innovative stillphotographers such as GeorgeMéliés. This sometime politicalcartoonist, actor, and magician wasintrigued by the storytelling potentialof film and, in the early 1900s, hedeveloped the concept of "artificiallyarranged scenes." Taking his guidefrom the world of theatre, Méliéscreated the events he needed to tellhis story with actors and appropriatesettings rather than relying uponrandomly recorded events. This newapproach to "reality" opened the doorsto creative storytelling worldwide andresulted in a prolific and successfulcareer for Méliés His 400th film, A Trip to the Moon (1902), was enormouslypopular in the United States.

Another facet of motion pictureproduction that we take for grantedtoday involves the creative use of filmediting. Until Edwin S. Porter came onthe scene in the early 1900s, no onehad "edited" their films. They simplyshot their footage and projected theresults. Inspired by the innovative use

of theatrical staging techniques andvaried camera angles he observed inMéliés films, Porter set out to tell astory using footage he had alreadyshot. He recognized that thefilmmaker had the same freedom indeveloping a fictional world that hadlong been available to the novelist anddramatist the abili ty to change scenesquickly, to flash backward and forwardin time, to show simultaneous actions,etc. With this new-found flexibility infilm editing came another revelationthat simpli fied the production process-the scenes in a particular film do nothave to be shot in projection sequencebecause they can always bereassembled later for maximumimpact.

Porter, a significant innovator inthe early days of the motion pictureindustry with films such as The Great Train Robbery , went on to direct someof the world's greatest stars (MaryPickford, for example), makespectaculars on location (The Eternal

City ), and, in general, leave hisindelible stamp on this fast-growingbusiness before retiring in 1915.

This fruitful collaboration of artand technology, where each technicaladvance opened additional creativedoors, resulted in an evolving cycle ofcontinuous improvements and hascharacterized the film industry fromthe very beginning. In fact, theprocess is still under way today withthe producers of films such as Star Wars and Terminator 2 relying heavilyupon computers and other alliedspace-age equipment to produceexacting special visual effects.

Two major technical advancesthat dramatically reshaped thecreative directions of the film industryin the 1930s should be mentionedbriefly at this point synchronizedsound and color images.

Experiments in the opticalrecording of sound on film werereported as early as 1901, but The Jazz Singer (1927) with Al Jolson wasthe first commercially successfulproduction that blended motion, voiceand music so effectively that theywere integral to the cinematicmessage. Many in the industrybelieved that "talkies" were a

momentary diversion, a gimmick.Within a year, however, the majorstudios were preparing for all-soundproductions, the equipmentmanufacturers were producing a widearray of recording devices, and theskeptics were stilled.

The artistic requirement for colorin films was also heard, but thedevelopment of the necessarytechnology took a bit longer.

Many early filmmakers tintedportions of their films for dramaticimpact. D. W. Griffith's Birth of a Nation showed the burning of Atlantain the glare of a red tint thatemphasized the horror of the scene.But emulsion tinting was, at best, anexpensive and time-consumingtechnique.

With the introduction ofTechnicolor's two color process, colorbegan to have real impact on filmaudiences. Douglas Fairbanks chosethe new process for his The Black Pirate because he believed that color

Figure 1Kinetoscope



could capture the true spirit of thepirate story as black-and-white neverhad. When the film was released in1925, it was a smash hit with thecritics and public alike. As time wenton, more and more producers triedout the gradually improving process.

The Gold Diggers of Broadway, The Rogue Song, The Vagabond King , andWhoopee (Eddie Cantor) were allproduced with the two color process.

By 1932, Technicolor announceda new three-color process that wassimpler and less expensive than theearlier two-color process. At this point,Walt Disney turned to the Technicolorprocess for his animated films. In1933, he produced his Three Little Pigs , and who hasn't seen that big,bad wolf blowing himself blue in theface trying to demolish the brickhouse built by the wisest of the threepigs?

Gone With the Wind arrived in1939, and this time the burning ofAtlanta was shown in full color withsuch frightening reality that everyoneclung to the edge of their seat waitingto see if Scarlett really could drive her

wagon through the flames andescape.

The bulky filming equipment andcomplicated processing requirementsof the Technicolor three-colorimbibition process produced excellentresults, but remained technicallytroublesome. In 1952, Kodakannounced its first EASTMAN Color

Negative Film (and a complementarypositive print film) that could record allthree primary colors on the same stripof film. Since then, color motion-picture production has literally beenavailable to anyone with a camera,and theatre-going audiences expectthe reality of color.

The effectiveness of motionpicture film as a communicationmedium capable of accuratelyconveying "reality" to an audience isundeniable in the realm of commercialmotion pictures. Outside of the

theatre, where the impact of motionpictures is a little less obvious, filmsare being widely used to inform,persuade, motivate, and educate.Regardless of the discipline involved,film can capture lifelike motion andthen speed it up, slow it down,magnify or reduce the image, isolate adiscrete moment within a continuousaction-now you see it, and now yousee it again. The power of fi lm tocommunicate is limited only by theimagination of its producer.

What exactly gives way first whenan automobile crashes into a wall at

20 mph? High-speed photography cantell you. How do bacteria multiply? Ahundred people can find outsimultaneously if the event has beenfilmed. Sixth graders can watch thegrowth of a mold magnified to looklike a magical cartoon forest. Medical

students can observe the fine points oa surgical technique again and againuntil they are confident enough to try itthemselves. On our way to the stars,the experts at NASA can use film toanalyze exactly how well a rocketperformed at each stage-on theground and in the air.

Even in the area of commercial

television, where the demise of film asa recording medium has been forecastrepeatedly for at least 40 years, film isstill a powerful force. About 80 percentof all prime-time programming in 1991was originated on film, and asignificant number of commercialswere shot on camera-original film.Directors, producers, and even someof the viewing public still call for thatfinished look they have come toexpect on the movie screen-the "filmlook." As with most new technologiesthat have come along over the years,

television has become acomplementary partner to the moremature motion picture industry. Wherethe mix of fi lm and video technologywill go in the future is yet to bedetermined. One fact remains: Filmwill continue to play an important rolein the production of programmingmaterial for tomorrow's electronicsociety.

In summary, film iscommunication at its best. From thezany antics of Donald Duck'snephews, to the excitement of the"Little-500" bicycle race of Breaking

Away to the drama of microscopiccrystals growing before our eyes in adarkened classroom, to the latestepisode of your prime-time sitcom,film speaks to us as no other mediumcan.

Figure 2Atlanta burns in Birth of a Nation



Selecting Your Films _____________________________________________________

Before selecting a specific film, youwill have to answer a number of basictechnical and aesthetic questionsabout the entire production. Theanswers you provide will help greatlyin the selection of the films that willbest translate your concepts intomoving pictures on a screen thatconvey your intended message

accurately, completely, andeffectively.

You should consider the followingfactors because they directly affectyour choice.

FormatWill the finished prints be 70 mm, 35mm, or 16 mm? who will be theaudience? What quality do we want?Will it be shown only in a theatre or ontelevision too?

Number of Finished Prints

If you need only one finished print andyou need it fast, a reversal filmdesigned for direct projection is ideal.If you are producing several prints,select the camera film with an eyetoward the economics of the variousfilm printing systems.

The Finished Form of the PictureShould the finished film be in color orin black-and-white? What feeling

should the film convey? The sharpdistinctions in hue and densityprovided by a color film image canconvey more information than thesame image composed of shades ofgray. Filmmakers should not assume,however, that color is always moreinteresting, or that black-and-white isalways less expensive. Should the filmbe silent or should it have sound?Answers to these questions depend onthe purpose of the film and theaudience it is geared toward.

Lighting

Will the subject be filmed indoors orout? Can you control the light? Somefilms are designed specifically for lowlevels of light. All films are balancedfor particular kinds of lighting. Willyour film give you an accurate recordof the colors in the scene if you makethe motion picture only in the lightavailable to you?

FiltrationIf you have to use several filters tocompensate for uncontrolled elementsin the scene or in the lighting, will the

film be fast (sensitive) enough torecord a high-quality image?

Processing and Printing FacilitiesFew laboratories process every type offilm. If your laboratory processes onlycolor film, you will have to send yourblack-and-white film to another lab.You can avoid much anxiety bygetting to know the personnel at thelaboratories and explaining your

special needs to them. I t may beworthwhile to select films that you canhave processed by a laboratoryfamiliar with your needs.

Fi lm Datasheets

_______________________

Kodak film datasheets are the bestsource for technical information aboutEASTMAN Motion Picture Films. Eachdatasheet consists of four or morepages of detailed technicalinformation for a particular film. These

sheets provide much usefulinformation for the careful andknowledgeable reader.

In general, the discussion ofprofessional motion picture films inthis guide follows the structure of afilm datasheet Figure 3 is a typicaldatasheet that provides informationabout motion picture film applications.Datasheets differ for negative andlaboratory films. A camera filmdatasheet, for example, does notcontain paragraphs titled "PrintingConditions" because printing

conditions are only relevant tolaboratory and print films.A single free copy of any film

datasheet is available from EastmanKodak Company, Dept. 412L,Rochester, NY 14650-0532. Outsidethe U.S., see the nearest Kodak officein your country.



©Eastman Kodak Company, 1998

June 1999 • H-1-5289TECHNICAL DATA / COLOR NEGATIVE FILM

KODAK VISION 800TColor Negative Film / 5289™ / 7289™

THE FILM YOU WISHED FORHere’s the film you wished for…for those times when you

need to dig deeper into the shadows…when you’d like the

sky to hold the daylight just a little bit longer…when you

want more play in the depth of field. Now there’s KODAK

VISION 800T Color Negative Film. With an exposure

index of 800 in tungsten light, this is the world’s fastest

color negative motion picture film—a film worthy of the

KODAK VISION Film family name. It delivers the speed

and latitude you need; the color reproduction that enables

you to intercut it with other Kodak film products; and the

sharpness and grain structure you would expect only in

products of a slower speed.

So, use the speed for any purpose you choose. To useambient light as fill. To capture fast action. To manipulate

your exposure. To increase the depth of field. To work

longer into the magic hour. And do it all without

compromise because you are working with a KODAK

VISION Film.

Of course, this film (like other members of the familyof

KODAK VISION Films) is made in the most advanced

Kodak sensitizing complex in the world. So you can trust

its consistency – emulsion to emulsion, roll to roll, batch

to batch. And, because it’s from Kodak, it’s available

when you need it, where you need it, virtually everywhere

in the world.

KODAK VISION 800T Color Negative Film. In gold

cans, with scannable bar codes, and peelable labels. Fast.

Flexible. And a proud new member of the Kodak motion

picture film family for filmmakers who need to turn

wishes into reality.

BASE

Acetate safety base with rem-jet backing.

DARKROOM RECOMMENDATIONS

Do not use a safelight. Handle unprocessed film in total

darkness.

PROCESSING

ECN-2

STORAGE

Store unexposed film at 13˚C (55˚F) or lower. For storage

of unexposed film longer than 6 months, store at

-18˚C (0˚F). Process film promptly.

EXPOSURE INDEXTungsten (3200 K) — 800; Daylight (5500 K) — 500

(with KODAK WRATTEN Gelatin Filter No. 85).

LABORATORY AIM DENSITY

Time negative originals relative to Laboratory Aim

Density (LAD) Control Film supplied by Eastman Kodak

Company.

COLOR BALANCE

This film is balanced for exposure with tungsten

illumination (3200 K). You can also expose it withtungsten lamps that have slightly higher or lower color

temperature (± 150 K) without correction filters, since

final color balancing can be done in printing. For other

light sources, use the correction filters in the table below.

LIGHT SOURCEKODAK FILTERS ON

CAMERA*

* These are approximate corrections only. Make final correctionsduring printing.

EXPOSUREINDEX

Tungsten (3000 K)WRATTEN Gelatin

No. 82B500

Tungsten (3200 K) None 800

TungstenPhotoflood

(3400 K)

None 800

Daylight (5500 K)WRATTEN Gelatin

No. 85500

White-Flame ArcsWRATTEN Gelatin

No. 85B320

Yellow-Flame ArcsWRATTEN Gelatin / Color Compensating

20Y500

OPTIMA 32 None 800

VITALITEWRATTEN Gelatin

No. 85500

Fluorescent, CoolWhite

WRATTEN GelatinNo. 85 + 10M

320

Fluorescent,Deluxe Cool White WRATTEN GelatinNo. 85C + 10R 500

Metal Halide(H.M.I.)

WRATTEN GelatinNo. 85

500



2 KODAK VISION 800T Color Negative Film / 5289™

/ 7289™ •

H-1-5289

DIFFUSE RMS GRANULARITY CURVES

To find the rms granularity value for a given density, find

the density on the left vertical scale and follow

horizontally to the sensitometric curve and then go

vertically (up or down) to the granularity curve. At that

point, follow horizontally to the Granularity Sigma D

scale on the right. Read the number and multiply by 1000

for the rms value.

MODULATION-TRANSFER CURVE

This graph shows a measure of the visual sharpness of this

film. The x-axis, “Spatial Frequency,” refers to thenumber

of sine waves per millimetre that can be resolved. The

y-axis, “Response,” corresponds to film sharpness. The

longer and flatter the line, the more sine waves per

millimetre that can be resolved with a high degree of

sharpness — and, the sharper the film.

F002_0968AC

B

G

R

Process:ECN-2B

G

R

.010

.004

G R A N U L A R I T Y S I G M A D

.005

.020

.003

.002

.001

4.02.0 3.01.00.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

D E N S I T Y

0.0

LOG EXPOSURE (lux-seconds)

.006

.030

.040

.050

.100

.008

F002_0969AC

B

G

R

1001 2 3 4 5 10 20 50 200 600

SPATIAL FREQUENCY (cycles/mm)

R E S P O N S E ( % )

10

1

2

5

3

7

30

20

100

70

50

200

SENSITOMETRIC CURVES

The point “N” on the x-axis corresponds to a normal

exposure of an 18-percent gray card in the red, green, and

blue layers of this film. To determine optimum lighting

levels for your particular production, shoot an exposure

series and establish the density of a normally exposed

18-percent gray card. Use the sensitometric curves to

estimate density changes caused by altered exposure

conditions. Note that a one stop exposure change

corresponds to a 0.3 log exposure change to the film, anda change of 0.025 in density is approximately equal to one

printer light in laboratory color timing.

SPECTRAL-SENSITIVITY CURVES

These curves depict the sensitivity of this film to the

spectrum of light. They are useful for adjusting optical

printers and film recorders and for determining,modifying, and optimizing exposure for blue- and

green-screen special-effects work.

Densitometry:

Exposure:

Process:ECN-2

3200 K Tungsten, 1/50 second

Status M

B

G

R

F002_0970AC

4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0

LOG EXPOSURE (lux-seconds)

0.0

D E N S I T Y

1.0

2.0

3.0

CAMERA STOPS

6 N 2248 4 6 8

700 750650600550500450400350300250

*Sensitivity = reciprocal of exposure (ergs/cm ) required

to produce specified density

WAVELENGTH (nm)

2

L O G S E N S I T I V I T Y

1.0

*

0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

Status M

.013 seconds

ECN-2Process:

Effective Exposure:

Densitometry:

Density: 0.4 above D-min

LayerFormingCyan-

LayerFormingMagenta-

LayerFormingYellow-

F002_0971AC



KODAK VISION 800T Color Negative Film / 5289™

/ 7289™ •

H-1-5289 3

SPECTRAL DYE PEAKS

The net negative densities for the cyan dye curve are a

natural consequence of the level of the magenta masking

coupler. The level was chosen to give flat correction

averaged over a range of wavelengths—there will be a

slight overcorrection at some wavelengths and a slight

undercorrection at others.

POST-PRODUCTION INFORMATION

When you transfer this film directly to video, set up the

telecine using negative KODAK Telecine Analysis Film

(TAF) for use with all KODAK VISION and EXR

Negative Films (except KODAK PRIMETIME 640T

Teleproduction Film).

RECIPROCITYNo filter corrections or exposure adjustments for exposure

times from 1/1000 to 1 second. If your exposure is in the

10-second range, increase your exposure 2/3 stop.

IDENTIFICATION

After processing, the Kodak internal product symbol (R),

product code number 5289 (35 mm) or 7289 (16 mm),

emulsion and roll number identification, and EASTMAN

KEYKODE Numbers are visible along the length of the

film.

GRAIN

The “perception” of graininess of any film depends on

scene content, complexity, color, and density. Other

factors, such as film age, processing, exposure conditions,

and telecine transfer may also have significant effects.

F002_0972AC

ECN-2Process:

CyanMagentaYellow

800

0.4

0.6

0.0

0.2

D I F F U S E S P E C T R A L D E N S I T Y

600

WAVELENGTH (nm)

400

0.2

500300 700

0.8

1.0

SHARPNESS

The “perceived” sharpness of any film depends on various

components of the motion picture production system. The

camera and projector lenses and film printers, and other

factors, play a role, but the specific sharpness of a film can

be measured and charted in the Modulation-Transfer

Curve.

STANDARD PRODUCTS AVAILABLE

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

For assistance, call the Kodak Information Center in the

U.S. at 1-800-242-2424 between 9 a.m. and 7 p.m.

(Eastern time), Monday–Friday; or in Canada at

1-800-465-6325 between 8:30 a.m. and 5 p.m.

(Eastern time).

FilmsCinematographer’s Field Guide

KODAK Publication No. H-2

Processing Manual for Processing KODAK Motion Picture Films,

Process ECN-2 Specifications, Module 7

KODAK Publication No. H-24.07 or see our website at

www.kodak.com/go/motion

Image StructureKODAK Motion Picture Film


StorageKODAK Motion Picture Film


LAD LAD—Laboratory Aim Density


TransferKODAK Telecine Analysis Film User’s Guide


KODAK Telecine Exposure Calibration Film User’s Guide


KODAK VISION 800T Color Negative Film / 5289 / 7289

Identification # Length inFeet (Metres)

DescriptionPerforation

35 mm VCN718 200 (61) On Core BH-1866

35 mm VCN718 400 (122) On Core BH-1866

35 mm VCN718 1000 (305) On Core BH-1866

65 mm VCN332 1000 (305) On Core KS-1866

16 mm VCN449 100 (31) Camera Spool 2R-2994

16 mm VCN451 400 (122) On Core 2R-2994

16 mm VCN455 100 (31) Camera Spool 1R-2994

16 mm VCN457 400 (122) On Core,Winding B

1R-2994



KODAK VISION 800T Color Negative Film / 5289™ / 7289™

ProfessionalMotion Imaging

KODAK VISION 800T Color NegativeFilm / 5289™ / 7289™

KODAK Publication No. H-1-5289

Revision 6-99Printed in U.S.A.

KODAK LOCATIONS

FOR DIRECT ORDERING IN THE UNITED STATES

AND CANADA:

1-800-621-FILM

ATLANTA, GEORGIA

4 Concourse Parkway, Suite 300

Atlanta, Georgia 30328-6105

Information: (800) 800-8398

CHICAGO, ILLINOIS

815 West Van Buren, Suite 320

Chicago, Illinois 60607


DALLAS, TEXAS

11337 Indian Trail

Dallas, Texas 75229Information: (972) 481-1150 or (312) 492-1423

HOLLYWOOD, CALIFORNIA

6700 Santa Monica Boulevard

P. O. Box 38939

Hollywood, California 90038-1203


NEW YORK, NEW YORK

360 West 31st Street

New York, New York 10001-2727


LATIN AMERICAN REGION

8600 NW 17th Street, Suite 200

Miami, Florida 33126


MONTREAL, CANADA

Kodak Canada Inc.

4 Place du Commerce

Ile des Soeurs, Verdun

Quebec, Canada H3E 1J4


TORONTO, CANADA

Kodak Canada Inc.

3500 Eglinton Avenue West

Toronto, Ontario, Canada M6M 1V3


VANCOUVER, CANADA

Kodak Canada Inc.

4185 Still Creek Drive, Suite C150

Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada V5C 6G9


KODAK ON LINE AT:

http://www.kodak.com/go/motion

Kodak, Vision, 5289, 7289, Wratten, EXR, Primetime, Eastman,Keykode, and Shootsaver are trademarks



Fi lm Types, Nam es,

and Numbers

_______________________

Film production-from recording motionwith a camera to projecting the image

on a screen or television-ofteninvolves three different kinds of film.Camera film is used to record the

scene. Many kinds of camera filmsare available for the many conditionsunder which subjects must be filmed.

Laboratory films are used toproduce the intermediate stagesneeded in the lab for duplicatingspecial effects, titl ing, etc. Making andworking with intermediates alsoprotects your valuable original footagefrom potential damage.

Print film, on the other hand, isused for both the first workprint andfor as many copies as are needed ofthe final edited version of the project.

Many people in the motion pictureindustry refer to films by code number(5296, for example) rather than byname (EASTMAN EXR 500T Film).This four-digit number is displayed onthe film datasheet with the name. Thefirst of the four digits indicates thewidth of the film. When the first digit is5, the film is 35 mm or wider; a 7, onthe other hand, indicates an 8 or 16mm film or a film that will be slit downto narrower gauges. The first digit of

ESTAR Base film is a 2, for all widths.When a film is available in both the 16mm and 35 mm widths, both appearon the datasheet.

The name also indicatesproperties of the film. EKTACHROMEindicates a reversal color film. If thefilm name includes a number, likeEASTMAN EXR 500T Film, thenumber designates the exposureindex-500 in this case. The letter-T inthis example-indicates color balance.EASTMAN EXR 500T Film, therefore,is tungsten balanced.

The important thing to rememberabout the name and number is to useboth accurately when ordering film orfilm datasheets.

Fi lm Descr ipt ions

_______________________

The first paragraph of a typicaldatasheet is a brief description of theoverall characteristics of the film.

Negative Camera FilmsNegative films produce the reverse ofwhat our eye sees in the scene andmust be printed on another film stockor transferred to videotape for finalviewing. Since at least oneintermediate stage is usually producedto protect the original footage,negative camera film is an efficientchoice when you are planningsignificant editing and special effects.Printing techniques fornegative-positive film systems arevery sophisticated and highly flexible;

hence, negative film is especiallyappropriate for complex visual impact.All negative films can go throughseveral "generations" withoutpronounced image deterioration.

Flowcharts that illustrate the mostcommon printing approaches, fromcamera films to laboratory films toprint films, appear in the sectiondiscussing printing.

Base

_______________________

Manufacture of Film BaseThe film base is the flexible support onwhich the light-sensitive emulsion iscoated. Requirements for a suitable

film base include optical transparencyfreedom from optical imperfections,chemical stability, photographicinertness, and resistance to moistureand processing chemicals.Mechanical strength, resistance totearing, flexibility, dimensionalstability, and freedom from physicaldistortion are also important factors inprocessing, printing, and projection.

Two general types of film baseare currently used by Kodak-cellulosetriacetate (acetate) and a syntheticpolyester polymer known as ESTAR.

(The words triacetate and acetate willbe used interchangeably throughoutthis guide.) Cellulose triacetatephotographic film base is made bycombining the cellulose triacetate withsuitable solvents and a plasticizer.Most current EASTMAN MotionPicture Films are coated on acellulose triacetate base. ESTARBase, a polyethylene trephthalatepolyester, is used for some EASTMANMotion Picture Films (mostlyintermediate and print films) becauseof its high strength, chemical stability,toughness, tear resistance, flexibility,

and dimensional stability. The greaterstrength of ESTAR Base permits themanufacture of thinner films. ESTARBase films cannot be spliced withreadily available commercial filmcements. Splicing of these films mustbe done with transparent tape or anultrasonic or inductive heating currentto melt and fuse the film ends.



Antihalation BackingLight penetrating the emulsion of afilm can be reflected from the base/ emulsion interface or the base itselfback into the emulsion. As a result,there is a secondary exposure causingan undesirable reduction in thesharpness of the image and some

light scattering, called halation,around images of bright objects. Adark layer either on or in the film basewill absorb and minimize thisreflection, hence it is called anantihalation layer. Three methods ofminimizing halation are commonlyused:

Rem Jet: A black-pigmented,nongelatin layer on the back of thefilm base serves as an excellentantihalation and antistatic layer. Thislayer is removed during photographicprocessing.

Antihalation undercoating: A silveror dyed gelatin layer directly beneaththe emulsion is used on some films.Any color in this layer is removedduring processing. This type of layeris particularly effective in preventinghalation for high-resolution emulsions.An antistatic layer is sometimescoated on the back of the film basewhen this type of antihalation layer isused.

Dyed film base: Film bases canalso transmit or "pipe" light that strikesthe edge of the film. This light cantravel inside the base and fog theemulsion (Figure 4). A neutral densitydye is incorporated in some film basesand serves to both reduce halationand prevent light piping. This dyedensity may vary from a

just-detectable level to approximately0.2. The higher level is used primarilyfor halation protection inblack-and-white negative films. Unlikefog, the gray dye does not reduce thedensity range of an image, because it,like a neutral density filter, adds thesame density to all areas. Therefore, ithas no effect on picture quality.

Edge Numbers-Key NumbersPrior to 1990Edge numbers (also called keynumbers or footage numbers) areplaced at regular intervals along thefilm edge for convenience inframe-for-frame matching of thecamera film to the workprint. The

numbers are latentimage, printedalong one edge outside theperforations on 35 mm and 65 mmfilm and between the perforations on16 min film. Most numbers aresequential, occurring every 16 frameson 35 mm and 65 mm film, and every20 frames (or 6 inches) on 16 mmfilm.

Until a new edge-numberingsystem was devised, 35 mm film hadfive sequential latent-image footage(key) numbers. A series of letters andnumbers appeared to the left of the

footage number that were amanufacturer's code (Figure 5). On16 mm, there were either five or sevendigits. The 16 mm footage numberappeared every foot until the 1970swhen it appeared every six inches (20frames) .

All current Eastman camera filmsand some Eastman laboratory filmsare edge numbered at the time ofmanufacture by exposure to light.Some black-and-white laboratory filmsare numbered with ink.

EASTMAN KEYKODE NumbersIn 1990, Eastman Kodak Companyintroduced a new edge-numberingsystem that was included on allEastman camera films. The newsystem incorporates EASTMANKEYKODE Numbers (Figures 6 to 9)which are also in machine-readable

bar code. A variety of commerciallyavailable scanners can read thestandardized bar code. In thisimproved format, the human-readablekey number consists of 12 highlylegible characters printed at thefamiliar one-foot interval (16 frames,64 perforations) on 35 mm.

The same human- / machine-readable system is available for 16mm, but at six-inch (20 frame)intervals. On 65 mm, the numberrepeats every 16 frames. Anothermethod of edge numbering is veryoften used by motion picture

laboratories. Processed film issometimes numbered on the basewith ink. This numbering does notinterfere with the manufacturer's edgenumbers because the lab numbers areordinarily printed on the opposite edgeof the film. Normally, both the originalcamera film and the workprint areidentically edge-numbered for laterease in matching. Each laboratory willuse these additional numbers for theirown or the customer's particularneeds.

_____________ * Latent image: The film edge is exposed by aprinter mounted at the perforator to producean image visible only on processed film.

Figure 6EASTMAN KEYKODE Format

Figure 5Latent image

Figure 4Light piping



Below is a sample of ink edge-numbered film by a laboratory (Figure10).

With double-system sound, boththe film and the magnetic tape areoften ink edge-numbered formaintaining synchronization duringediting.

Dimensional ChangeCharacteristicsMotion picture film dimensions areinfluenced by variations inenvironmental conditions. The fi lmswells during processing, shrinksduring drying, and continues to shrinkat a decreasing rate throughout its life,to some extent. This is generally notsignificant if the film is properlystored.

These dimensional changes infilm are either temporary (reversible)or permanent (irreversible).Temporary dimensional changes arecaused by a modification in themoisture content or the temperature ofthe film. The extent of both temporaryand permanent size alterations islargely dependent upon the Film

support. However, since the emulsionis considerably more hygroscopic thanthe base, it can have a markedinfluence on dimensional variationscaused by humidity. Permanentshrinkage of film on cellulosetriacetate support is usually due toloss of residual solvents or plasticizers

and, to a slight extent, the gradualelimination of strains introducedduring manufacture or processing.ESTAR Base has no residual solventor plasticizer and absorbs lessmoisture than cellulose triacetate;consequently, its size changes due toaging are less.

Values for the dimensionalchange characteristics of currentEASTMAN Motion Picture Films aregiven in the table below.

Approximate Dimensional Change Characteristics ofCurrent KODAK and EASTMAN Motion Picture Films

Film Base

HumidityCoefficient ofExpansion,

% per 1% RH*

ThermalCoefficient ofExpansion,% per1ºF†

ProcessingShrinkage,

%‡

Potential AgingShrinkage,

%§

Length Width Length Width Length Width Length Width

Black-and-white camera negative, duplicatingnegative, color negative, color internegative, colorintermediate and EKTACHROME Camera Films

Triacetate 0.007 0.008 0.0025 0.0035 0.03 0.05 0.20 0.25

Black-and-white release positive, duplicatingpositive, sound recording and EASTMAN ColorPrint

Triacetate 0.005 0.006 0.0025 0.0035 0.03 0.05 0.40 0.50

EASTMAN Color Print and some Intermediates ESTAR 0.003 0.003 0.001 0.001 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.04

* Measured between 15 and 50% RH at 21ºC (70ºF).

† Measured between 49ºC (12ºF) and 21ºC (70ºF) at 20% RH.

‡ Tray processing. Measured at 21ºC (70ºF) and 50% RH after preconditioning at low relative humidity.

§ Over a period of years at normal conditions, and shorter times at elevated temperatures or humidities.

Figure 10EASTMAN KEYKODE Format



Temporary Dimensional Change

Moisture. The relative humidity of theair is the major factor affecting themoisture content of the film, thusgoverning the temporary expansion orcontraction of the film (assuming aconstant temperature). Both base andemulsion are affected by humidity.The coefficients given in the table‘Approximate Dimensional ChangCharacteristics of Current KODAK andEASTMAN Motion Picture Film’ areaverages for the range of 15 to50-percent RH, where the relationshipbetween film size and relativehumidity is approximately linear.

Temperature. Photographic filmexpands with heat and contracts withcold, however slightly Dimensionalchange characteristics for currentEASTMAN Motion Picture Film

supports are listed in the tablementioned above.

Rates of Temporary Change.Following a shift in the relativehumidity of the air surrounding asingle strand of film, size alterationsoccur rapidly in the first 10 minutesand continue for about an hour. If thefilm is in a roll, this time will beextended to several weeks becausethe moisture must follow a longerpath. In the case of temperaturevariations, a single strand of film

coming in contact with a hot metalsurface, for example, will changealmost instantly. A roll of film, on theother hand, requires several hours toalter size.

Swell During Processing. All motionpicture films swell during photographicprocessing and shrink during drying(Figure 11). The swell of acetate filmsis initially rapid and depends upon thetemperature of the processingsolutions, time, and film tension.Acetate films swell more in width thanin length. The change for films on

ESTAR Base is much smaller. Theeffects of drying upon the finaldimensions are discussed in thesection on permanent size change.

Permanent Size ChangePermanent size change is thecombination of the shrinkage of theraw film due to processing and thelong-term shrinkage of the processedfilm. These are discussed in turn:

Raw Stock Shrinkage. Immediatelyafter slitting and perforating, theunexposed motion picture film isplaced in cans that are sealed withtape. Until the film is removed fromthe can, solvent loss from acetate RIMis extremely low. The lengthwiseshrinkage will rarely exceed 0.5percent during the first 6 months in a100-foot can of 35 mm film at roomtemperature or below. Films onESTAR Base will not shrink more than0.2 percent under the sameconditions.

Processing Shrinkage. The net effectof processing acetate-base film isnormally a slight shrinkage unless thefilm has been stretched. Someprocessing machines have hightension that stretches the wet film(particularly 16 mm film);

consequently, a lower net processingshrinkage or even a slight permanentstretch may result. Because of itsgreater strength and resistance tomoisture, the overall size change offilms on ESTAR Base is much less.

Aging Shrinkage. It is important thatmotion picture camera negatives andintermediates have low "agingshrinkage" so that satisfactory printsor duplicates can be made even aftermany years of proper storage. Withmotion picture positive film intendedfor projection only, slight shrinkage isnot especially critical because it haslittle effect on projection.

The rate at which shrinkage due toaging occurs depends upon theconditions of storage and use.Shrinkage is hastened by hightemperature and, in the case ofacetate films, by high relative humiditywhich aids the diffusion of solventsfrom the film base.

The potential aging shrinkage ofcurrent motion picture films is given inthe table ‘Approximate DimensionalChang Characteristics of CurrentKODAK and EASTMAN MotionPicture Film’ . This very small netchange is a considerableimprovement over the shrinkagecharacteristics of negative materialsavailable before 1954 and permitsgood printing even after long periodsof keeping.

The lengthwise shrinkage ofrelease prints made on acetate

supports is about 0.1 to 0.3 percentfor 35 mm film and 0.1 to 0.4 percentfor 16 mm film during the first 2 yearsif properly processed and stored.Higher shrinkage can occur over alonger period, as indicated in the table‘Approximate Dimensional ChangCharacteristics of Current KODAK andEASTMAN Motion Picture Film’ .Shrinkage of films on ESTAR Base isunlikely to exceed 0.04 percent withproper storage.

Although aging shrinkage ofmotion picture film is a permanentsize change, humidity and thermalsize changes can either increase ordecrease the observed size change.

Figure 11Swell during processing



Other Physical CharacteristicsAside from image qualityconsiderations, other factors canaffect the satisfactory performance ofmotion picture film.

Curl. Film curl is defined as thedeparture from flatness ofphotographic film (Figure 12). Curltoward the emulsion is called positivewhile curl away from the emulsion istermed negative. Although the curllevel is established duringmanufacture, it is influenced by therelative humidity during use orstorage, processing and dryingtemperatures, and the windingconfiguration.

At low relative humidities, theemulsion layer contracts more thanthe base, generally producing positivecurl. As the relative humidity

increases, the emulsion layer expandsrelative to the support, producingnegative curl.

Film wound in rolls tends toassume the lengthwise curlconforming to the curve of the roll.

Buckling and Fluting. Very high orlow relative humidity can also causeabnormal distortions of film in rolls.Buckling, caused by the differentialshrinkage of the outside edges of thefilm, occurs if a tightly wound roll offilm is kept in a very dry atmosphere.Fluting, the opposite effect, is caused

by the differential swelling of theoutside edges of the film; it occurs ifthe roll of film is kept in a very moistatmosphere. To avoid these changes,do not expose the film rolls to extremefluctuations in relative humidity.

For more detailed information onthe complex subject of dimensionalchanges, refer to the articles listedbelow.

Adelstein, P.Z. and Calhoun, J.M.,"Interpretation of DimensionalChanges in Cellulose Ester BaseMotion Picture Films," Journal of the SMPTE, 69:157-63, March 1960.

Adelstein, P.Z., Graham, C.L., andWest, L.E., "Preservation of Motion

Picture Color Films Having PermanentValue," Journal of the SMPTE,79:1011-1018, November 1970.

Calhoun, J.M., "The PhysicalProperties and Dimensional Behaviorof Motion Picture Films," Journal of the SMPTE, 43:227-66, October 1944.

Fordyce, C.R., "Improved SafetyMotion Picture Film Support," Journal of the SMPTE, 51:331-50, October1948.

Fordyce, C.R., Calhoun J.M., andMoyer, E.E., "Shrinkage Behavior ofMotion Picture Film," Journal of the SMPTE, 64:62-66, February 1955.

Miller, A.J. and Robertson, A.C.,"Motion Picture Film-Its Size andDimensional Characteristics," Journal of the SMPTE, 74:3-11, January1965.

Noblette, C.B., Photography-itsMaterials and Process, Chapter 11, D.VanNostrand Co., Inc., 1962.

Ram and McCrea, "Stability ofProcessed Cellulose EsterPhotographic Films," Journal of the SMPTE, 97:4 74, June 1988.

Lee and Bard, "The Stability of KodakProfessional Motion-Picture FilmBases," Journal of the SMPTE, 97:911, November 1988.

Brems, "The Archival Quality of FilmBases," Journal of the SMPTE, 97:991, December 1988.

Darkroom

Recommendat ions

_______________________

Effective safelighting deserves carefulattention due to its far-ranging effects

on product quality, worker safety, andoverall productivity Darkroomillumination should providecomfortable levels of lighting for safe,efficient work while producing nophotographic effect on the fi lm.

The term safelight is in a sense amisnomer as there really is no "safelight." All sensitized photographicmaterials will become fogged whenexposed to any light for an indefiniteamount of t ime. Safelight, therefore,describes a light that will not produceany photographic effect for aparticular length of time at a particularintensity.

KODAK Safelight Filters aremade to precise spectral absorptionstandards corresponding to thespectral sensitivities of thephotographic materials. It is unsafe toimprovise lights or filter materials forsafelights, because while they mayappear to be the right color, they mayactually fog the film by transmittingunwanted wavelengths. The followingKODAK Safelight Filterrecommendations are based ondirectilluminating safelights with

15-watt incandescent lamps placed nocloser than 4 feet from the film. SeeKODAK Publication No. K-4, How Safe is Your Safelight?

KODAK Safelight Filter OA(Greenish Yellow). For use withbluesensitive films.

KODAK Safelight Filter No. 3(Dark Green). For use withpanchromatic films.

KODAK Safelight Filter No. 8

(Dark Yellow). For use with Eastmancolor print and intermediate films.

Figure 12Curl



Safelight Filter TestingDue to the heat and light generated bythe light source, most safelightabsorption filters gradually fade withuse. Test safelight filters regularly andchange them on a periodic basis.Replace safelight filters that are used8-12 hours a day on a yearly basis.

Photographic safelight testing

should be conducted annually orwhenever a new film product isintroduced into the laboratory. TheAmerican National Standards Institutehas written a standard (PH2.22-1988)on the methods for determining thesafe times of darkroom illumination. Aprogram of periodic maintenance andevaluation of the darkroomillumination is the best way to protectagainst product loss caused bysafelight fogging.

Exposure Informat ion

_______________________

Film datasheets for camera films giveexposure information under theseheadings: Exposure Indexes, FilterFactors (black-and-white film) or ColorBalance (color films), Exposure Table,Lighting Contrast Ratios, andReciprocity Characteristics.Explanations of each of theseelements of exposure information, andinstructions for using the datapresented, begin below.

Exposure Index/DINThe film exposure index (EI) is ameasurement of fi lm speed that canbe used with an exposure meter todetermine the aperture needed forspecific lighting conditions. Theindexes reported on film datasheetsfor EASTMAN Motion Picture Filmsare based on practical picture testsbut make allowance for some normalvariations in equipment and film thatwill be used for the production. Thereare many variables for a singleexposure. Individual cameras, l ights,

and meters are all different. Lensesare often calibrated in T-stops.Coatings on lenses affect the amountof light that strikes the emulsion. Theactual shutter speeds and f -numbersof a camera and those marked on itsometimes differ. Particular filmemulsions have unique properties.Camera techniques, as well as thelens and lighting, can also affectexposure. All of these variables cancombine to make a real difference

between the recommended exposureand the optimum exposure for specificconditions and equipment. For thesereasons, it is always wise to testseveral combinations of camera, film,and equipment to find the exposuresthat produce the best results for youroperation. Datasheet exposure indexfigures are applicable to meters

marked for ASA speeds (AmericanStandards Association), ISO(international Standards organization)or DIN speeds and are used as astarting point for an exposure series.

When it comes to measuringexposure, there are three kinds ofexposure meters: The averaging reflection meter and the reflection spot meter are most useful for daylightexposures, while the incident-light exposure meter is designed for indoorwork with incandescent illuminations.The two reflection meters are

sometimes used with the KODAK Gray Cards . One side of the card hasa neutral 18-percent reflection whichcan be used indoors to aid inmeasuring the average reflection for atypical subject. You can also use thisside of the card outdoors byincreasing the exposure 1/2 stopabove the calculated exposure. Theother side of the card has 90-percentreflection for use at low-light levels.The use of this card and appropriateadjustments for aperture andexposure time is covered in KODAKPublication No. R-27, KODAK Gray Cards .

Exposure LatitudeExposure latitude is the rangebetween overexposure andunderexposure within which a film willstill produce usable images.

Color BalanceColor balance relates to the color of alight source that a color film isdesigned to record without additionalfiltration. All laboratory and print filmsare balanced for the tungsten light

sources used in printers, while camerafilms are nominally balanced for either5500 K daylight, 3200 K tungsten, or3400 K tungsten exposure.

When filming under light sourcesdifferent from those recommended,filtration over the camera lens or overthe light source is required. Camerafilm datasheets contain starting-pointfilter recommendations for the mostcommon lighting sources. Alwaysmake on-site tests.

Exposure Table/Filter FactorUse the exposure table in thedatasheet for average subjects thatcontain a combination of light,medium, and dark colors.

Filter FactorPublished filter factors apply strictly tothe specific lighting conditions under

which the measurements were made.Therefore, it may be desirable,especially for scientific and technicalapplications using reversal films, todetermine the appropriate filter factorunder actual working conditions.

To determine a filter factor, placea subject with a neutral-gray area, aKODAK Gray Card, or a photographicgray scale in the scene to bephotographed. Shoot the scenewithout filtration. Then, with the fil teror filter pack in place, shoot a seriesof exposures at 1/2-stop intervals

ranging from 2 stops under to 2 stopsover the exposure determined usingthe published filter factor. Comparethe (neutral-gray) density of one framein the unfiltered scene with the densityof one frame in each one of the filterseries either visually or with adensitometer to find the fil teredexposure that equals the unfilteredexposure in overall density. The filterfactor is the ratio of the filteredexposure to the unfiltered exposurewith equal densities.

Exposure with filterFilter factor = ------------------------------

Exposure without filter

Since a filter absorbs part of thelight that would otherwise fall on thefilm, the exposure must be increasedwhen a filter is used. The filter factor isthe multiple by which an exposure isincreased for a specific f ilter with aparticular film. This factor dependsprincipally upon the absorptioncharacteristics of the filter, thespectral sensitivity of the filmemulsion, and the spectral

composition of the light falling on thesubject.



Conversion of Filter Factors toExposure Increase in Stops

FilterFactor

StopsFilter

FactorStops

1.25 + 1/3 6 + 22/3

1.5 + 2/3 8 + 3

2 +1 10 + 31/3

2.5 + 11/3 12 + 32/3

3 + 12/3 40 + 51/3

4 +2 100 + 62/3

5 +21/3 1000 +10

Each time a fi lter factor is doubled, the exposureneeds to be increased by one stop. As anexample, a filter factor of 2 requires a one-stopexposure increase. A filter factor of 4 requires atwo-stop exposure increase. Use this example forfilter factors not listed in the above table.

Illumination (incident Light) TableWhen the illumination is very low orwhere reflected-light measurementscannot be made conveniently, you canuse an incident-light meter to read theillumination directly in footcandles(lux*). The illumination Table gives thecorrect aperture setting for a givenexposure index and a given footcandle(lux) reading. The values are intendedfor use with tungsten light or withdaylight, depending on the balance ofthe film. The values given refer tomeasurements with a meter held atthe subject position and theintegrating sphere pointed directlytoward the camera. The valuesassume exposure by therecommended illuminant (daylight or

tungsten) without filt ration. In thefollowing summary of illuminationtables from the datasheets, the filmsare listed in decreasing order ofexposure index (EI).

Reciprocity CharacteristicsReciprocity refers to the relationshipbetween light intensity (illuminance)and exposure time with respect to thetotal amount of exposure received bythe film. According to "The ReciprocityLaw," the amount of exposure (E)received by the film is proportional to

light intensity (i) on the film multipliedby the exposure time (t). Therefore,E=it. In practice, any film has itsoptimal sensitivity at a particularexposure (i.e., normal exposure at thefilm's rated exposure index). Thissensitivity varies with the exposuretime and illumination level and iscalled "reciprocity effect." Within areasonable range of il lumination levelsand exposure times, the film producesa good image. At extreme illuminationlevels or exposure times, the effectivesensitivity of the film is lowered so

that predicted increases in exposuretime to compensate for lowillumination-or increases inillumination to compensate for shortexposure time-fail to produceadequate exposure. This condition iscalled "Reciprocity Law Failure"because the Reciprocity Law fails todescribe the film sensitivity at veryfast and very slow exposures. TheReciprocity Law usually applies quitewell for exposure times of 1/5 to1/1000 second for black-and-whitefilms. Above and below these speeds,black-and-white films are subject to

reciprocity failure. When the law doesnot hold, underexposure and changein contrast occur. For color films, thephotographer must compensate forboth film speed and color balancechanges because the speed changemay be different for each of the threeemulsion layers. However, colorcontrast changes cannot becompensated for and contrastmismatch can occur.

________________

* Lux is the term used to describe theintensity of the exposing light in the currentinternational standards for determining filmspeed. Most existing incident-light meterscales are still marked in footcandles. Afootcandle is approximately equal to 10 metercandies or lux.



Illumination (Incident Light) for Camera Films Using Recommended IlluminantExposure Time 1/50 second (24 fps)

ExposureIndex

fl 1.4 fl 2 fl 2.8 fl 4 fl 5.6 fl 8 fl 11 fl 16

500 5 10 20 40 80 160 320 640

400 6.3 12.5 25 50 100 200 400 800

320 8 16 32 63 125 250 500 1000250 10 20 40 80 160 320 640 1280

200 13 25 50 100 200 400 800 1600

160 16 32 63 125 250 500 1000 2000

125 20 40 80 160 320 640 1280 2560

100 25 50 100 200 400 800 1600 3200

64 40 80 160 320 640 1280 2560 5120

40 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000

25 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400 12800

Values are given in footcandles.

Lighting Contrast Ratios

When using artificial light sources toilluminate a subject, a ratio betweenthe relative intensity of the key lightand the fill lights can be determined.First, the intensity of light is measuredat the subject under both the key andfill lighting. Then the intensity of the fill light alone is measured. The ratio ofthe intensities of the combined keylight and rill lights to the fill light alone,measured at the subject, is known asthe lighting ratio.

Except for dramatic or specialeffects, the generally accepted ratio

for color photography is 2:1 or 3:1.For example, if the combined mainlight and rill light on a scene producea meter reading of 6000 footcandlesat the highlight areas and 1000footcandles in the shadow areas, theratio is 6:1. The shadow areas shouldbe illuminated to give a reading of atleast 2000, and preferably 3000,footcandles to bring the lighting ratiowithin the preferred range.

Image StructureThe sharpness of image detail that aparticular film type can producecannot be measured by a single testor expressed by one number. Forexample, resolving power test datagive a reasonably good indication of

image quality. However, because

these values describe the maximumresolving power a photographicsystem or component is capable of,they do not indicate the capacity of thesystem (or component) to reproducedetail at other levels. For morecomplete analyses of detail quality,other evaluating methods, such as themodulation-transfer function and filmgranularity, are often used. Anexamination of the modulation-transfer curve RMS granularity, andboth the high-and low-contrastresolving power will provide a good

basis for comparison of the imagingqualities of different films.

Understanding Graininess andGranularityThe terms graininess and granularityare often confused or even used assynonyms in discussions of silver ordye-deposit distributions inphotographic emulsions. The twoterms refer to two distinctly differentways of evaluating the imagestructure. When a photographic imageis viewed with sufficient magnification,the viewer experiences the visual

sensation of graininess, a subjectiveimpression of a random dot-likepattern in an image. This dot-likepattern in the image structure can also

be measured objectively with a

microdensitometer. This objectiveevaluation measures film granularity.

Motion picture films consist ofsilverhalide crystals dispersed ingelatin (the emulsion) which is coatedin thin layers on a support (the filmbase). The exposure and developmentof these crystals form thephotographic image, which is, atsome stage, made up of discreteparticles of silver. In color processes,where the silver is removed afterdevelopment, the dyes form dyeclouds centered on the sites of the

developed silver crystals. The crystalsvary in size, shape, and sensitivity,and generally are randomly distributedwithin the emulsion. Within an area ofuniform exposure, some of thecrystals will be made developable byexposure; others will not.

The location of these crystals isalso random. Development usuallydoes not change the position of agrain, so the image of a uniformlyexposed area is the result of a randomdistribution either of opaque silverparticles (black-and-white film) or dyeclouds (color film), separated by

transparent gelatin (Figures 13 and14).



Although the viewer sees a granularpattern , the eye is not necessarily seeingthe individual silver particles, whichrange from about 0.002 mm down toabout a tenth of that size.

At magnifications where the eyecannot distinguish individual particles, itresolves random groupings of these

particles into denser and less denseareas. As magnification decreases, theobserver progressively associates largergroups of spots as new units ofgraininess. The size of thesecompounded groups gets larger as themagnification decreases, but theamplitude (the difference in densitybetween the darker and the lighterareas) decreases. At still lowermagnifications, the graininessdisappears altogether because nogranular structure can be detectedvisually (Figure 15).

Randomness is a necessary

condition for the phenomenon. If theparticles were arranged in a regularpattern, like the halftone dot patternused in graphic arts, no sensation ofgraininess would be created. When ahalftone is viewed at a magnificationsufficient for the dots to bedistinguished, the eye notices the patternand does not group dots into newpatterns. Even though the dot patterncan be seen, the eye does not perceivegraininess because the pattern isregular, not random. At lowermagnifications-where the dots can no

longer be resolved-the awareness ofpattern ceases, and the image areasappear uniform.

When a random pattern of smalldots is viewed with sufficientmagnification to resolve the individualdots, no orderly or intelligible pattern canbe recognized. When the magnificationis decreased so the dots cannot beresolved, they appear to blend togetherto form an image whose surface isnonuniform or grainy .

Figure 15

(a) A 2.5X enlargement of a negative shows no apparent graininess. (b) At 20X,some graininess shows. (c) When a segment of the negative is inspected at 60X,the individual silver grains start to become distinguishable. (d) With 400X magnification, the discrete grains are easily seen. Note that surface grains are in focus while grains deeper in the emulsion are out of focus. The apparent "clumpingof silver grains is actually caused by the overlap of grains at different depths when viewed in two-dimensional projection. (e) The makeup of individual grains takes different forms. This filamentary silver enlarged by an electron microscope, appearsas a single opaque grain at low magnification.

Figure 13Grains of silver halide are randomly distributed in the emulsion when it is made. This photomicrograph of a raw emulsion shows silver-halide crystals.

Figure 14Silver is developed or clouds of dye formed at the sites occupied by the exposed silver halide.Contrary to widely help oppinion, there is little migration or physical joining of individual grains.Compare the distribution of silver particles in this photomicrograpoh with the undeveloped silver halide in Figure 13 .



KODAK T-GRAIN® EmulsionsIn recent years a new type of emulsionhas been incorporated into someKodak films. If we view conventionalsilver-halide grains (described above)under the scanning electronmicroscope, they appear aseight-surface solid cubes or irregularlyshaped pebbles. The faster the film,

the larger the grain-which gives theso-called "grainy" look. Kodakscientists have discovered that if thegrain shape is changed to a flattershape, the crystals intercept more lightbut the total amount of silver does notincrease, allowing for an increase inspeed with less noticeable grain. Thenew emulsions are called T-GRAINEmulsions because of the flat, tabularshape of the grains. In 1991, EastmanKodak Company's Motion Picture andTelevision Imaging received an Oscarfrom the Academy of Motion PictureArts and Sciences for incorporatingT-GRAIN Emulsion technology intomotion picture films.

By incorporating T-GRAINEmulsions into film structures, Kodakcan achieve overall improvements inthe film quality, not just speed andgrain. Not all T-GRAIN Emulsionsperform better than conventional ones.Therefore, some film emulsions are acombination of both conventional andT-GRAIN Emulsions.

If the uniform dot pattern of aconventional halftone is used toreproduce a scene, the eye accepts the

image as a smooth, continuous-tonerendition. This happens because thedots are regularly spaced. However,when halftone dots are distributedrandomly in an area to reproduce achanging scene the image looks"grainy." Graininess in the image isdue, in part, to the random distributionof the individual elements which makeup that moving image.

Figure 16

A stylized segment of a processed black-and-white emulsion is shown here with spheres representing the metallic silver grains of various sizes. Most modern emulsions are relatively thinner than the model suggests. Think of the circular plane area as the scanning aperture with granularity is measured.



Measuring RMS Granularity. The attributes ofthe photographic image which cause the humaneye to perceive graininess can also bemeasured (and simulated) by an electro-opticalsystem in a microdensitometer. Thesemeasurements are analyzed statistically toprovide numerical values that correlate with thevisual impression of graininess. The two majoradvantages of objective measurement are thatinstruments can be devised to make rapid andprecise measurements and that thesemeasurements can be manipulated readily bymathematical means.

Ordinary densitometers measure densityover areas much larger than those of individualsilver particles. Since there are so manyparticles in the aperture area of an ordinarydensitometer, small variations in the number ofparticles measured will not affect the reading(Figure 17).

Just as higher magnification increases theapparent graininess, a decrease in the apertureproduces higher granularity values. When theaperture of the densitometer is considerablyreduced, fewer particles are included and a

small change in their number is recorded as avariation in density. Analysis of the magnitudeof these variations gives a statistical measureof the granularity of a sample.

In practice, an area of apparently uniform density is continuously scanned by the smallaperture usually 48 microns in diameter. Thetransmitted light registers on a photosensitivepickup; the current produced is then fed to ameter calibrated to read the standard deviationof the random-density fluctuations (see Figure

18).Standard deviation describes the

distribution of a group of values (in this case,

variations in density) about their average. Thesquare root (R) of the arithmetic mean (M) ofthe squares (S) of the density variations iscalculated-hence, the term RMS granularity Forease of comparison, this small decimal numberis multiplied by a factor of 1,000, yielding asmall whole number, typically between 5 and50.

Figure 17

A large aperture “sees” a vast number of individual silver grains. Therefore, small local fluctuations have practically no effect on the density it records. Small apertures (about one-twentieth of the larger aperture diameter) detect random differences in grain distribution when they sample the large “uniform” area.

Figure 18

The signal form a continuous density scan of a grainy emulsion appears the same as random electrical noise when displayed on an oscilloscope. The rms voltmeter gives a direct readout of “noise level.”



The RMS granularity instrument usedat Kodak is calibrated to measureAmerican National Standard Institute(PH2.19-1986) diffuse visual density.The granularity values for Kodakblack-and-white and color negativefilms are determined at a net visualdensity of 1.0, while the values for

reversal and direct duplicating films,both black-and-white and color, aredetermined at a gross visual densityof 1.0. EASTMAN Motion PictureFilms are read with a circular aperture48 microns in diameter. This aperturesize gives meaningful readings overthe widest range of film samples.

Factors That Affect GraininessDifferent developers and differentamounts of development affect thegraininess of black-and-white films.The amount of exposure, which

determines the densities of variousareas, also affects the graininess of allfilms. Because the developmentprocesses of color films are rigidlyfixed, the effect of development israrely a factor in their graininess(however, force processing doescause an increase in graininess).

Because many color films are madewith emulsion layers of varyinggraininess levels, increasing theexposure (up to a point) places moreof the density in the finer-grainedlayers, which actually reduces theoverall graininess of the observedimages.

Granularity and Color Materials.One might expect a photographicimage made up of cyan, magenta,and yellow dye clouds to appear moregrainy than the corresponding silver

image. In fact, close to its resolutionlimit, the eye sees only brightnessdifferences and does not distinguishcolor in very small detail.

When color films are projected,the dye-cloud clusters form groupssimilar to silver-grain clusters inblack-and-white films. At high

magnifications, these clusters causethe appearance of graininess in theprojected screen image.

The illustration of cyan layer dyeclouds (Figure 19) shows how the dyeclouds are formed around thedeveloping silver grains and how thedye clouds visually associate intoclumps when there are severaldevelopment centers close to eachother.

Figure 19

The above illustrations are 1200X photomicrographs of a special cyan color film

layer with incorporated coupler made very thin to permit showing the structure. The upper left picture is the film after color development and shows the metallic silver grains surrounded by dye clouds. The upper right picture shows another area of the same film after bleaching and fixing with the grain removed. The lower two pictures show the same type of film developed with a color developer containing a completing coupler which reduces the size of the dye clouds; hence, reducing the graininess.



Some Practical Effects of

Graininess and GranularityThe photographer wants a fine-grainfilm but not at the expense ofsensitivity or film speed. Faster filmsusually have larger grains becauselarger silver-halide crystals have agreater probability of being struck bylight and made developable. Largesilver-halide crystals normally developto larger particles of metallic silver.Thus, the selection of a film is usuallya compromise between availablespeed and tolerable grain. Withtoday's Eastman films, grain size nolonger seems to be a problem.

Kodak photographic scientists areconstantly seeking more favorablespeed-grain ratios. But therelationship of emulsion speed to thegrain structure is also a vital concernto the photographer because the

speed-grain relationship indicateswhether the emulsion will detect lightand, if detected, will form arecognizable image. If a biologistneeds to record the life processes ofan amoeba on film, the amount ofallowable light is partly limited by thetemperature tolerance of the amoeba.If fast film is used to compensate forlimited light, the granularity must below enough for the film to record thedetail required by the application.Certainly the viewer should not haveto wonder whether the movement onthe screen is the amoeba's digestiveprocess or "crawling" grain clusters.As you may recall, choosing a filmwith T-GRAIN Emulsions could bevery beneficial in this type ofphotography.

Graininess is most evident in themidtones of a print (i.e., densities ofabout 0.6 to 0.9). The light tones ofthe print are on the toe of thecharacteristic curve where the slope isvery much lower than unity Hence, thecontrast with which the graininess isreproduced is very low-decreasing itsvisibility. In dark tones, the eye is less

able to distinguish graininess. The eyeeasily detects density differences aslow as 0.02 in the average highlightdensity, but can detect densitydifferences only on the order of 0.20 inthe average shadow density. In themidtones, where the slope of thecurve is constant, the print materialhas its maximum contrast and the eyecan more readily distinguish smalldensity differences; therefore, the

granularity can be most easilydetected by the eye as graininess.

Another factor in perceivinggraininess is the amount of detail in ascene. Graininess is most apparent inlarge areas with fairly uniformdensities and is much less evident inareas full of fine detail or motion.

It is difficult to predict themagnification at which projected printimages will be viewed since both theprojection magnification and thedistance from the observer to thescreen can vary. Both factors affectthe picture magnification, and thus thesensation of graininess.

When a motion picture film isseen at great magnification (as from afront-row theatre seat), the viewermay be aware of grains "boiling" or"crawling" in uniform areas of theimage. This sensation is caused by

the frame-to-frame changes of grainpositions, which make graininess,because of the motion, morenoticeable in a motion picture than ina still photograph. Conversely, themoving image of the scene tends todistract the viewer's attention awayfrom this sensation, and graininess is,therefore, usually noticed only in staticscenes.

Resolving Power. The resolvingpower of a film emulsion refers to itsability to record fine detail. It ismeasured by photographing resolutioncharts or targets (see Figure 20)under exacting test conditions. Theparallel lines on resolution charts areseparated from each other by spacesthe same width as the lines. The chartcontains a series of graduatedparallel-line groups, each groupdiffering from the next smaller or nextlarger by a constant factor. Thetargets are photographed at a greatreduction in size and the processedimage is viewed through amicroscope. The resolution ismeasured by a visual estimate of the

number of lines per millimeter that canbe recognized as separate lines.

Figure 20

This drawing shows a standard resolving- power test object

This is an enlarged view of the film images of a five-line resolving-power target imaged in the optical field by a photographic lens.

Astigmatism causes the resolving power to be slightly lower in one direction than the other.



The measured resolving power dependson the exposure, the contrast of the testtarget, and the development of the film.The resolving power of a film is greatestat an intermediate exposure value,falling off greatly at high- andlow-exposure values. Obviously, theloss in resolution that accompanies

under- or overexposure is an importantreason for observing the constraints ofa particular film when makingexposures.

Resolution also depends on thecontrast of the image, hence, thecontrast of the target. Test exposuresare usually made with both ahighcontrast (luminance ratio 1000:1)and a low-contrast (1.6:1) target. A filmresolves finer detail when the imagecontrast is higher. Both high- andlow-contrast resolving-power valuesdetermined according to a method

similar to the one described in ANSINo. PH2.33-1983, Method for Determining the Resolving Power of Photographic Materials, are given onthe datasheets. The resolving powerreported is based on film exposed andprocessed as recommended.

The maximum resolutionobtainable in practical photographicwork is limited both by the camera lensand by the film. The formula often usedto predict the resolution of a cameraoriginal is:

1/RS2

= 1/RF2

+ 1/RL2

RS = Resolution of the system(lens + film)

RF = Resolution of the filmRL = Resolution of the lens

In practice, other external factors,such as camera movement, focus,aerial haze, etc., also decrease theresolution from the possible maximum.

Processing

_______________________

GeneralThe datasheets for black-and- whitefilms give the times, temperatures,replenishment rates, and names of

solutions used in continuousprocessing of the films. Datasheets forcolor films give the name of theprocess used. An extended discussionof processing and other laboratoryoperations begins in the ‘Dealing with aLaboratory’ section.

Force ProcessingForce processing is the technique ofoverdeveloping film that has beenunderexposed intentionally or not. Thisindustry-wide practice is considered anormal working tool by many

cinematographers. Many commercialfilm laboratories offer force processingof both negative and reversal camerafilms. The following tips will make youruse of force processing moresuccessful:

• Discuss your needs (in advance ofyour assignment, when possible)with the customer servicerepresentative or the lab manager. Aquick phone call usually gets ananswer. Don't forget to ask about thecost involved.

• The lab may give fil ter

recommendations. This helps toavoid unwanted color balance shiftsthat may occur due to the overdevelopment.

• Be aware of the limits of the process.Decide beforehand whether you canaccept the loss in image quality thatusually results from forceprocessing. Consult the processinglab personnel.

Laboratory Aim Density (LAD)Control MethodTo assure optimum quality andconsistency in the final prints, the

laboratory must carefully control thecolor timing, printing, and duplicatingprocedures. To aid in color timing andcurve placement, time the negativeoriginals relative to the Laboratory AimDensity (LAD)* Control Film. The LADControl Film provides both objectivesensitometric control and subjectiveverification of the duplicatingprocedures used by the laboratory.

There are specific LAD values foreach type of print or duplicating filmonto which the original can be printed.

Film-to-Video TransferTransferring film from a negativedirectly to videotape is a universalprocess. For video release,

transferring images producesexcellent quality, while stil lmaintaining an image originated onfilm (a worldwide standard), that canbe used anywhere, including theatricalrelease. NTSC (North AmericanTelevision Systems Committee) videoimages are not conducive toproducing the best transfer quality tosystems (PAL, SECAM) other than theNorth American standard, NTSC.There is a difference in frame rates aswell as other factors.

When transferring film directly to

video, typical flying spot scanners orsolid-state imagers may be set up withthe appropriate Telecine Analysis Film(TAF)†. This film is supplied byEastman Kodak Company as anegative, intermediate, or print, andconsists of a neutral-density scale andan eight-bar color test pattern with aLAD gray surround.

The TAF gray scale can providethe scanner operator (colorist) with aneffective way to evaluate subcarrierbalance and to center the telecinecontrols prior to timing andtransferring a film. The TAF color bars

are intended to provide the utility ofelectronic color bars. With propercolor matrixing in the telecine for thefilm type being transferred, TAF colorbars should closely match in phase,electronic color bars, but at a reducedchroma level. Use of TAF will helpobtain optimum quality andconsistency in the film-to-videotransfer.

_______________ * For more information, see KODAK

Publication No. H-61, LAD-Laboratory Aim Density.

† For more information on TAF and itsfeatures, see KODAK Publication No. H-9,TAF User's Guide.



Storage of Raw and

Exposed Fi lm

_______________________

The sensitometric characteristics ofvirtually all unprocessed photographic

materials gradually change with time,causing loss in sensitivity, a change incontrast, a growth in fog level, a colorbalance shift, or possibly all of these.Improper storage will cause muchlarger changes in color quality andfilm speed than do variations inmanufacturing. Scrupulous control oftemperature and humidity, thoroughprotection from harmful radiation andgases, and careful handling areimportant to long, useful film life.

This section explains how to storeraw film stock and exposed,unprocessed film. Storage of film afterprocessing is discussed at the end ofthe ‘Getting the Most from your filmsection. The chart in the ‘Storage ofRaw and Exposed Film’ sectionsummarizes storage conditions.

Raw Stock in Original Package. Ingeneral, the lower the temperature atwhich a film is stored, the slower itsrate of sensitometric change duringaging will be. For periods up to threemonths, store motion picture rawstock at a temperature of 13ºC (55ºF)or lower, and a relative humidity of

60% or lower, during the entirestorage period to retain optimum fi lmproperties.

Store raw stock at -18 to -23ºC (0to -10ºF) if you must keep it longerthan three months or if you intend touse it for a critical use that requiresuniform results. Sensitometric changecannot be prevented by such storage,but it will be minimized.

Type ofKODAK

TypicalWarm-Up Times

(Hours)

FilmPackage

For14ºC (25ºF)

Rise

For55ºC

(100ºF)Rise

16 mm 1 1 1/235 mm 3 5

IMPORTANT: After a package of rawstock has been removed from coldstorage, allow it to warm up to roomtemperature (70 ±5ºF) before you

unseal the can. This will preventtelescoping of the roll during handlingbecause of possible cold-inducedlooseness between the layers; it willalso prevent moisture condensationand spotting of the film.

Radiation. Do not store or shipunprocessed film near x-ray sourcesor other radioactive materials. Somescanning devices used by postalauthorities and airlines may fog thefilm. Take special storage precautionsin hospitals, industrial plants, andlaboratories where radioactivematerials are in use. You should alsolabel packages of unprocessed filmsthat must be mailed acrossinternational borders as follows:"Contents: Unprocessed photographicfilm. Please do not x-ray."

Airports. For the protection oftravelers, all domestic airports useelectronic devices and x-rayequipment to check passengers andhand-carried luggage. Film cantolerate some x-ray exposure butexcessive amounts will result inobjectionable fog (increase in basefilm density) and noticeable grainincrease. This is particularly true forvery high-speed films. In the UnitedStates, passenger inspection results invery low level rates of x-rays, whichshould not perceptibly fog most fi lms.However, the effects of x-rays arecumulative, so repeated x-rayinspections can lead to an increase infog and grain. Be cautious. You canavoid this danger to unprocessed filmby hand carrying film, including film incameras, and asking the attendant toinspect it, thus avoiding x-rays. Carryyour film in a clear plastic bag foreasy inspection.

Foreign Travel. Security measures atairports other than those in the UnitedStates can pose a threat tounprocessed film. Not only is there a

danger from x-rays, but security andcustoms agents may open containersof unprocessed film, ruining weeks ofwork. Also, baggage x-rays may be ata higher level than x-rays used forpassengers.

The best protection, whentraveling abroad, is to write to theairport manager well in advance ofyour arrival and explain the relevantdetails of your trip. Give your arrivaltime, fl ight number, and departure.

List the equipment and film you'rebringing with you. Ask if there are anysteps you can take to expedite mattersand ensure the safety of your film.Repeat the process before leaving theforeign country Speak with the airportmanager and customs people, ifpossible, to confirm the advance

arrangements you made.For international travel, you may

find it worthwhile to work with anexport company or customs broker.There are private companies thatexpedite the handling of internationalshipments and do all the necessarypaperwork for you. Check thetelephone directory yellow pagesunder "Exporters."

Another way to avoid problems isto have the film processed in thecountry where you expose it. Kodakcan help you find a local laboratory.

Just consult the Kodak office nearestyou.

Ambient Background Radiation

(effects on rawstock). Ambientgamma radiation is composed of twosources: a low energy componentwhich arises from the decay ofradionuclides and a high energycomponent which is the product of theinteraction of cosmic rays with theearth's upper atmosphere. Theradionuclides responsible for the lowenergy photons exist in soil and rockand are carried into earth-derivedbuilding materials, such as concrete.Upon exposure to ambientbackground radiation, photographicmaterials can exhibit an increase inminimum density, a loss in contrast,and an increase in granularity. Thechange in film performance isdetermined by several factors, suchas the film speed and length of timethe film is exposed to the radiationbefore it is processed. A film with aspeed of 500 can exhibit about threetimes the change in performance as afilm with a speed of 125. While this

effect on a film product is notimmediate, it is one reason why wesuggest exposing and processing thefilm as soon as possible afterpurchase. A period of about six



months from time of purchase can beconsidered "normal" before exposureand processing, provided it has beenkept under specified conditions.Extended periods beyond six monthsmay especially affect fast films, asnoted above, even if kept frozen. Theonly way to determine the specific

effect of ambient background radiationis with actual testing or measurementsand placing a detector in the locationswhere the film was stored. The mostobvious clue is the observance ofincreased granularity, especially in thelight areas of the negative.

Gases and Vapors. Gases (such asformaldehyde, hydrogen sulfide, sulfurdioxide, ammonia, coal gas, engineexhaust, hydrogen peroxide) andvapors (from solvents, mothballs,cleaners, turpentine, mildew and

fungus preventives, and mercury) canchange the sensitivity of photographicemulsions. The cans in which motionpicture films are packaged provideprotection against some gases, butothers can slowly penetrate theadhesive-tape seal. Keep film awayfrom any such contamination-forexample, closets or drawers thatcontain mothballs-otherwise,desensitization of the silver-halidegrains or chemical fogging can occur.

Relative Humidity. Since a smallamount of vapor leakage through theclosure of a taped can is unavoidable,use additional water-vapor protectionif you are going to keep motion picturefilms longer than a month in an areahaving high relative humidity (60percent or higher), such as homerefrigerators or damp basements.Tightly seal as many unopened rollsas possible in a second plasticcontainer or can.

Note: It is the relative humidity, notthe absolute humidity, that determinesthe moisture content of film. Relative

humidity is best measured with a slingpsychrometer. In a small storagechamber, a humidity indicator, suchas those sold for home use, issatisfactory.

Handling. Design storage rooms formotion picture raw stock so thataccidental flooding from storms, waterpipes, or sewers cannot damage theproduct. Keep all film at least 15 cm(6 in.) off the floor for storage.

Rooms that are artificially cooledshould be constructed and insulatedso that moisture does not condenseon the walls. As indicated, control ofrelative humidity below 60 percent isnot critical as long as the film cans

remain sealed. Maintain thetemperature as uniformly as possiblethroughout the storage room bymeans of adequate air circulation sothat sensitometric properties remainconsistent from roll to roll.

Do not store film near heatingpipes or in the line of sunlight comingthrough a window, regardless ofwhether the room is cool or not.

Unprocessed Film Before and AfterExposure

General Concerns. Once you open

the original package, the film is nolonger protected from high relativehumidities that can cause undesirablechanges. Exposed footage is evenmore vulnerable to the effects ofhumidity and temperature. Therefore,process film as soon as possible after exposure .

Temperature. Protect film in originalpackages or loaded in cameras,cartridges, magazines, on reels, andin carrying cases from direct sunlight,and never leave it in closed spacesthat may trap heat. The temperaturesin closed automobiles, parkedairplanes, or the holds of ships, forexample, can easily reach 60ºC(140ºF) or more. A few hours underthese conditions, either before or afterexposure, can severely affect thequality of the film. If processingfacilities are not immediatelyavailable, store exposed films at -18ºC(0ºF) but only for a few weeks atmost.

Gases and Radiation. You mustkeep films away from the harmfulgases and radiation mentioned earlier

Relative Humidity. When handlingmotion picture film in high relative

humidities, it is much easier toprevent excessive moisture take-inthan it is to remove it. I f there aredelays of a day or more in shooting,remove the magazine containingpartially used film from the cameraand place it in a moisture-tight drychamber. This prevents anyabsorption of moisture by the filmduring the holding period. Immediatelyafter exposure, return the film to i tscan and retape it to prevent anyincrease in moisture content. Moistureleakage into a taped can is more

serious when the can contains only asmall quantity of film. When thesecircumstances exist, seal as manysmall rolls as possible in a secondmoisture-resistant container.

Handling. Handle the film strandcarefully by the edges to avoidlocalized changes in film sensitivitycaused by fingerprints. Folding andcrimping the film also introduces localchanges in sensitivity. Keep thesurfaces that the film travels over

PhotographicShort-Term

(less than 3 months)Long-Term

(more than 3 months)

MaterialTemperature

% RelativeHumidity

Temperature% RelativeHumidity

Raw Stock*(in original sealedcans)

13ºC (55ºF) below 60-18º to -23ºC(0º to -10ºF)

below 60

Exposed,Unprocessed

-18º to -23ºC(0º to -10ºF)†

below 60 Not Recommended(see text below)

* After removal from storage, keep sealed (in original cans) until temperature is above the dew point ofoutside air (See table of warm-up times in the ‘Storage of Raw and Exposed Film’ section.)† Process film as soon as possible after exposure.



clean to prevent scratching of thefilm's base or emulsion.For a more detailed discussion oflong-term storage, see KODAKPublication No. H-23, The Book of Film Care .

Sens i tometr ic andImage-Struct ure Data

_______________________

"Sensitometry" is the science ofmeasuring the response ofphotographic emulsions to l ight."Image structure" refers to theproperties that determine how well thefilm can faithfully record detail. Theappearance and utility of aphotographic record are closelyassociated with the sensitometric andimage-structure characteristics of the

film used to make that record. Theways in which a film is exposed,processed, and viewed affect thedegree to which the film'ssensitometric and image-structurepotential is realized. The age ofunexposed film and the conditionsunder which it is stored also affect thesensitivity of the emulsion. Indeed,measurements of fi lm characteristicsmade by particular processors usingparticular equipment and thosereported on datasheets may differslightly. Still, the information on the

datasheet provides a useful basis forcomparing films. Whencinematographers need a high degreeof control over the outcome, theyshould test the film they have chosenunder conditions that match as nearlyas possible those expected in practice.Also, alert the laboratory to this test.

Understanding Sensitometric

InformationTransmission density (D) is a measureof the light-controlling power of thesilver or dye deposit in a processedfilm emulsion. In color films, thedensity of the cyan dye represents itscontrolling power to red light, that ofmagenta dye to green light, and thatof yellow dye to blue light.Transmission density may bemathematically defined as thecommon logarithm (Log base 10) ofthe ratio of the light incident onprocessed film (Po) to the lighttransmitted by the film (Pt).

D = log 10 Po /Pt

The measured value of the densitydepends on the spectral distribution ofthe incident light, the spectralabsorption of the film image, and thespectral sensitivity of the receptor.When the spectral sensitivity of thereceptor approximates that of thehuman eye, the density is called visual

density. When it approximates that ofa duplicating or print stock, thecondition is called printing density.

For practical purposes,transmission density is measured intwo ways:

Totally diffuse density (Figure 21)is determined by comparing all of thetransmitted light with the incident lightperpendicular to the film plane("normal" incidence). The receptor isplaced so that all of the transmittedlight is collected and evaluatedequally. This setup is analogous to the

contact printer except that the"receptor" in the printer is fi lm.Specular density (Figure 22) is

determined by comparing only thetransmitted light that is perpendicular("normal") to the film plane with the"normal" incident light, analogous tooptical printing or projection.

To simulate actual conditions offilm use, totally diffuse densityreadings are routinely used whenmotion picture films are to be contactprinted onto positive print stock.Specular density readings areappropriate when a film is to be

optically printed or directly projected.However, totally diffuse densitymeasurements are accepted in thetrade for routine control in bothcontact and optical printing of colorfilms.

Totally diffuse density andspecular density are almost equivalent

for color films because the scatteringeffect of the dyes is slight, unlike theeffect of silver in black-and-whiteemulsions.

Characteristic CurvesA characteristic curve is a graph of therelationship between the amount ofexposure given a film and itscorresponding density afterprocessing. The density values thatproduce the curve are measured on afilm test strip that is exposed in asensitometer under carefully

controlled conditions, and processedunder equally controlled conditions.When a particular application requiresprecise information about thereactions of an emulsion to unusuallight-filming action in a parking lotilluminated by sodium vapor lights, forexample-the exposing light in thesensitometer can be filtered tosimulate that to which the film willactually be exposed. A speciallyconstructed step tablet, consisting of astrip of film or glass containing agraduated series of neutral densitiesdiffering by a constant factor, is

placed on the surface of the test stripto control the amount of exposure, theexposure time being held constant.The resulting range of densities in thetest strip simulates most picturetakingsituations, in which an objectmodulates the light over a wide rangeof illuminance, causing a range ofexposures (different densities) on thefilm.

Figure 21Totally diffuse density

Figure 22Specular density



After processing, the graduateddensities on the processed test stripare measured with a transmissiondensitometer. The amount ofexposure (measured in lux*) receivedby each step on the test strip ismultiplied by the exposure time(measured in seconds) to produce

exposure values in units oflux-seconds. The logarithms (base 10)of the exposure values (log H) areplotted on the horizontal scale toproduce the characteristic curve. Thiscurve is also known as thesensitometric curve, the D Log Hcurve, or the H & D (Hurter andDriffield) curve. †

The characteristic curve for a testfilm exposed and processed asdescribed above is an absolute or real characteristic curve of a particular filmprocessed in a particular manner.

Sometimes it is necessary toestablish that the values produced byone densitometer are comparable tothose produced by another one.Status densitometry is used for this.Status densitometry refers tomeasurements made on adensitometer that conform to aspecified unfiltered spectral response(Dawson and Voglesong, "ResponseFunctions for Color Densitometry,"PS&E Journal , Volume 17, No. 5).When a set of carefully matched filtersis used with a densitometer, the termStatus Densitometry is used. The

densities of color-positive materials(reversal, duplicating, and print) aremeasured by Status A Densitometry.When a different set of carefullymatched filters is incorporated in thedensitometer for reading the densitiesof color preprint films (color negative,internegative, intermediate, andlow-contrast reversal original), thedensities are measured by Status MDensitometry. (Densitometer FilterSets are purchased directly from themanufacturers of densitometers. Forfurther information, contact the

densitometer manufacturer.)Representative characteristic

curves are those that are typical of aproduct and are made by averagingthe results from a number of testsmade on a number of productionbatches of film. The curves shown in

the datasheets are representativecurves.

Relative characteristic curves are

formed by plotting the densities of thetest film against the densities of aspecific uncalibrated sensitometricstep scale used to produce the testfilm. These are commonly used inlaboratories as process-control tools.Black-and-white films usually haveone characteristic curve. A color film,on the other hand, has threecharacteristic curves, one each for thered modulating (cyan-colored) dyelayer, the green-modulating(magentacolored) dye layer, and theblue-modulating (yellow-colored) dyelayer (see Figures 25 and 27).

Because reversal films yield a positiveimage after processing, theircharacteristic curves are inverse tothose of negative films (compareFigures 26 and 28).

_______________

* One lux is the illumination produced by one

standard candle from a distance of 1 metre.When a film is exposed for 1 second to astandard candle I metre distance, it receives Ilux-sec of exposure.† Zwick, D., "The Meaning of Numbers toPhotographic Parameters," Journal of the Society of Photo-Optical instrumentation Engineers, Volume 4 (1966), pages 205-211

Figure 23Typical characteristic curve



Figure 24



Figure 25Color negative film

Figure 26Color reversal film

Figure 27Black-and-white negative film

Figure 28Black-and-white reversal film



General Curve Regions. Regardless offilm type, all characteristic curves arecomposed of five regions: D-min (minimumdensity), the toe, the straight-line portion,the shoulder and D-max (maximumdensity) (Figure 29).

Exposures less than at A on negativefilm or greater than at A on reversal film

will not be recorded as changes in density.This constant density area of ablack-and-white film curve is called baseplus fog. In a color film, it is termedminimum density or D-min.

The toe (A to B) is the portion of thecharacteristic curve where the slope (orgradient) increases gradually with constantchanges in exposure (fog H).

The straight-line (B to C) is the portionof the curve where the slope does notchange; the density change for a givenfog-exposure change remains constant orlinear. For optimum results, all significant

picture information is placed on thestraight-line portion.

The shoulder (C to D) is the portion ofthe curve where the slope decreases.Further changes in exposure (log H) willproduce no increase in density because themaximum density (D-max) of the film hasbeen reached.

Base density is the density of fixed-out(all silver removed) negative / positive filmthat is unexposed and undeveloped. Netdensities produced by exposure anddevelopment are measured from the basedensity. For reversal films, the analogousterm of D-min describes the area receivingtotal exposure and complete processing.The resulting density is that of the filmbase with any residual dyes.

Fog refers to the net density producedduring development of negative/positivefilms in areas that have had no exposure.Fog caused by development may beincreased with extended development timeor increased developer temperatures. Thetype of developing agent, ambientradiation, and the pH value of thedeveloper can also affect the degree of fog.The net fog value for a given developmenttime is obtained by subtracting the base

density from the density of the unexposedbut processed film. When such values aredetermined for a series of developmenttimes, you can plot a time-fog curve(Figure 30) showing the rate of fog growthwith development. A base fog increase canalso be a result of aging or improperly keptfilm.

Figure 29Regions of the characteristic curve



Curve Values. You can derive additionalvalues from the characteristic curve that notonly illustrate properties of the film but alsoaid in predicting results and solving problemsthat may occur during picture-taking or duringthe developing and printing processes.

Speed describes the inherent sensitivity ofan emulsion to light under specified conditions

of exposure and development. The speed of afilm is represented by a number derived fromthe film's characteristic curve.

Contrast refers to the separation oflightness and darkness (called "tones") in afilm or print and is broadly represented by theslope of the characteristic curve. Adjectivessuch as flat or soft and contrasty or hard areoften used to describe contrast. In general, thesteeper the slope of the characteristic curve,the higher the contrast. The terms gamma andaverage gradient refer to numerical means forindicating the contrast of the photographicimage.

Gamma is the slope of the straight-lineportion of the characteristic curve or thetangent of the angle (a) formed by the straightline with the horizontal. In Figure 27, thetangent of the angle (a) is obtained by dividingthe density increase by the log exposurechange. The resulting numerical value isreferred to as gamma.

Gamma does not describe contrastcharacteristics of the toe or the shoulder.Camera negative films record some parts ofscenes, such as shadow areas, on the toeportion of the characteristic curve. Gammadoes not account for this aspect of contrast.

Average gradient is the slope of the lineconnecting two points bordering a specifiedlog-exposure interval on the characteristiccurve. The location of the two points includesportions of the curve beyond the straight-lineportion. Thus, the average gradient candescribe contrast characteristics in areas ofthe scene not rendered on the straight-lineportion of the curve. Measurement of anaverage gradient extending beyond thestraight-line portion is shown in Figure 31.

Figure 30Curves for a development-time series on a typical black-and-white negative film

Figure 31Average gradient determination



The particular gamma or averagegradient value to which a specificblack-and-white film is developeddiffers according to the properties anduses of the film. Suggested controlgamma values are given on thedatasheets for black-and-whitenegative and positive films.

If characteristic curves for ablack-and-white negative or positivefilm are determined for a series ofdevelopment times and the gamma oraverage gradient of each curve isplotted against the time ofdevelopment, a curve showing thechange of gamma or average gradientwith increased development isobtained. You can use thetime-gamma curve (Figure 32) to findthe optimum developing time toproduce the control gamma valuesrecommended in the datasheet (or

any other gamma desired).Black-and-white reversal and allcolor film processes are not controlledby using gamma values.

Flashing Camera Films. Flashing camera films to lower contrast is atechnique, that involves theapplication of a uniform exposure to afilm before processing to lower overallcontrast of some color films. It isactually an intentional light fogging of

the film. You can make the flashingexposure before or after the subjectexposure, either in-camera or in aprinter. The required amount ofexposure and the color of theexposing light depend on the effectdesired, the point at which the flashingexposure is applied, the subject of the

main exposure, and the filmprocessing. Because of potentiallatent-image changes, it's better touse a flashing exposure just prior toprocessing.

________________ * "Flashing of EASTMAN EKTACHROMEVideo News Films for Intercutting withEASTMAN EKTACHROME CommercialFilm 7252 " by Doody, Lawton, and Perry,

Journal of the SMPTE, Vol. 78, June 1978.(EASTMAN EKTACHROME CommercialFilm 7252 is no longer being manufacturedbut the printing practice is valid.)

This fairly common practice is oftenused to create a closer match of twofilms' contrast characteristics whenthey are intercut. It is also used if theprint contrast of a projection contrastreversal camera film is deemed toohigh after being printed. Lowercontrast allows for more detail in

shadow areas.The hypothetical characteristic

curves in Figure 33 show what occurswhen one film is flashed toapproximately match another film'scharacteristic curve. The il lustrationhas been simplified to show an idealmatching of the two films. In practice,results will depend on the tests runusing the specific films intended for aproduction.

Figure 32

Figure 33



Modulation-Transfer Curve. Modulationtransfer relates to the ability of a fi lm toreproduce images of different sizes. Themodulation-transfer curve describes afilm's capacity to reproduce the complexspatial frequencies of detail in an object. Inphysical terms, the measurementsevaluate the effect on the image of light

diffusion within the emulsion. First, film isexposed under carefully controlledconditions to a series of special testpatterns, similar to that il lustrated in (a) ofFigure 34. After development, the image(b) is scanned in a microdensitometer toproduce trace (c).

The resulting measurements show thedegree of loss in image contrast atincreasingly higher frequencies as thedetail becomes finer. These losses incontrast are compared mathematically withthe contrast of the portion of the imageunaffected by detail size. The rate of

change or "modulation" (M) of each patterncan be expressed by this formula in whichE represents exposure:

E max - E minM = -----------------------

E max + E min

When the microdensitometer scansthe test film, the densities of the trace areinterpreted in terms of exposure, and theeffective modulation of the image (Mi) iscalculated. The modulation-transfer factoris the ratio of the modulation of thedeveloped image to the modulation of theexposing pattern Mo, or Mi/Mo. This ratio isplotted on the vertical axis (logarithmicscale) as a percentage of response. Thespatial frequency of the patterns is plottedon the horizontal axis as cycles permillimetre. Figure 35 shows two suchcurves. At lower magnifications, the testfilm represented by curve A appearssharper than that represented by curve B;at very high magnifications, the test filmrepresented by curve B appears sharper.

All photographic modulation-transfercurves in the datasheets were determinedusing a method similar to that specified by

ANSI Standard PH2.39-1984. The filmswere exposed with the specified illuminantto spatially varying sinusoidal test patternshaving an aerial image modulation of anominal 35 percent at the image plane,with processing as indicated. In practice,most photographic modulation transfervalues are influenced by developmentadjacency effects and are not exactlyequivalent to the true opticalmodulation-transfer curve of a particularphotographic product.

Figure 34Image (b) of a sinusoidal test object (a) recorded on a photographic emulsion and a microdensitometer tracing (c) of the image.

Figure 35

Modulation-transfer curves



Modulation-transfer measurementscan also be made for the nonfilmcomponents in a photographic systemsuch as cameras, lenses, printers,etc., to analyze or predict thesharpness of the entire system. Bymultiplying the responses for each

ordinate of the individual curves, themodulation-transfer curve for a filmcan be combined with similar curvesfor an optical system to calculate themodulation-transfer characteristics ofthe entire system.

Spectral SensitivityThe term color sensitivity is used ondatasheets for some black-and-whitefilms to describe the portion of thevisual spectrum to which the film issensitive. All black-and-white camerafilms are panchromatic (sensitive to

the entire visible spectrum). Somelaboratory films are alsopanchromatic.

Some films, calledorthochromatic, are sensitive mainly tothe blue-and-green portions of thevisible spectrum.

Films used exclusively to receiveimages from black-and-whitematerials are blue-sensitive.

While color films andpanchromatic black-and-white filmsare sensitive to all wavelengths ofvisible light, rarely are two filmsequally sensitive to all wavelengths.Spectral sensitivity describes therelative sensitivity of the emulsion tothe spectrum within the film'ssensitivity range (Figure 36). Inconventional photographic emulsions,sensitivity is limited at the short(ultraviolet) wavelength end to about250 nanometres (nm) because thegelatin used in the photographicemulsion absorbs much ultravioletradiation. The sensitivity of anemulsion to the longer wavelengthscan be extended by the addition ofsuitably chosen dyes. By this means,

the emulsion can be made sensitivethrough the green region(orthochromatic black-and-whitefilms), through the green and redregions (color and panchromaticblack-and-white films), and into thenear-infrared region of the spectrum(infrared-sensitive film).

Three spectralsensitivity curvesare shown for color films-one each forthe red-sensitive (cyan-dye forming),the green-sensitive (magenta-dye

forming), and the blue-sensitive(yellow-dye forming) emulsion layers.One curve is shown forblack-and-white films. The data arederived by exposing the film tocalibrated bands of radiation 10nanometres wide throughout the

spectrum, and the sensitivity isexpressed as the reciprocal of theexposure (ergs/cm²) required toproduce a specified density. Theradiation expressed in nanometres isplotted on the horizontal axis, and thelogarithm of sensitivity is plotted onthe vertical axis to produce a spectralsensitivity curve, as shown in Figure37.

Equivalent neutral density (END):When the amounts of each of thecomponents of an image areexpressed in this unit, each of thedensity figures tells how dense a graythat each component can form.

Because each emulsion layer of a

color film has its own speed andcontrast characteristics, equivalent neutral density (END) is derived as astandard basis for comparison ofdensities represented by the spectralsensitivity curve. For color films, thestandard density used to specifyspectral sensitivity is as follows:

For reversal films, END = 1.0.For negative films, direct

duplicating, and print films, END = 1.0above D-min.

Figure 36Film Sensitivities

Normal Photographic Section ofthe Electromagnetic Spectrum



Spectral-Dye-Density Curves

Processing exposed color filmproduces cyan, magenta, and yellowdye images in the three separatelayers of the film. The spectral-dye-density curves (illustrated in Figure38) indicate the total absorption byeach color dye measured at aparticular wavelength of l ight and thevisual neutral density (at 1.0) of thecombined layers measured at thesame wavelengths.

Spectral-dye-density curves forreversal and print films represent dyesnormalized to form a visual neutraldensity of 1.0 for a specified viewingand measuring illuminant. Films whichare generally viewed by projection aremeasured with light having a colortemperature of 5400 K. Color-maskedfilms have a curve that representstypical dye densities for a mid-scaleneutral subject.

The wavelengths of light,expressed in nanometres (nm), are

plotted on the horizontal axis, and the

corresponding diffuse spectraldensities are plotted on the verticalaxis. Ideally, a color dye shouldabsorb only in its own region of thespectrum. However, all color dyesabsorb some wavelengths in otherregions of the spectrum. Thisunwanted absorption, which couldprevent satisfactory color reproductionwhen the dyes are printed, iscorrected in the film's manufacture.

In color negative films, some ofthe dye-forming couplers incorporatedin the emulsion layers at the time ofmanufacture are colored and are

evident in the D-min of the film afterdevelopment. These residual couplersprovide automatic masking tocompensate for the effects ofunwanted dye absorption when thenegative is printed. This explains whycamera negative color films lookorange.

Since color reversal films and

print films are usually designed fordirect projection, the dye-formingcouplers must be colorless. In thiscase, the couplers are selected toproduce dyes that will, as closely aspossible, absorb only in theirrespective regions of the spectrum. Ifthese films are printed, they require noprinting mask.

Printing ConditionsA representative printer setup isdescribed for each laboratory or printfilm in each datasheet. Read theseprinter setups for comparison

purposes and use only as a startingpoint. A detailed description of printersand printing processes begins in the‘Motion Picture Printing’ section. Usethe Laboratory Aim Density (LAD)control method described earlier fordetermining optimum printingexposure.

Figure 37Spectral-sensitivities curves

Figure 38Spectral-dye-density curves



Sound-Track PrintingThe datasheets for print fi lms containrecommendations for printing aphotographic sound track. They alsorecommend the industry-recognizedcross-modulation (X-mod) testprocedures to determine the densityrequired in the original to produce

minimum distortion in the print.*

Sizes Avai lable

_______________________

Motion picture film emulsions arecoated on a 54-inch-wide continuousweb of film base. These 54-inch rollsconstitute the master stock rolls thatare slit into strips during the finishingprocess. Each master roll is assigneda number; each strip also has areference number (see Figure 39).

After slitting, the strips are perforatedand cut to the designated lengths.EASTMAN Motion Picture CameraFilms are then wound onto cores orspools, the outer ends secured, anddepending on format, some are putinto black plastic bags. Then they arepackaged into cans or plastic boxes(16 mm only), and sealed. The bagsensure that the film f its snugly into thecontainer, as well as further protectingthe film from light. Some 35 mmEastman color print film is packagedin compression boxes with individual

strips up to 6000 feet long. Each rollof film in compression boxes is in anairtight vacuum bag.

The tape used on the outside of afilm can serves as a seal between thecover and body of the can. This tapeis designed to resist the flow of air andmoisture so that the newlymanufactured film retains its originalmoisture content. The tape and thecan are both marked to identify thecontents. A description of theidentifying codes on tape, can label,

and film appears under FILMIDENTIFICATION. The "Available RollLengths" section in the datasheetrefers the reader to Kodak's Motion Picture Films for Professional Use price catalog.

The catalog number (CAT No.) isperhaps the most important piece of

information to know when orderingfilm from Kodak. The catalog numberidentifies a particular kind of emulsion,film format, and length. For example,CAT No. 840 0525 describes only onefilm package: 100 feet of EASTMANEXR Color Negative (16 mm), tworows of perfs (2994 pitch), with a filmidentification number of EXM449.

The film identification number,also found in the price catalog, is acombination of a three-letter filmemulsion designation (EXM, in theexample above) and three-digit

specification number (449, in thiscase). The number designates filmwidth; perforation type and format;type of core, spool, or magazinelength, and winding. This code doesnot always refer to the film length.

Cores and SpoolsEASTMAN Motion Picture Films areavailable on several types of coresand spools, each appropriate to thedesign of the equipment in which thefilms are to be exposed. The films areconnected to the core, by tightlylapping several convolutions of film

around the core or inserting the filmend into the slot. When the film iswound on the core, the core cannot beremoved from the film except byunwinding the film.

The standard core and spooltypes for EASTMAN Motion PictureFilms are described below:

WindingWhen a 16 mm roll of raw stock-perforated along one edge and woundemulsion side in -is held so that theend of the film leaves the roll at thetop and to the right, it is designatedWinding A if the perforations aretoward the observer. It is designated

Winding B if the perforations are awayfrom the observer (Figure 40).Winding A films are used for makingcontact prints and are not intended foruse in the camera. Winding B is usedfor camera film, for making optical prints, and on bidirectional printers.

Perforations

Why All the Sizes and Shapes?In the early days of 35 mm motionpictures, film perforations were round.Because these perforations were moresubject to wear, the shape was

changed to that now known as the Bel& Howell (BH) or "negative"perforation (see Figure 41). Thismodification improved positioningaccuracy and was the standard formany years.

_____________ * For more information on sound track cross

modulation testing, see J.O. Baker and D.H.Robinson, Journal of the SMPE January1938, and SMPTE Recommended Practice,RP 104-1987.

Perforation TypeDimension Bell & Howell Kodak

Standard16 Millimetre Tolerances ±

Inches mm Inches mm Inches mm Inches mm

C 0.110 2.794 0.110 2.794 0.072 1.829 0.0004 0.010D 0.073 1.854 0.078 1.981 0.050 1.270 0.0004 0.010H * 0.082 2.080 - - - - - -R - - 0.020 0.510 0.010 0.250 0.0010 0.030

*Dimension H is a calculated value.



Type K Core – 35mm. A plasticcore with a 3-inch (76mm)outside diameter. Contains a 1-inch (24.5mm) diameter centerhole with keyway and a film slot.Used with 1000-foot (305m) andlonger lengths of negative, sound,intermediate, and print films.

Type T Core – 16mm. A plasticcore with a 2-inch (51mm)outside diameter. Contains a 1-inch (24.5mm) diameter centerhole with keyway and a film slot.Normally used with 16mm films400 feet (122m) in length.

Type U Core – 35mm. A plasticcore with a 2-inch (51mm)outside diameter. Contains a 1-inch (24.5mm) diameter centerhole with keyway and a film slot.

Customarily used with cameranegative, sound, intermediate,and positive films. Supplied in avariety of lengths.

Type Y Core – 35mm. A plasticcore with the same diamentionsas the Type K Core but made ofstronger material to hold 1000- to6000-foot (305-615mm) rolls ofcolor print film.

Type Z Core – 16mm. A plasticcore with a 3-inch (76mm) outsidediameter. Contains a 1-inch(24.5mm) diameter center holewith keyway and a film slot. Usedwith camera and print films in rollsizes longer than 400 feet (122m).

Figure 38Film roll lengths



Figure 40

Figure 40Beginning in 1990, Kodak rounded the corners on Bell & Howell perforations to add strength.

R-190 Spool – 16mm. A metalcamera spool with a 4.940-inch(125mm) flange diameter and a1 1/4-inch (32mm) core diameter.Square hole with single keyway, twooffset round drive holes, and oneelliptical hole in both flanges. Side 1and Side 2 markings. Will accept200 feet (61mm) of acetate basefilm.

R-90 Spool – 16mm. A metalcamera spool with a 3.615-inch(92mm) flange diameter and a1 1/4-inch (32mm) core diameter.Square hole with single keyway inboth flanges. Center holeconfiguration is aligned on bothflanges. The standard sales lengthfor this spool is 100 feet (30.5mm) ofacetate base film.

S-83 Spool – 35mm. A metal cameraspool with a 6.657-inch (93mm) flangediameter and a 31/32-inch (25mm) corediameter. Square hole with singlekeyway in both flanges. Center holeconfiguration is aligned on both flanges.Intended for 100 feet (30.5mm) ofacetate base film. Used with cameranegative materials



During this time, 35 mmprofessional motion picture camerasand optical printers were designedwith registration pins that conformedto negative (BH) perforation. To thisday, newly designed professionalequipment incorporates registrationpins conforming to the negative (BH)

perforation. In 1989 Kodak introduceda stronger version of the Bell & Howell(negative) perforation. The radius ofeach corner was rounded by 0.005inches. This small difference is almostimperceptible visually, but addsstrength where the perforation is mostvulnerable to tearing during stressperiods while being transportedthrough equipment. This is especiallytrue during highspeed photography.This corner radius change does notnecessitate any equipment changeworldwide, and yet improves product

performance.Another Bell & Howell perforationperformance improvement wasintroduced by Kodak in 1989. This is a

reduction in perforation-dimensiontolerance from the ANSIspecifications. This tighter toleranceformat is used where film registrationis very critical, such as in travellingmatte photography or separations.The tighter tolerance perforations arestandard on all Kodak 16 mm camera

films and some 35 mm films.The high shrinkage of older films

on nitrate base made the negativeperforation a problem on projectionfilms due to excessive wear and noiseduring projection as the sprocket teethticked the hold-back side of theperforations as they left the sprocket.The sharp corners also were weakpoints and projection life of the filmwas shortened. To correct this, a newperforation was designed withincreased height and rounded cornersto provide added strength. This

perforation, commonly known as theKS or "positive" perforation, has sincebecome the world standard for 35 mmprojection print films.

During the period when theproduction of color prints involved themultiple printing of separationnegatives onto a common print film, athird design, known as theDubray-Howell perforation, wasintroduced. It had the same height asthe negative (BH) perforation to

maintain the necessary registrationbut had rounded corners to improveprojection life. This perforation is stillavailable for special applications oncertain films. Because shrinkage incurrent films is low, the shorterperforation height poses no projectionwear problems. In 1953, theintroduction of Cinemascopeproduced a fourth type of perforation.This wide-screen projection systemincorporated 35 mm film withperforations that were nearly squareand smaller than the positive (KS)

perforation. The design providedspace on the film to carry fourmagnetic sound stripes forstereophonic and surround sound.

Perforation Type and ANSI Number

Dimension1R-2994

(PH22.109)1R-3000

(PH22.110)2R-2994

(PH22.110)2R-3000

(PH22.110)Tolerances

Inches mm Inches mm Inches mm Inches mm Inches mm

A * 0.6280 15.950 0.6280 15.950 0.6280 15.950 0.6280 15.950 0.0010 0.030

B 0.2994 7.605 0.3000 7.620 0.2994 7.605 0.3000 7.620 0.0005 0.013E 0.0355 0.902 0.0355 0.902 0.0355 0.902 0.0355 0.902 0.0020 0.051F - - - - 0.4130 10.490 0.4130 10.490 0.0010 0.030G - - - - 0.0010 0.030 0.0010 0.030 - -

(max)L † 29.94 760.5 30.00 762.0 29.94 760.5 30.00 762.0 0.03 0.8

* This dimension also represents the unperforated width.† This dimension represents the length of any 100 consecutive perforation intervals.

Figure 42Examples of ANSI specifications

Perforated one edge Perforated two edges



Except for early experimentation,perforation dimensions on 16 mm and8 mm films have remained unchangedsince their introduction.

Each type of perforation isreferred to by a letter identifying itsshape, and by a number indicating theperforation pitch dimension.

Perforation pitch is the distance fromthe bottom edge of one perforation tothe bottom edge of the nextperforation. The letters BH indicatenegative perforations, which aregenerally used on 35 mm camerafilms, intermediate films, and on filmsused in special-effect processes. Theletters KS indicate positiveperforations, which are used on most

35 mm positive sound recording filmsand on print films.

The designation BH 1866, forexample, indicates a film havingnegative-type perforations with a pitchdimension of 0.1866 inch (4.740 mm).

Sixteen millimetre camera filmsmay be perforated along both edges

(double perforated) or along only oneedge (single perforated). All 35 mmcamera films are double perforated.

Some flexibility is possible inselecting double- or single-perforated16 mm film. You can usedouble-perforated film in camerashaving a single pull-down claw. Also,you can duplicate or print footageexposed on double-perforated film on

single-perforation stock if you aregoing to add a photographic soundtrack to the film.

Note: Do not use single-perforatedfilm in equipment designed for doubleperforated film.

The illustrations below (Figure 42)show examples of ANSIspecifications. You can obtainspecifications for all film productsfrom the American National Standardsinstitute. The list of Standards andRecommended Practices isreproduced in the ‘Appendix’ section.

Perforation Type and ANSI Number

DimensionBH-1866

(PH22.93)BH-1870

(PH22.93)KS-1866

(PH22.139)KS-1870

(PH22.139)Tolerances

Inches mm Inches mm Inches mm Inches mm Inches mm

A* 1.3770 34.975 1.3770 34.975 1.3770 34.975 1.3770 34.975 0.0010 0.025B 0.1866 4.740 0.1870 4.750 0.1866 4.740 0.1870 4.750 0.0005 0.013E 0.0790 2.010 0.0790 2.010 0.0790 2.010 0.0790 2.010 0.0020 0.050F 0.9990 25.370 09990 25.370 0.9990 25.370 0.9990 25.370 0.0020 0.050G 0.0010 0.030 0.0010 0.030 0.0010 0.030 0.0010 0.030 - -

(max)L † 18.66 474.00 18.70 474.98 18.66 474.00 18.70 474.98 0.015 0.38

* This dimension also represents the unperforated width.† This dimension represents the length of any 100 consecutive perforation intervals.

Figure 42Examples of ANSI specifications



Optimum Pitch for Printing.Continuous printers used for motionpicture film are designed so that theoriginal film and the print raw stockare in contact (emulsion-to-emulsion)with each other as they pass aroundthe printing sprocket, with the rawstock on the outside (Figure 43). Toprevent slippage between the twofilms during printing (which wouldproduce an unsharp or unsteadyimage on the screen), the original filmmust be slightly shorter in pitch thanthe print stock. In most continuousprinters, the diameter of the printingsprocket is such that the pitch of theoriginal must be 0.2 to 0.4 percent(theoretically, 0.3 percent) shorterthan that of the print stock. Withnitrate film and early safety film, thiscondition was achieved by naturalshrinkage of the original during

processing and early aging. However,the substantially lower shrinkage ofpresent safety films makes such anatural adjustment impossible;therefore, film used as printingoriginals is now manufactured with thepitch slightly shorter than the pitch ofthe print film For 35 mm film, the pitchdimensions are 0.1870 inch (4.750mm) on print film and 0. 1866 inch(4.740 mm) on original film; for 16mm film, they are 0.3000 inch (7.620mm) on print film, 0.2994 inch (7.605mm) on most camera film.

Projection Print Aspect RatiosThe aspect ratio is the relationshipbetween the width and height of animage. While the image dimensionsmay vary in size according toprojection requirements, the aspectratio should comply with thecinematographic intent. The industrystandard for theatrical motion picturesremained a constant 1.37:1 betweenthe introduction of sound and theintroduction of Cinemascope in 1953when "wide screen" presentationsarrived. For those exhibitors unwillingor unable to convert to the newsystem, alternative "wide screen"presentations were developed. Whilethe original stereophonic (four-trackmagnetic) Cinemascope presentationhad an aspect ratio of 2.55:1, the "flat"or nonanamorphic systems, designedto simulate "wide screen" images,

provided several aspect ratios from1.66:1 all the way up to and including2:1. During this uncertain period,release prints were often printed withwider frame lines to emphasize thatincreased ratios were intended. Duringprinting, the frame lines could bevaried by printing the lines in to coversome of the original film image. In the1950s, television's demands forfeature films increased. However,because the typical television displayprovides a fixed ratio of 1.33:1, manyof the films shown on television, afteradjustment to fill the video screenheight, lost a substantial part of theimage at the edges. Severalapproaches to rectifying thisincompatibility were tried with variouslevels of success until the industrycame to the current " consensus" that1.85:1 would be the "normal"theatrical projection ratio but that theprint would have an image of greaterheight so that it could fill a televisionscreen without creating borders.Today, the usual procedure whenfilming productions for theatricalrelease and eventual TV showing is to

"matte" the camera viewfinder toclearly indicate 1.85:1 and to keep allpertinent action within this area.

Nevertheless, the entire 1.37:1frame is exposed. Thecinematographer must make certainno scene rigging, mike booms, cables,or lights are included in the expanded

area. Subsequent release prints,therefore, contain a sufficient frame

height to provide normal telecinetransmission. In the theatre, theprojectionist must use a 1.85:1aperture plate and exercise some

judgment in adjusting the projectorframing. This can be doneconveniently during the showing of thetitles.

Figure 44Potential image losses when changing aspect ratios

1.85:1

TV 1.33:1

THEATRICAL 1.37:1

CAMERA 1.37:1

Figure 43A printing sprocket



Fi lm ident i f ica t ion

_______________________

Unprocessed FilmThe many characteristics of a specificroll of unprocessed film are describedmost completely on the film label.

The eleven-digit code on the labelin Figure 45 (5296-325-3201)identifies the film type (5296), theemulsion batch number (325), the rollnumber and the part of the roll (3201)from which this strip of EASTMANEXR Color Negative Film was cut.When an emulsion batch is puttogether, it is quite large-too large to

be coated onto only one roll of filmbase. Therefore, it is necessary tocoat more than one roll, and allsubsequent rolls are numbered insequential order. So, in this case, thefirst two digits identify the roll numberof this particular emulsion batch. Thelast two digits identify the roll part. If

one roll is coated onto a 6000-footmaster roll, each strip can be cut intomany individual parts. As an example,the 6000 feet can be cut into three2,000-foot rolls-part 1, 2, and 3. Theemulsion batch number and rollnumber also appear on the tapesealing the can.

The film identification code (EXH

718) gives the emulsion type (EXH)and film specification number (718), acode describing width, perforationtype and format, winding, and type ofcore, spool, or magazine.

The perforation type and pitch areidentified in two ways: BH-1866 (orBell & Howell perforation with a pitch

of 0.1866 inch), and N4 740 (ornegative perforation with a pitch of0.4740 centimetres).

The film strip reference numberidentifies the location of a particularstrip of film cut from the master roll.This number (1 through 38 for 35 mmand 1 through 83 for 16 mm) appearson a sticker affixed to most cansholding 400 or more feet of film.

UPPER PORTION OF LABELis peelable. Place it on the film

magazine as a reminder of the filmyou are using.

TUNGSTEN RATINGWith no filter, will give

indicated speed ratings.

DAYLIGHT RATINGWith as 85 rating Filter, willgive indicated speed rating.

METRICPERFORATION

PITCH

COLOR BARIDENTIFIES FILM

FILMWIDTH

PERFORATIONTYPE

KIND OFFILM EMULSION

NUMBERROLL

NUMBER

INCHPERFORATION

PITCH

CATALOGNUMBER

LENGTH OFROLL IN FEET

LENGTH OF ROLLIN METRES

EMULSION LETTEDESIGNATION AN

FINISHED FILMSPECIFICATIONS

EMULSIONPOSITION ANDWINDING TYPE(EMULSION IN)

KEYKODE FILM EDGEPRINTWITH BARCODING

EXPOSUREINDEX



Processed FilmThe film strip reference numberaffixed to the can of raw stock filmalso appears as a latent image on thefilm itself.

On all camera films prior to 1990and the usage of EASTMANKEYKODE Numbers, the combination

of manufacturer's code (an uppercaseletter for 35 mm or a trailer endmarking for some 16 mm), andlatent-image edgeprint was placed onthe film to help identify processed film.A summary of this information follows.

Year of Film Manufacture DateCode SymbolsThere may be many importantreasons for knowing the year an oldermotion picture film was manufactured.For instance, you may need to knowthe type of film base, especially if you

are sorting between nitrate and safetybase film. There is no readablenumeric date on Eastman motionpicture film products prior to 1990;however, most of our motion picturefilm products have a date codesymbol.

A date symbol, designating theyear of manufacture, is incorporatedinto the edgeprint legend of almost all8 mm, 16 mm, 35 mm, 65 mm, and70 mm films.

Three different sets of symbols,having either one, two, or threecharacters, were used prior to 1990,the year that KEYKODE Numbersstarted appearing on all color andsome black-and-white motion picturefilm products, except print films. Theonly four years with a single characterin the symbol were 1916, a circle;1917, a square; 1918, a triangle; and

1929, a plus sign. For the years 1928and 1948 there were three circles. Allother years until 1982 exhibited twocharacters which repeated everytwenty years. For example, the samesymbol appears for 1921, 1941, 1961,and 1981. Starting with 1982, a thirdcharacter was added that allows for

many more years before repetition.Beginning with KEYKODE Numbers(1990), the film date code isrepresented by two alpha designators.

Below are the date code, oryearly, symbols beginning with 1960and ending with 1991. These may beeither open or solid. With the codesprior to 1982 repeating every twentyyears, these represent all yearsbeginning with 1919. If the symbol onyour Eastman motion picture filmdoes not match those previouslydescribed or listed below, please

contact your regional Kodak office.Please be aware that color print filmdoes not have KEYKODE Numbers.The symbols as listed below willcontinue as a part of print filmyear-of-manufacture identification.

Date Code Symbols

1960 1976 1961 1977 1962 1978 1963 1979 1964 1980

1965 1981 1966 1982 1967 1983 1968 1984 1969 1985 1970 1986 1971 1987 1972 1988 1973 1989 1974 1990 1975 1991

Film Product EdgeprintIdentificationTo further help identify Eastmanmotion picture film products withoutKEYKODE Numbers, each 35 mmproduct has a letter as the firstcharacter of the key numbersequence. This corresponds to aparticular product code. For example,key number B19X 12345, with theletter B, is either product code 5247 or5248. Each 16 min product has athree-character designator, such asPXN, ECN, 291, etc. In a followingtable is a list of symbols for mostEastman motion picture film productsprior to KEYKODE Numbers. For allfilms with KEYKODE Numbers, theproduct code appears as a four-digitproduct number, along with theemulsion and roll number on eachstrip of Eastman motion picture film

(see KEYKODE Numbers charts).Please note that there may be morethan one product with the same letter.If there is a question about a particularproduct, please contact one of theEastman Kodak Company offices.

KEYKODE Numbersyear/alpha designators

DE 1989 TM 1994LE 1990 MN 1995EA 1991 NK 1996AS 1992 KD 1997

ST 1993 DF 1998



35 mm (latent image or ink)

Letter EdgeSymbol

Products Exhibitingthe Symbol

no letter 5247A 5243, 5251, 7243,

S0420B 5247,5248C 5222,5250,5297D 5234,5235,5243,

5366,7234E 5222, 5254, 5295 SAF 5247,5295G 5224, 5271, 5294H 5231, 5247, 5293J 5296K 5245M 5248 (1990)0 5249,7249

S 5272,7272

16 mm (latent image or ink)

FilmDesignator

(edge)Product Codes

PXN 7231DXN 72224XN 7224VND 7239VNF 7240EF 7241

EFB 7242ECN 7247CRI 7249VNX 7250VXD 7251ECO 7252ECF 7255EMS 7256ER 7257

ERT 7258PXR 72764XR 7277

TXR 7278291 7291292 7292ECH 7293294 7294296 7296

Nitrate and Acetate BaseAll Eastman motion picture film since 1952 has been manufactured oncellulose ester (acetate) safety base. Prior to 1948, all 35 mm motion picturefilm was on cellulose-nitrate film base. In 1948, Kodak introduced acetatesafety base and began the systematic conversion from nitrate to acetatebase film, completing that conversion in approximately four years. Some 70mm black-and-white negative and color print films were also on cellulose-nitrate film base. Nitrate was and is relatively unstable while acetate is verystable; therefore, you should never store them together. Acetate base can bechemically attacked by the gases given off by decomposing, unstable nitratebase film. This would shorten the life of any safety film that is stored forextended life expectancy No Eastman 16 mm (or narrower) film was evermanufactured with nitrate base.



Get t ing the Most f rom Your F ilms

______________________________________________________

Knowing what a fi lm is designed andmanufactured to do is a large part ofthe process of film selection-but notall. Actual shooting, projection, andstorage conditions also influence filmperformance and selection. Thissection won't tell you everything aboutmaking motion pictures. Instead, wewill concentrate on five areas that canaffect your selection of film. First,there is nothing like an on-site test todetermine exactly how your film willperform. We discuss six situationsunder which a film test is a good idea.Suppose your test shows that the filmstock being considered producesunattractive results under the lightingyou plan to use to illuminate a fewscenes. Wil l a filter correct thesituation? Can you change thelighting? Will another film stock workbetter for those scenes? Our secondtopic, filtration, covers a range of usesfor filters to fill the needs of yourunique circumstances. Will you havesound? Our third section covers the

process by which the sound yourecorded is combined with yourimages in the final print. Will the filmyou have carefully created hold upduring projection and storage? Thelast two sections explain how to carefor finished films.

Test Exposures

_______________________

Every production presents a uniqueset of conditions and demands. A fullunderstanding of the job at hand andcareful evaluation of the information inthe datasheets should give thefilmmaker a good idea of how achosen film stock will respond to mostfilming situations. Testing reduces anyremaining uncertainties andestablishes the reaction of a particularfilm to a unique situation. Thevariables that make test exposuresworthwhile and the technique ofinterpreting such exposures are thesubjects of this section.

Testing is one aspect ofprofessional work which is too oftenoverlooked in practice. When seekingthe best possible results, filmmakersshould run tests to provide referencepoints during production and toconfirm choices based on previousexperience and datasheet information.

Below are the principal causes ofreal or apparent changes in speed inall films, and contrast and colorbalance in color films. Failure tounderstand these causes can lead to

misunderstanding or misinterpretationof photographic results:

• Slight variations (but withinmanufacturing limits) amongdifferent emulsion batches.

• Scene illumination of incorrect ormixed color quality

• Differences in film sensitivity withchanges in il lumination level andexposure time.

• Variations in equipment (lenses,shutters, exposure meters, etc.).

• Adverse storage conditions before

processing.• Nonstandard processing

conditions.

• Nonstandard viewing conditions.

• Differences in personal judgment.

All except the first are beyond thescope of manufacturing control andcannot be predicted accurately from

the datasheets. Furthermore, thevariations encountered in practical useare apt to be a great deal larger thanthose permitted by manufacturingtolerances. That is why you shouldmake a test exposure whenever speedand color-balance requirements areimportant. Test exposures arenecessary for reversal cameramaterials that will be projected directlyafter processing-more so than fornegative or printed reversalmaterials-because you do not havethe opportunity to make density andcolor-balance adjustments prior toprojection.

Most professionals realize theperishable nature of sensitizedmaterials and are careful to avoidsubjecting films (especially color) toextreme heat and humidity, eitherbefore or after exposure. The otherfactors listed are equally important,however. Never overlook them whenchoosing a film or attempting toexplain an unexpected result.

Two or more causes of variationmay influence results at the sametime. Often the effects are additive,

and minor single variations will , whencombined, produce noticeable resultsunless you make adjustments beforefilming. Only a test exposure underthe practical conditions of use will giveyou this information.



Emulsion CoatingA speed variation of 1/3 stop, andsometimes more, usually passesunnoticed when you projectblack-and-white film. In color film,where the performance of eachemulsion layer is evaluated in terms ofthe other two, a much smallervariation in the relative speed of any

one layer is evident to the user.Coating thickness is a

manufacturing variable that providesan excellent illustration of thetechnical accuracy maintained inmaking color films. Tests have shownthat the thickness of each emulsionlayer must be controlled within 4 or 5percent; any larger variation would, byitself, use up the entire color-balancetolerance available.

Since a typical color emulsion isonly 3 ten thousandths of an inchthick, only 15 millionths of an inch

variation is allowable. And this kind ofaccuracy is maintained in makingsuccessive coatings on a thin, flexiblebase in the dark!

At Kodak, the standardization ofmanufacturing operations issupplemented by an extensive testingand quality-control program. Only filmproduced within narrow tolerances ofthe production aim point is shippedfrom the manufacturing plant.

The actual sensitometrictolerances tested include speed, fog,contrast , color-contrast match, andmaximum density. Production tests

are made at normal room temperaturewith illuminants equivalent in colorquality to tungsten (3200 K or 3400 K)lamps for tungsten films and toaverage sunlight plus skylight (5500K) for daylight films. They are exposedat times considered representative ofthe major applications for the films. Inall cases, films are to be processed inaccordance with processspecifications. Physical characteristicssuch as curl, perforation pitch, weave,tensile strength, freedom fromscratches, etc., are also carefully

controlled.The careful cinematographermakes practical picture tests on newfilm batches with the exposure andfiltration to be used for the rest of theproduction. These tests helpdetermine if any additional filtrationand exposure adjustments areneeded.

On-Location LightingFilmmakers are well aware that colorfilms are balanced in manufacture forexposure to light of a certain colorquality. Color negative film offersconsiderable latitude because you canmake some adjustments for colorbalance during printing. Even reversalmaterials that will be printed offer

some latitude because of the printingstep. However, when you're not goingto print a reversal material, you mustcompensate if the light source differsin color quality from that for which thefilm is balanced. Even the "correct"light may be changed appreciably incolor quality as it passes from sourceto subject to film. Discolored or dirtyreflectors and camera lenses with acolor tint can both change colorquality. Furthermore, the color qualityof tungsten and fluorescent lamps canchange with age and voltage

fluctuations. Lighting from mixedsources will also change colorrenderings.

Specific End-Use AppearanceDifferent laboratories can producevariations in image quality andeffective film speed, and from time totime, variations can be noted at asingle laboratory

The conditions under which film isviewed also have a marked effect onthe apparent color quality of thepicture. The location of the projector,the viewer, and the screen can affect

the image quality dramatically.For critical applications you

should test film by projecting andevaluating it under the specificconditions in which you will use it.These tests will serve as a base in allfuture discussions with the laboratory.

Figure 46Cross section of processed negative film magnified 1000 times. Great technical skill is required to obtain the uniform high quality for which Kodak color films are known. The extremely thin layers, shown above, are precisely coated at high speed on the transparent film base (the broad gray area). Without magnification,the yellow layer, for example, is only 1/10 the thickness of a human hair.



Determine the "Look" of the

Finished JobBecause the viewers' reactions to aprojected image involve theirpsychological responses, a projectedimage can never be "perfect" in anysimple sense.

Like all photographic and

electronic imaging systems, Kodakcolor films exhibit small colordifferences between the image and thesubject itself when they are criticallycompared. Usually these differencesare insignificant, butcinematographers have to judgewhether the "look" of the film isconsistent with their intentions andwith the nature of the subject.

Since the manufacturer'sevaluation of color balance isdetermined from picture tests judgedby a number of observers, it is

obvious that an individualcinematographer, producer, orlaboratory may prefer a color balancedifferent from one judged desirable bythe manufacturer.

Because the manufacturer cannever judge color balanceappropriately for all tastes and allextremes of working conditions, runtests as closely as possible to theconditions of final use before filmingcritical work. If possible, run the testson the actual subject. Make the test onthe same type of film that you will usefor the final exposure, and store itunder similar conditions before andafter exposure. The exposure time,light source, and processingconditions should also be identical tothose planned for the final work, aswell as the camera, lens, and filters.

Specific Color ReproductionWith only three dyes, color films areable to produce a pleasing renderingof most colors. Occasionally, though,some colors present specialdifficulties in accurate reproduction,even though the film has been

manufactured, stored, exposed, andprocessed correctly. Fortunately, theconditions that produce these effectsare not common.

Since a large majority of allphotographs include people, the

reproduction of flesh tones is aprimary consideration in the design ofa color film. Also important is thereproduction of neutrals (whites,grays, and blacks) and thereproduction of common "memory"colors, such as blue sky, green grass,etc. Because films are designed to

reproduce these colors properly undera variety of conditions, some othercolors-such as shades of chartreuse,lime, pink, and orange- may notreproduce as well. (it is possible todesign a film that would improve thereproduction of these other colors, butonly at the expense of generally moreimportant flesh tones, sky, grass, etc.)More noticeable difficulties may occur

because color films do not haveexactly the same color sensitivities asthe human eye (Figure 47). For mostsubjects, the three light-sensitivelayers of the film do not have to "see"the subject exactly the same way thehuman eye does. In most cases, thedifferences are scarcely noticeable.

Sometimes, though, thedifferences between film sensitivityand visual sensitivity can produceunwelcome results. Since color filmsare sensitive to ultraviolet radiation, asubstance reflecting ultraviolet energywill reproduce bluer on film than itlooks to the eye. If it is blue to beginwith, this effect is of lit tle or noconsequence.

Figure 47Sensitivity of the eye and a typical color film

Normal Photographic Section of theElectromagnetic Spectrum



With other colors, however, theadditional blueness may neutralize theoriginal color or even make it appearblue. Neutral and near-neutral colorsare more apt to be affected by such ashift because their saturation is low.For example, a black tuxedo made of

synthetic material may appear blue.You can reduce this effect by using anultraviolet-absorbing filter, such as aKODAK WRATTEN Gelatin Filter No.2B, over the lens or over the lightsource when practical.

Closely related is the effect ofultraviolet fluorescence. Some fabricsabsorb ultraviolet radiation andre-emit it in the near-blue (shortestwavelength) portion of the visiblespectrum. Since the eye is not verysensitive in this part of the spectrum,the effect may not be readily apparent

until a photograph of the subject isviewed. An analogous visual effect iscreated by "black l ight" which makesspecial paints, some fabrics, etc.,"glow" in the dark.

Under an ultraviolet lamp, anyfabric containing brighteners willfluoresce. Many white fabrics containbrighteners introduced during

manufacture or laundering to givethem a whiter appearance.Examination of any suspect fabricsunder an ultraviolet source willgenerally indicate whether there willbe a fluorescence problem. In thiscase, a filter over the lens does not

help. A photographic test is the bestway to determine whether there maybe problems with reproduction in theultraviolet range.

Perhaps most troublesome arethe color reproduction problemssometimes called "anomalousreflectance." They arise from highreflectance at the far red and infraredend of the spectrum, where the eyehas little or no sensitivity. Theheavenly blue morning glory (Figure48) and ageratum flowers areexamples of colors occurring in nature

that reproduce poorly because colorfilms are much more sensitive to thefar red than the eye. Among artificialmaterials, some classes of organicdye are notable examples of highreflectance in the far red. These dyesare currently very popular with fabricmanufacturers because they arerelatively inexpensive and work well

with synthetic materials. While thehigh reflectance of these dyes in thefar red and infrared can be found in alcolors, its effect is most noticeable inmedium-to-dark green fabrics, wherethe photographic effect of the far redreflectance is to neutralize the green,

making it appear more brown.High reflectance at the far end of

the spectrum can be identified by useof a deep red filter such as a KODAKWRATTEN Gelatin Filter No. 70. If thematerials are examined under atungsten light, a green natural-fibermaterial will appear black, whereas asynthetic material with highreflectance in the far red will appearmuch lighter. Because the judgment isquantitative, compare a sample of agreen fabric known to reproduce wellwith the test fabric under the filter. If

the test fabric appears distinctly lightein a side-by-side comparison throughthe No. 70 filter, there may be areproduction problem. Even then, youshould confirm this by conducting aphotographic test under actualworking conditions, if possible.

Figure 48A heavenly blue morning glory as seen and photographed



Filters Useful with Camera Films

Polarizing Filters. Polarizing filters(also called polarizing screens) areused to subdue reflections fromsurfaces such as glass, water, andpolished wood, and for controlling thebrightness of the sky. By reducing

glare, polarizing filters also increasecolor saturation. Using a polarizingfilter to control the brightness of thesky has several advantages over colorfilters: (1) The color rendering offoreground objects is not altered. (2) Itis easy to determine the effectproduced by the polarizing filter bychecking the appearance of the imagein the viewfinder (for camerasequipped with reflex-type viewfinders),or by looking through the filter when itis held at the same angle as used onthe camera. (3) You can use other

filters with a polarizing filter to controlthe color rendering of objects in theforeground, while the polarizerindependently controls the brightnessof the sky. The amount of polarizedlight from a particular area of the skyvaries according to the position of thearea with respect to the sun, themaximum occurring at an angle of 90ºfrom the sun. Therefore, avoidpanning the camera with a polarizerbecause the sky will become darker orlighter as the camera positionchanges. The sky may appear lighterthan you would expect for thesereasons:

• A misty sky does not photographas dark as a clear blue sky. You can't darken an overcast sky by using a filter.

• The sky is frequently almostwhite at the horizon and shadesto a more intense blue at thezenith. Therefore, the effect ofthe filter at the horizon is small,but it becomes greater as youaim the camera upward.

• The sky near the sun is less blue

than the surrounding sky and,therefore, is less affected by afilter.

Fi l t ra t ion

_______________________

White light is the sum of all the colors ofthe rainbow; black is the absence of allthese colors. For practical purposes, wecan consider white light as composed ofequal amounts of three primary light

colors-red, green, and blue. Forexample, if green and red aresubtracted, we see blue. We see manymore colors in nature than these threebecause absorption and reflection of theprimaries are rarely complete.

Our perception of a color isinfluenced by the surrounding colors andbrightness level, the surface gloss of anobject, and any personal differences inour color vision. Black-and-white andcolor films also see colors differently dueto spectral sensitivity. Filtration usedwith black-and-white films can control

the shades of gray to obtain atechnically correct rendition or toexaggerate or suppress the tonaldifferences for visibility, emphasis, orother effects. Filtration with color fi lmscan change the color quality of the lightsource to produce proper color renditionor to create special effects.

Colors as Seenin White Light

Colors of LightAbsorbed

Red Blue and green

Blue Red and greenGreen Red and Blue

Yellow Blue(red-green)Magenta Green

(red-blue)Cyan Red

(blue-green)

Black Red, green,and blue

White NoneGray Equal portions

of red, green,and blue

Filters always subtract some of the

light reflected from a scene before itreaches the film plane in the camera. Ared filter, then, is not "red" but rather afilter that absorbs blue and green.Similarly, a yellow filter is one thatabsorbs blue light. A yellow sunflowerabsorbs blue light and reflects the otherparts of white light-red and green, whichwe see as yellow or lack of blue.

Figure 49

Figure 50

Filter absorbs green and blue, looks red

Object absorbs green and blue, looks red

TRANSMISSION

REFLECTION



Figure 51This illustration shows the area or band across the sky that will darken with a polarizing screen when you take pictures at right angles to the sun with the handle of the polarizing screen –if it has one– pointing at the sun.

Figure 52When the color of the sky is a lighter blue and not as saturated in color as it sometimes is, a polarizing screen will not darken the sky as much as when it’s a deeper blue to begin with. When the sky is white, as on an overcast day, a polarizing screen will have no effect. Annisquam Light.Cape Ann,Massachusetts.

Figure 51A polarizer can eliminate reflections on non-metallic surfaces.

POLARIZEDSUNLIGHT AFTER ITIS SCATTERED BYPARTICLES IN THE

ATMOSPHERE

UNPOLARIZEDSUNLIGHT BEFORE

IT STRIKESPARTICLES IN THE

ATMOSPHERE



When you begin making exposureswith a polarizing filter, remember thatthis filter has a minimum filter factorof 2.5 (increase exposure by 1 1/3stops). This factor applies regardless of how the polarizing screen is rotated.In addition to this exposure increase,you must make any exposure

increases required by the nature of thelighting. For example, for the dark-skyeffect, you must sidelight or toplightthe scene, so you will have to addapproximately 1/2-stop exposure tothe 1 1/3-stop increase required by thepolarizing filter factor.

Allow an additional 1/2-stopexposure for subjects on whichreflections are eliminated by thepolarizing filter because reflectionsoften make objects look brighter thanthey really are.

Neutral Density Filters. Neutraldensity filters, such as the KODAKWRATTEN Neutral Density Filter No.96, are used to reduce the intensity oflight reaching the film without affectingthe tonal rendition of colors in thescene. Neutral density filters make itpossible to film in bright sunlight usinghigh-speed films without having to usevery small lens openings. In colormotion picture photography, you canuse a combination of fil ters, such asKODAK WRATTEN Gelatin Filters No.85BN3 and 85BN6, to convert thecolor temperature from 5500 K(daylight) to 3200 K; at the same time,these filters provide neutral densitiesof 0.3 and 0.6. Since a 0.3ND filtercauses a 1-stop reduction inexposure, these filters require,respectively, one and two stops ofadditional exposure.

Correction Filters for

Black-and-White FilmsMost panchromatic black-and-whiteemulsions have a high sensitivity toboth ultraviolet and blue radiation.Because this sensitivity is dissimilar to

the spectral sensitivity of the eye, blueor violet subjects are often

"overexposed" and rendered too lighton the final print. In location work, forexample, correction filters are oftenused to overcome an apparent lack ofcontrast between blue sky and whiteclouds. At the red end of thespectrum, certain higher speedpanchromatic films possess a marked

red sensitivity that, unlesscompensated for, tends to distort therendering of red subject matter.Deliberate over-correction issometimes done to achieve specialeffects.

Foliage looks slightly darker thanwe expect when it is photographed onblack-and-white film without a filter.By using a yellow or yellow-green filteto absorb some of the unwanted blueand red light, you can record foliage inits proper gray tone. This becomesapparent when the negative is

correctly printed (see Figures 54 and55).

Exposed through a No. 15 deep-yellow filter Figure 51

Exposed through a No. 11 yellow-green filter

This photo shows the color and tome rendition of the original scene.



KODAK WRATTEN Neutra l Densi ty F i l ter No. 96

Neutral

Density

Percent

Transmittance Filter Factor

Increase in Exposure

(Stops)

0.1 80 1 1/4 1/3

0.2 63 1 1/2 2/30.3 50 2 10.4 40 2 1/2 1 1/3

0.5 32 3 1 2/30.6 25 4 20.7 20 5 2 1/30.8 16 6 2 2/30.9 13 8 31.0 10 10 3 1/32.0 1 100 6 2/33.0 0.1 1,000 10

4.0 0.01 10,000 13 1/3

Filters for Color FilmsIn exposing color films and in makingprints and intermediates, you may need touse correction filters to obtain good colorrendition. Daylight and artificial light differfrom one another in spectral quality andare individually subject to considerablevariation. When the actual light is differentfrom that specified for a particular film,

correction filters can adjust the colorquality of the illumination to that for whichthe film is balanced.

You can refer to filter tables in the filmdatasheet to help identify the right filtersfor obtaining optimum color balance; theywill be especially useful as a starting pointfrom which to run tests. However, theycannot cover all variables such as high orlow voltage, aging of lamps, or colorcontribution of diffusers. Colortemperature meters measuring the threeprimary colors provide an accuratemethod of determining the spectral energy

distribution of light sources as they relateto the sensitivities of the three layers incolor films. Meters such as the Spectratricolor meter and the Minolta 3-colormeter are an excellent means of findingthe actual spectral distribution.

Some meters give a choice ofcorrecting the balance with either colorbalancing and conversion filters or colorcompensating filters. In most instances,making the main correction with colorcompensating filters requires many filters,while correcting with light balancing andconversion filters requires two at the most.Because the addition of many filters over a

camera lens increases flare anddecreases sharpness, make colortemperature (red-blue) corrections withlight balancing and conversion filters;make green-magenta adjustments withcolor compensating filters.

Figure 55(a) Here’s how the subset originally looked under tungsten lighting

(b) Without f iltration, the abundance of yellow-red in tungsten lighting slightly alters the original brightness relationship.

(c) A No. 11 yellow-green filter restores the normal brightness relationships and emphasizes the lips



Selecting Filters for Correcting

Color Temperature. The color qualityof some illuminants can be expressedin terms of color temperature-ameasure of the light irradiated by an"ideal radiator," that is, a blackbodyheated to incandescence. When the

visual color of the illuminant is thesame, or nearly the same, as that ofthe ideal radiator at a giventemperature, the illuminant color isdescribed in terms of thecorresponding temperature of theideal radiator, which is expressed indegrees Kelvin (K).

Note: Do not confuse sunlight withdaylight. Sunlight is only the light ofthe sun. Daylight is a combination ofsunlight plus skylight. The values

given are approximate because manyfactors affect color temperature.Outdoors, the sun angle and theconditions of sky, clouds, haze, ordust particles will raise or lower thecolor temperature. Indoors, tungstenbulbs are affected by age (and

blackening), voltage, and the types ofreflectors and diffusers-all of whichcan influence the actual colortemperature of the light. Usually, achange of 1 volt equals 10 K. But thisis true only within a limited voltagerange and does not always apply to"booster voltage" operation sincecertain bulbs will not exceed a certaincolor temperature regardless of theincrease in voltage.

Light Source Conversion with

Filters. To evaluate filter requirementsfor the conversion of light sources, itis helpful to use the reciprocal of thecolor temperature. The concept ofexpressing color temperature inreciprocal form is useful because a

given sum of reciprocal unitscorresponds approximately to thesame color difference for most visiblyemitting sources (in the range from1000 K to 10,000 K). The reciprocalcolor temperature is commonlymultiplied by 1,000,000 to givenumbers of convenient size. Thevalues obtained by this operation

1,000,000 x 1/TK

have, in the past, been calledmicroreciprocal degrees or "mireds."

The term reciprocal megakelvins (MK-

1) has been used to replace mireds.

The reciprocal color temperatureexpressed in reciprocal megakelvinshas the same numerical value as withmireds, but the value is arrived at byfirst expressing the color temperaturein megakelvins (1 MK = 1,000,000 K)and taking the reciprocal. Forexample, the reciprocal colortemperature for a 6000 K source is

1/0.006 MK = 167 MK-1

Filters such as KODAK LightBalancing Filters and KODAKWRATTEN Photometric Filters modifythe effective color temperature, hencethe reciprocal color temperature, ofany light source by a definite amount.Each filter can be given a visual shiftvalue that is defined by the expression

1/T2 – 1/T1

where T1 is the color temperature ofthe original source and T2 is the colortemperature of the light through thefilter (both values expressed in

megakelvins). Remember that theconcept of color temperature relatesto the response of the visual system.To match the actual response of filmsas opposed to the response of theeye,

Color Temperat ure for Var ious L ight Sources

Source Degrees Kelvin

Artificial Light

Match Flame 1,700Candle Flame 1,85040-Watt Incandescent Tungsten Lamp 2,65075-Watt Incandescent Tungsten Lamp 2,820100-Watt Incandescent Tungsten Lamp 2,900200-Watt Incandescent Tungsten Lamp 2,9801000-Watt Incandescent Tungsten Lamp 2,9903200 K Tungsten Lamp 3,200

Molarc "Brute" with Yellow Flame Carbons and YF-101

Filter (approx.)

3,350

"C.P" (Color Photography) Studio Tungsten Lamp 3,350Photoflood and Reflector Flood Lamp 3,400Daylight Blue Photoflood Lamp 4,800White Flame Carbon Arc Lamp 5,000High-Intensity Sun Arc Lamp 5,500Xenon Arc Lamp 6,420

Daylight

Sunlight: Sunrise or Sunset 2,000Sunlight: One Hour After Sunrise 3,500Sunlight: Early Morning 4,300Sunlight: Late Afternoon 4,300

Average Summer Sunlight at Noon (Washington, DC) 5,400Direct Midsummer Sunlight 5,800Overcast Sky 6,000

Average Summer Sunlight (plus blue skylight) 6,500Light Summer Shade 7,100Average Summer Shade 8,000Summer Skylight will vary from 9,500 to 30,000



some filters are designed empirically tofit existing photographic requirements.These filters may or may not provide avisual shift that relates to the measuredphotographic effect. The tables on page61 give filters that provide the desiredphotographic result when used for theconversion indicated. The shift valuegiven is a nominal value defined by the

equation

1/T2 – 1/T1

and is not a measure of the visual shiftthat might actually be computed for thefilter.

The light source conversionnomograph shown in Figure 56 isdesigned to simplify the problem ofselecting the proper conversion filter.The original light source, T1 is listed inthe left column and covers the practicalrange of color temperatures from 2000

to 10,000 K. The right-hand column liststhe color temperature of the light throughthe filter-that is, the converted source, T2

The center column shows the scale ofreciprocal megakelvin (MK

-1) shift

values. To find the shift value and,consequently, the filter required for aparticular conversion, it is onlynecessary to place a straightedge on thepoints corresponding to the colortemperature of the available source, T2

and the desired color temperature of thefiltered source, T1 respectively Thestraightedge crosses the center columnand indicates the reciprocal megakelvin

shift value of the required flier. The zeropoint on this column indicates that nofilter is required, values above zero point(+) require yellowish filters, and thosebelow the zero point require bluishfilters.

Filters can also be combined, thedesired combination being calculated byadding the (MK

-1) shift values of the

filters, with due regard to the sign. Ifmore than one filter is used, rememberthat there may be considerable loss ofillumination and flare due to reflection ofthe multiple surfaces.

Figure 56Nomograph for light source conversion



Reciprocal Color Temperature (MK -1) for Color Temperatures f rom 2000 K to 6900 K *

K 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

2000 500 476 455 435 417 400 385 370 357 3453000 333 323 312 303 294 286 278 270 263 256

4000 250 244 238 233 227 222 217 213 208 204

5000 200 196 192 189 185 182 179 175 172 1696000 167 164 161 159 156 154 152 149 147 145

*Values in reciprocal megakelvins (MK-1

) are equal numerically to values in "mireds.”

Light-Balancing Filters: Color motionpicture films are balanced inmanufacture for use with eithertungsten light sources (3200 K or3400 K) or with illumination of daylightquality (5500 K). KODAK LightBalancing Filters are used over thecamera lens to enable the

photographer to make adjustments tothe light reaching the film. If therequired color-balance adjustment issmall, a single bluish filter of the No.82 series, or a single yellowish filter ofthe No. 81 series, will be adequate.KODAK Light Balancing Filter No. 82is intended, in effect, to raise colortemperature by 100 K, the 82A by 200K, the 82B by 300 K, and the 82C by400 K. Those of the No. 81 series (81,81A, 81B, 81C, 81D) are intended toreduce color temperature by 100 Ksteps. For greater color correction,

you can combine two filters in thesame series.

Conversion Filters: If you need evengreater corrections in color, you cancombine light balancing filters andconversion fil ters. Conversion filtersare used over the camera lens tomake significant changes in the colortemperature of illumination (e.g.,daylight to artificial light).

Limits to Color Temperature

Measurement. Color temperaturerefers only to the visual appearance of

a light source and does notnecessarily describe its photographiceffect. Although some light sourcesemit strongly in the ultraviolet regionof the spectrum, the color temperatureof such a source does not measurethis portion of the emission because

the eye is not sensitive to radiationbelow 400 nm. Since a film is usuallysensitive to ultraviolet radiation, ascene can record too blue unless youfilter out the ultraviolet.

Also, color temperature does nottake into account the spectraldistribution of a l ight source. Unless

the light source has a similar spectraldistribution to that of a blackbodyradiator (e.g., various types oftungsten -filament lamps), its effectivecolor temperature alone may not bereliable as a means of selecting asuitable filter for adapting the sourcefor color photography. Fluorescentlamps, for example, do not have thecontinuous, smooth spectral-distribution curve that is characteristicof a tungsten- filament source.

Although you may describe twodifferent light sources as having the

same color temperature, thephotographic results obtained witheach may be quite different.

Ultraviolet-Absorbing and Haze-

Cutting Filters. Photographs ofdistant landscapes, mountain views,snow scenes, scenes over water, andsometimes aerial photographs in openshade made on color films balancedfor daylight are frequently renderedwith a bluish cast. This is caused bythe scattering of ultraviolet radiation towhich the film is more sensitive thanthe human eye. KODAK WRATTEN

Filter No. 1A (skylight filter) absorbsultraviolet light. By placing this fil terover the lens, you can reduce thebluish cast and obtain a slight degreeof haze penetration.Color Compensating Filters for

Color Correction. A color

compensation (CC) filter controls lightby attenuating principally one or twoof the red, blue, or green parts of thespectrum. They can be used singly orin combination to introduce almostany desired color correction. You canuse CC filters to make changes in theoverall color balance of pictures made

with color films, or to compensate fordeficiencies in the spectral quality ofthe light to which color films mustsometimes be exposed. Suchcorrections are often required, forexample, in making color prints or inphotography with unusual lightsources. If the color balance of a testis not satisfactory, you can estimatethe extent of filtering required tocorrect it by viewing the test printthrough color compensating filters.

KODAK Color CompensatingFilters have excellent optical quality

and are suitable for image-formingoptical systems-over the camera lens,for example. However, because theyare gelatin filters, they are verysusceptible to scratches andfingerprints, both of which can affectoptical quality to a serious degree.Color compensating filters areavailable in several density values foreach of the following colors: cyan,magenta, yellow, red, green, and blue

The density of each colorcompensating filter is indicated by thenumber in the filter designation, andthe color is indicated by the final letter

In a typical filter designation, CC20Yrepresents a "color compensating filtewith a density of 0.20 that is yellow."



KODAK Light Balanc ing and Conversion Fil ters for Color Fi lms

KODAK Light Balancing Filters

Filter Color FilterNumber

ExposureIncrease in

Stops*

To Obtain3200 Kfrom

To Obtain3400 Kfrom

Nominal ShiftValue (MK

-1)

82C + 82C 1 1/3 2490 K 2610 K -89

82C + 82B 1 1/3 2570 K 2700 K -7782C + 82A 1 2650 K 2780 K -65

Bluish 82C + 82 1 2720 K 2870 K -5582C 2/3 2800 K 2950 K -4582B 2/3 2900 K 3060 K -32

82A 1/3 3000 K 3180 K -2182 1/3 3100 K 3290 K -10

No Filter Necessary 3200 K 3400 K -81 1/3 3300 K 3510 K 9

81 A 1/3 3400 K 3630 K 18Yellowish 81B 1/3 3500 K 3740 K 27

81 C 1/3 3600 K 3850 K 3581 D 2/3 3700 K 3970 K 42

81EF 2/3 3850 K 4140 K 52

Conversion Filters

Filter Color FilterNumber

ExposureIncrease in

Stops*Conversion in

Degrees K

NominalShift Value

(MK-1

)*

80A 2 3200 to 5500 -131Blue 80B 1 2/3 3400 to 5500 -112

80C 1 3800 to 5500 - 8180D 1/3 4200 to 5500 - 5685D 1/3 5500 to 3800 8185 2/3 5500 to 3400 112

85N3 2/3 5500 to 3400 112Amber 85N6 2/3 5500 to 3400 112

85N9 3 2/3 5500 to 3400 112

85B 2/3 5500 to 3200 13185BN3 1 2/3 5500 to 3200 13185BN6 2 2/3 5500 to 3200 131

*These values are approximate. For critical work, they should be checked by practical test,especially if more than one filter is used.

The densities of color compensatingfilters are measured at the wavelength ofmaximum absorption (i.e., the density ofa yellow filter is given for blue light).That is why the term peak density isused in the table. The density values do not include the density of the gelatin on

which the filter dye is coated, nor do theinclude the density of the glass in which a filter may he mounted.

The standardized density spacing ofthese filter series (5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50in each color) helps predict thephotographic effects of filtercombinations. The red, green, and bluefilters each absorb two thirds of thevisible spectrum; the cyan, magenta,and yellow filters each absorb one thirdof the spectrum. In the red, green, andblue series, each filter contains the samedyes in approximately the same

amounts as the two correspondingyellow and magenta, yellow and cyan, ormagenta and cyan filters.

Combining Color Compensating Filters: Asimple way to determine filtercombinations is to think of all the filtersin terms of the subtractive colors:

Red (absorbs blue and green) =yellow (absorbs blue) +

magenta (absorbs green

Green (absorbs blue and red) =yellow (absorbs blue) +

cyan (absorbs red

Blue (absorbs green and red) =magenta (absorbs green) +

cyan (absorbs red



Use the following method ofcalculation:

1 . Convert the filters to theirequivalents in the subtractivecolors-cyan, magenta, andyellow-if they are not already ofthese colors. For example,

20R = 20M + 20Y.

2. Add like filters together. Forexample,

20M + 10M = 30M.

3. If the resulting filtercombination contains all threesubtractive colors, cancel out theneutral density by removing anequal amount of each. Forexample,

10C + 20M + 20Y10M + 10Y + 0.10 ND

(The neutral density can be eliminatedby adjusting the light source.)

4. If the filter combination containstwo different filters of equal density,substitute the equivalent single red,green, or blue filter. For example,

10M + 10C = 10B

Exposure Allowance for Filters: You

must make an exposure allowance forany change in illumination caused bythe filters used. The exposureincreases for KODAK ColorCompensating Fil ters provide a roughguide to the exposure adjustmentsrequired for a single filter. Determinethe exposure increase for two or morefilters of different colors by practicaltests using initially the sum of thesuggested increases for the individualfilters.

Filters for Color Printing

Motion picture printers used forprinting color films are generallyequipped with high-wattage lamps,making it necessary to insert a heat-absorbing glass to protect the mirrorsand filters in the printer optical systemfrom damage. Use a dichroic heat-absorbing glass to protect the mirrorsand filters in the printer optical systemfrom damage. Use a dichroic heat-reflecting glass or a heat-absorbing

filter for this purpose. The heat-absorbing filter formally known asnumber 2043, is now available fromKodak as HOYA HA 50.* Anultraviolet-absorbing filter may also berequired, as specified on thedatasheets.

KODAK Color Printing Filters aremade on an acetate film base and areused singly or in combination for color

correction of light sources insubtractive color printing. Colorprinting (CP) filters are similar to colorcompensating (CC) filters in that theycontrol principally the red, green, orblue parts of the visible spectrum;unlike CC filters, CP filters should notbe used in the image-forming beam ifoptimum quality is desired. They arenot as optically distortion free.

See KODAK Publication No. B-3,Handbook of KODAK Photographic Filters , for more specific technicalinformation concerning filters.

Motion Picture Sound

Motion picture sound is more than justtransmitting sound from a filmmedium through equipment put in anauditorium as a picture is beingviewed. The sound and the systemincorporate the surroundingenvironment; therefore, it is importantto look at the entire design, film andtheatre. Shortly we will describe typesof motion picture sound, but first thesound environment. Theatres shouldnot be long echo halls, but shouldhave a relatively low backgroundnoise, and a relatively lowreverberation time. A soundenvironment is supposed to recreate

______________ *Available from Eastman KodakCompany, international order Services,Rochester, NY 14650 as follows:2-inch square, CAT No. 132 4755;3-inch square, CAT No. 132 4797.

KODAK Color Compensat ing F i l ters

PeakDensity

Yellow(Absorbs

Blue)

ExposureIncrease in

Stops*

Magenta(AbsorbsGreen)

ExposureIncrease in

Stops*

Cyan(Absorbs

Red)

ExposurIncreasin Stops

0.025 CC025Y - CC025M - CC025C -0.05 CC05Y† - CC05M† 1/3 CC05C† 1/30.10 CC10Y† 1/3 CC10M† 1/3 CC10C† 1/30.20 CC20Y† 1/3 CC20M† 1/3 CC20C† 1/30.30 CC30Y 1/3 CC30M 2/3 CC30C 2/3

0.40 CC40Y† 1/3 CC40M† 2/3 CC40C† 2/30.50 CC50Y 2/3 CC50M 2/3 CC50C 1

PeakDensity

Red(Absorbs

Blue andGreen)

Exposure

Increase inStops*

Green(Absorbs

Blue andRed)

Exposure

Increase inStops*

Blue(Absorbs

Red andGreen)

Exposur

Increasin Stops

0.025 CC025R - - -

0.05 CC05R† 1/3 CC05G 1/3 CC05B 1/30.10 CC10R† 1/3 CC10G 1/3 CC10B 1/30.20 CC20R† 1/3 CC20G 1/3 CC20B 2/30.30 CC30R 2/3 CC30G 2/3 CC30B 2/30.40 CC40R† 2/3 CC40G 2/3 CC40B 10.50 CC50R 1 CC50G 1 CC50B 1 1/3

*These values are approximate. For critical work, they should be checked by practical tests, especiallymore than one filter is used.† Similar KODAK Color Printing Filters (Acetate) are available.

KODAK Color Pr int in g F i l ters

Cyan Magenta Red Yello

CP05C CP05M CP05R CP05CP10C CP10M CP10R CP10CP20C CP20M CP20R CP20CP40C CP40M CP40R CP40



sound, not create sound. A theatreenvironment should be neutral with a"small room" intimacy. The speakersshould be loud enough to fill the room,and should meet industry standards.The power supply is very important,and should be relatively large so thatthe sound does not get "clipped"(clipping occurs when the power amp

does not have the ability to reproducethe signal, which becomes distorted,and in many instances sends a DCpulse down the speaker wires,damaging the system). The soundsystem is a complete system thattakes into consideration the film,equipment, and the environment.

Theatr ic al Sound

_______________________

Sound is recorded on a motion picture

print in one of two ways, eithermagnetically on a metallic oxide stripecoated on the film or photographically by an optically modulated lightsystem.

A magnetic sound track consistsof a stripe of metallic oxide coatedalong the edge of a motion picturefilm. Sound is recorded on this stripeby running it past a magneticrecording head that selectivelymagnetizes the metallic particles inthe coating. Since coatingformulations have been developedthat are not affected by the processing

chemicals, they can be applied to thefilm before (prestripe) or after(poststripe) processing. Seventymillimetre and some 35 mm printsmay have multiple stripes forstereophonic sound and special soundeffects. Eastman Kodak Companydoes not pre- or poststripe any motionpicture film.

A photographic sound track is arecord of sound (voice, music, etc.)printed near the edge of a motionpicture film. Photographic soundtracks are usually printed on the film

at the same time as the photographicimage.Photographic sound prints can be

made from original films withmagnetic sound stripes or fromoriginal films and separate magnetictracks.

A photographic sound track willlast the life of the film and cannot beeasily damaged through cleaning orother maintenance of the film. Thereis also no danger of accidentallyerasing the track. However, thereproduction fidelity of photographicsound tracks can be degraded by dustparticles and scratches. Also, changes

cannot be made in a photographicsound track after it has been printedon the film.

Magnetic tracks, on the otherhand, are less susceptible to dust anddirt distortion and are degraded verylittle by scratches. The magnetic stripeoffers other advantages. Theadditional height of the magneticstripe raises the emulsion (image) offthe base side of the next convolutionof film on a reel, protecting the picturearea from frictional damage,emulsion-to-base sticking, etc.

Magnetic tracks may also have higherfidelity sound (greater frequencyresponse and better signal-to-noiseratio).

Photographic TracksA photographic sound-track negativeconsists of an exposed area whosewidth and area vary with the volumeand frequency of sound recorded. Thetrack looks like one or more narrow,

jagged, black-and-white patternsalong the edge of the film. Foroptimum quality on a variable-area

sound track, the clear portions shouldbe as transparent as possible, and thedark portions should have a density atwavelengths from 800 to 1000 nmbetween 1.0 and 1.8. Consequently,emulsions and processes that producehigh contrast are generally used torecord variable-area sound-tracknegatives.

Basics of Photographic Sound. Thereproduction of sound requires thatthe sound waves be converted intoelectrical signals which are then

recorded. The record can then beplayed back, generating electricalsignals, which can be converted backto sound waves by the speakers. Inphotographic sound reproduction, theactual sound record on the print is asilver, dye, or dye-plus-silver imagealong the edge of the film.

Figure 57 shows the componentswhich convert the photographic soundtrack into electrical sound signals. Thelight energy from the lamp is formedinto a narrow beam by a lens andaperture. The beam is transmittedthrough the sound-track area of thefilm and then strikes a photocell.

Figure 57Schematic of optical sound reproduction

Figure 58Light attenuation by a sound track

Figure 59Response of a photocell



As the film moves, the soundtrack itself varies, or modulates, theamount of light that reaches thephotocell from the sound lamp.

The photocell then converts thelight energy into electrical energy. Theelectrical current produced by thephotocell is directly proportional to the

intensity of the light that reaches it.Photocells are made out of

various photosensitive materials, eachhaving a different spectral sensitivity.Virtually all 16 min and 35 minprojectors have S-1 or silicon-typephotocells, sensitive primarily in theinfrared area. Therefore, all 16 minand 35 mm sound tracks must be ableto modulate infrared radiation, whichsilver and, to a lesser extent, silversulfide are capable of doing. A soundtrack made of dye alone will notmodulate the infrared radiation as

effectively, reducing thesignal-to-noise ratio significantlyAs the film moves past the sound

aperture, the variation in the width ofthe track determines the amplitude ofthe signal generated, and the speed ofthe variation determines the frequencyof the signal.

There are several types ofvariable-area recordings. A unilateral track consists of modulations that aregenerated perpendicularly to thelongitudinal dividing edge between theopaque and clear portions of the track.A bilateral track uses modulations that

are symmetrical about the longitudinalcenter line of the track. A dual bilateral track has two bilateral images laidside by side; a multilateral trackemploys several bilateral images. Thedual bilateral track is the most widelyused because it minimizes distortionor signal loss resulting from anyuneven illumination of the optical sli tat the reproduction heads.

Photographic Sound-TrackReproduction. The effectiveness withwhich a photographic sound track isreproduced is a function of thespectral energy distribution of theilluminant, the spectral absorption ofthe soundtrack image, and thespectral response of thephotoreceptor. The illuminant isusually a tungsten lamp having acomparatively low color temperaturethat provides relatively more energy inthe red and infrared regions of thespectrum.

The use of dye tracks normallyrepresents some compromise ofsound quality unless special attentionis given to the response characteristicof the photoreceptor used in theprojector.

Due to the multilayer constructionof most color films, the color of the

light that exposes the sound-trackimage influences the trackcharacteristics and, therefore, isgenerally specified for the particularfilm concerned.

Silver and silver-plus-dyesound-track images are normallysuitable for use with any projector andare printed from a negative soundtrack. Silver sulfide sound-trackimages have somewhat lower quality.They are produced on reversal colorfilms only and are themselves reversaimages that are printed from a

positive sound-track original.

Optical Digital SoundA new superior-quality motion picturesound was introduced in 1990. Theconcept was invented by EastmanKodak Company and adapted for thetheatre by Optical RadiationCorporation, Azusa, CA.

Optical non-silver digital soundprovides six discrete channels ofcrystal clear audio, the quality of acompact disc, which surround theaudience with dialogue, effects andmusic. There are major advantages to

having sound stored in the digitaldomain. The information is much lesssusceptible to damage, and errorcorrection can be applied if damagedoes occur.

Project ion

_______________________

The success or failure of any finishedfilm lies in the viewing. Once a print ismade the final responsibility for thequality of the screen image rests with

the projection equipment and thepeople who handle the print. Thissection covers the inspection of anewly received print for flaws, themost common causes of film damageand abrasion, techniques forlubricating new prints, and techniquesfor cleaning film.

Figure 60A sound track as seen through the aperture

Dual Bilateral sound track

Figure 61

Bilateral sound track



Handling and Inspection of PrintsIt is important to establish thatpreviously used prints meet yourstandards. When you receive a print,inspect it, following therecommendations below.

• Maintain constant tension whilerewinding to provide a smooth,tight reel.

• Hold the film by the edges andwear clean lint-free gloves whileinspecting for damage or badsplices.

• Remake faulty splices correctly,whether cement or tape.

• Insist on a replacement reel ifmajor cuts and damage are notedduring your inspection.

• Provide some means to maintainadequate relative humidity (50

percent is ideal) to help eliminatestatic electricity build-up in filmtransport systems.

Common Causes of Abrasion andWearTo promote long life for your print, youshould be alert to the causes ofdamage that can occur duringprojection. The five most commoncauses are discussed below.

Excessive Tension. Too muchtension in the film projection transport

system usually results in objectionableprojection noise and in perforationdamage.

• Check for deposits on the traprails and check the gate tension.Adjust gate tension just tightenough to provide a steadyscreen image.

• Adjust tension on the projectorreel spindles, if possible, toprevent 11 singing" sprockets.

• Was the film properly lubricated?

• If all of these points check out

satisfactorily, check the 35 mmprints for proper lubrication of theedges. The first step is to vary thegate tension over the entirerange. If there is no improvement,there may be inadequate edgelubrication. Sixteen millimetrefilms should have an overalllubricant.

Misalignment of Film in the

Projector. This problem can causedamage at the corners of theperforations and lead to splitting andbreaking at the perforation edge.

• Check alignment of the film as itenters the feed sprocket or leavesthe holdback sprocket.

• Check alignment of film in theprojector gate.

• Examine the print for damagedperforations before using it.(Order a new reel or print, ifnecessary)

Creased Edges. Film edges canbecome creased if

• the projector is improperlythreaded so that the pad roller

creases the film over thesprocket, or

• the film is under high tension andbinds against some component orone of the roller flanges.

Run-offs and Roping. This type ofdamage, often reported as "sprocketmarked," is caused when the filmpartially leaves the sprocket and ridesover the sprocket teeth while undertension.

• Check for misaligned splices and

remake them.• Check for fold-over damaged film

sections; repair or replace thesection (or reel), if necessary.

• Check to see if any unperforatedtape covers perforations andmake necessary repairs.

• Check the projector for properthreading and adjustment.

Abrasions and Dirt. Primarily causedby careless handling, improperthreading, and poorly maintainedequipment, this kind of film damage is

readily seen by the viewer. If you cananswer "yes" to the followingquestions, you are well on your way tominimizing the problems of dirt andabrasion.

• Is the projection area clean?Especially the floor and rewindbench?

• Is the film riding correctlybetween roller flanges?

• Is the print free of oil and grimydirt?

• Are smoking and eating(notorious dirt sources) prohibitedin film handling areas?

• Is there enough tension duringrewinding so that the film doesnot slip on itself during fast startsand stops? (Much abrasiondamage is caused by filmslippage.)

• Do you use lint-free clean glovesand hold the film correctly duringrewinding and inspection?

• Do you avoid tightening a loosereel by pulling the film end until it

snugs up? (This is another causeof abrasion damage.)

LubricationFilm requires lubrication to performsatisfactorily in a projector. Anunlubricated film emulsion becomestacky when subjected to friction andheat, allowing small deposits ofemulsion to collect on the projectorgate rails. These deposits increase theforce required to move the film. Whenthe tension on the film surpasses theinherent strength of the perforation

walls, the image on the screenbecomes unsteady, usually followedby perforation breakdown. Thisproblem occurs in all projectors but isconsiderably more severe in 35 mmand 70 mm theatrical projectorsbecause of their higher tensions, filmspeeds, and heat from projectionlamps. Initial lubrication should beperformed by the laboratory Thislubrication should be supplementedduring the life of the print. Solventcleaning usually removes thelubricant, and if solvent is used, theprint should be relubricated.



35 mm and 70 mm Films. Most filmsdestined for projection require somelubrication to prevent problems duringprojection life. But the demandsimposed on 35 mm release printsduring projection require such largeamounts of lubrication that theprojected image quality would beimpaired if there were only a thin

transparent layer applied over theentire film surface, like 16 mm prints.Edge-waxing with a paraffin wax-solvent solution currently provides theonly simple, inexpensive, andadequate lubrication for 35 mm and70 mm release prints. We recommenda solution of 50 grams of paraffin waxper litre of methyl chloroform. Becautious, this chemical may be on ahazardous or restricted list. This isapplied to the film edges on theemulsion side with an appropriateapplicator. Edge-waxing is performed

by the laboratory on equipmentdesigned for that purpose.

16 mm and 8 mm Films. Sixteenmillimetre and super 8 films should belubricated after processing with filmcleaner. Fi lms destined for continuousprojection as endless loops orcartridges do require additionallubrication to provide slippagebetween film convolutions. Pleaserefer to Society of Motion Picture andTelevision Engineers RecommendedPractice RP 48-1990, Lubrication of 16 mm and 8 mm Motion Picture Prints, and SMPTE RP 151-1989,Lubrication of 35 mm Motion Picture Prints for Projection.

Non-Solvent CleaningContinuous Film-Cleaning System.An excellent method of keepingprojection prints clean is with ParticleTransfer Rollers (PTR).

These have proven highlyeffective as a cleaning material inroller form, attached to theatricalmovie projectors. The roller assembly(Figure 62) can be mounted on aprojector to continuously clean thefilm during the normal projectionperiod. This "dry" method of cleaningincorporates a specially developedmaterial that picks up dirt, dust, hair,and other unwanted particles from thefilm by contact. The PTR is madefrom an inert polyurethane-with no

adhesives, silicones or leachableplasticizers and is environmentallysound, unlike liquids. It has a 95%average cleaning efficiency and canitself be easily cleaned with water.This material is available from FPCInc., 6677 Santa Monica Blvd.,Hollywood CA 90038. Phone (213)465-0609.

Preservat ion of

Processed Fi lm

_______________________

The storage and handlingrequirements for processed motionpicture film differ from those of raw

stock because the film is no longerphotosensitive. You can storeprocessed film safely for very longperiods, if you give proper attention tothree conditions. The first is thecomposition of the film; this is theresponsibility of the manufacturer.However, the user should select a filmcompatible with the intended use andlife expectancy of the film The otherconditions of processing and storageare controlled entirely by the user, andinclude temperature and humidity.

Composition

The only motion picture films that areacceptable for extended lifeexpectancy use are black-and-whitesilver-halide gelatin films on eithercellulose ester or polyester bases.These films must meet thecompositional requirements for safetyfilm on cellulose ester or polyesterbase, as specified in ANSI StandardIT9.1-1989,* Imaging Media (film)-Silver Gelatin Type.Black-and-white films not complyingwith this standard cannot beconsidered for extended life

expectancy. Because of color dyes, nocolor films qualify for extended lifeexpectancy, regardless of the base orstorage conditions. However, manyfilms will remain in usable conditionfor many years if therecommendations in the followingprocessing and storage sections aremet.

________________ *Write to the American NationalStandards Institute, 1430 Broadway, NewYork, NY 10018. Telephone 212-642-4900.

Figure 62PTR roller on projector



ProcessingProcessing is one of the mostimportant factors contributing to afilm's satisfactory extended lifeexpectancy Residual processingchemicals in the film can bedetrimental to long l ife. Residualthiosulfate (hypo) remaining in theprocessed black-and-white film can

fade the silver image by partiallyconverting it to silver sulfide.

This is especially true underconditions of high humidity andtemperature. Residual silver salts canalso cause density changes. If indoubt, the residual hypo contentshould be determined. The MethyleneBlue Method recommended in ANSIPH4.8-1985, Residual Thiosulfate and Other Chemicals in Films, is aworldwide standard test to detectresidual hypo.

Thiosulfate salts allowed to

remain in color film can also fade thedye images; one dye will probably beaffected more than the other two,causing an undesirable change incolor balance and a deterioration ofthe image. Therefore, color filmsrequire as much care in processingand washing as black-and-white films.Since color films are not acceptablefor extended life expectancy, they arenot covered in the previouslymentioned standard, ANSIIT9.1-1989.

StorageThis discussion covers two storageconditions defined as "medium-term"and "long-term." These storage condi-tions are described in detail in theAmerican National Standard Practice for Storage of Processed Safety Photographic Films, ANSIIT9.11-1991. The conditions specifiedare ideal; however, compromises maybe necessary.

Medium-Term Storage. Films storedunder these conditions should beusable for a minimum of 10 years,provided they meet requirements ofcomposition and processing. Therelative humidity for acetate filmsshould be between 15 and 50 percent,and for polyester films 30 to 60percent. For black-and-white films, the

preferred temperature is 21ºC (70ºF)or lower. The temperature should notexceed 24ºC (75ºF) for extendedperiods with maximum short-timepeaks of 32ºC (90ºF). Store colorfilms at 2ºC (36ºF) or lower, with anRH of 15 to 30%.

Long-Term Storage. Many currentmotion picture films can beconsidered long-term fi lms-usable forseveral centuries if stored properly. Asdiscussed under "Composition," onlyblack-and-white silver-gelatin films

complying with ANSI SpecificationsIT9.1-1989 and IT9.11-1991 meet thiscriteria. However, storage at theseconditions will usually improve thekeeping properties of all films.

The relative humidity range forblack-and-white triacetate andpolyester films is 20 to 30 percent.The temperature should not exceed21ºC (70ºF), and you can expectimproved protection at lowertemperatures.

There are two approaches whenlong-term storage of color film isrequired. One approach is to store thefilm at lower temperatures andhumidities. The relative humidity is thesame as above. The ideal temperatureshould be 2ºC (36ºF) or lower. Deepfreezer temperatures have given goodresults.

You can achieve thesetemperatures in two ways, but alwaysmaintain the film at the proper relativehumidity. You can store film inuntaped cans in storage vaults orrooms with controlled temperatureand relative humidity, or freezers withhumidity control.

The other approach is to makeblack-and-white separation positives.Store all three separations together atrecommended conditions.

More details are given in theAdelstein, Graham and Westpublication "Preservation of MotionPicture Color Films Having PermanentValue" and other publications listed onpage 18.

General Storage. Most libraries storefilm on metal shelves or in metalcabinets made especially for thispurpose. These metal cabinets areusually supplied with adjustableshelving. Wood is not recommendedas volatile components can causeimage fading. Cans of print film canbe stored on edge for easy access for

the short term. However, for long-termstorage, keep rolls of film that arewound on cores flat to preventdeformation caused by the weight ofthe roll. Separate the storage cabinetsenough to permit free circulation of airon all sides. Be sure storage areas arelocated on the intermediate floors ofbuildings, never in damp basements,on the top floors of uninsulatedbuildings, near radiators, hot air ductsor other sources of heat and humidity.

Keep film storage and handlingareas as free as possible from dust

and dirt. Ideally, you should supplysuch rooms with cooled and filteredair. Take precautions to prevent theentrance of dust and dirt throughventilators, heating ducts, andwindows.

Use the same precautions thatapply to the storage of any othersafety motion picture film for film witha magnetic coating on which soundhas been recorded. Even though amagnetic sound track, as far as weknow, may be as permanent as thefilm base to which it is applied, heatand humidity cause deterioration.

Storing the film in a metal container,such as a film cabinet or an aluminumor steel film can, will not adverselyaffect the recorded sound. Do notstore the film near a permanentmagnet or near electrical wiring thatcarries a heavy current.

A word of caution about films oncellulose nitrate base. Althoughcellulose nitrate motion picture filmshave not been manufactured in theU.S.A. For over 40 years, some maystill be present in old collections. Thenitrate base deteriorates and becomes

a serious fire hazard. Furthermore, thegaseous products of deterioration candamage other films in the samestorage area. Cellulose nitrate filmsrequire separate and special storageareas. A full discussion of the subjectcan be found in KODAK PublicationNo. H-23, The Book of RIM Care.



Deal ing w i t h a Laboratory

______________________________________________________

During production and postproduction,you will be spending quite a bit of timeand money with a film laboratory.Locating the "right" lab is extremelyimportant. Ideally, you should havesome "feeling" for a lab early in theproduction phase, before you havemany hours worth of exposed film onyour hands and are wondering what todo with it.

How do you find the right lab?The purpose of this section is toexplain how laboratory operations fitinto your total production. First, sometips on selecting a lab. Next, awalk-through of laboratory operationsduring a typical production. Thesection concludes with a description ofprocessing and printing operationsand equipment so that you canappreciate the possibilities of whatcan be done with your film onceyou've exposed it.

Tips on Select ing a

Laboratory

_______________________

Generally, the laboratory that getsyour business will be the one whosecapabilities best match therequirements for your particular job.Laboratories differ in terms of thetechnical services they offer,personnel, track record on similarprojects, size and location, prices, andso on. Weigh all of these factors inselecting the right laboratory for the

job at hand.Every production has different

requirements. The laboratory selectedto do a production filmed in 35 min fortelevision distribution may be dif ferentfrom the one you choose to handle a

job shot in 16 mm. Find the lab thatcan satisfy the greatest number ofyour needs on schedule and within

budget. There are a number oftrade-offs.

Consider the question of size. The

big lab can usually offer morecomplete in-house services, andexcellent quality control. The smalllaboratory usually offers customhandling. But they may have to chargemore to support their customoperation or subcontract more of the

job. Talk with both.Consider the location. If a

laboratory is a significant distancefrom your place of business, you willbe faced with the potential hazardsand increased costs of shippingvaluable footage to and from the lab.

Daily communications with the labmay also be more difficult.Consider your confidence in the

laboratory. The selected laboratoryshould be looked upon as a "silentpartner" in the production of a motionpicture. The laboratory should betaken into the producer's confidence,kept informed about the film andphotographic techniques being used,advised of the specific objectives, andalerted to any problems that mightdevelop.

These important steps in yourproduction will run more smoothly if

adequate communications areestablished right from the start. Both youand your laboratory should know what isexpected - and when to expect it.

• Know your needs. Have a goodidea of what you want from alaboratory and then talk aboutthose needs with severallaboratories before you make achoice. In your discussions, besure to relay your ideas aboutsuch things as editing, dubbing,special effects, animation, etc., so

the lab can help you accomplishthese tasks in the best waypossible.

• Get acquainted. Once you havemade your choice of laboratories,get to know the people who willdo your work as well as possible.Tell them as much as you canabout yourself, your needs, and

your style. The more youcommunicate with them aboutyourself and your production, the

better they can serve you.• Get it in writing. Face-to-face

discussions and telephone callsare necessary for efficient workflow; but when it comes tospecifying what you want, whenyou want it, and how much it willcost, a carefully writtendocument-the purchase order-is amust.

Listed below are some of theprincipal services offered by motionpicture laboratories. A few laboratories

will offer all the services listed; mostlabs will provide a majority of them.

• Processing/developing camera film. (Special overnight pickupand delivery, or weekend serviceis available in some places byprearrangement.) Find out whatprocesses are available, includingspecial techniques (e.g., flashingor force [pushed] processing).

• Furnishing advice to help withtechnical or even aestheticproblems.

• Printing and duplicating fromcamera films for workprints orrelease prints. Most laboratorieswill print or duplicate the camerafilm after it is processed. Theymay also hold the original in theirvault and forward the print for useas a workprint. Thus, the originalis protected from damage inhandling until it is needed for finalconforming.

• Black-and-white reversal printing from a color workprint to producea print for sound editing.

• Additional ink edge numbering of

originals and workprints tofacilitate editing.

• Conforming. Matching the originacamera film to the workprint asedited by the producer can bearranged.



Laborato ry Servic es: a

Walk-Through

_______________________

To help you visualize the way alaboratory's operations interact with

you and your production, thiswalkthrough gives you three views ofscheduling. First is a flowchart ofoperations from preproduction throughvarious laboratory operations todelivery of the edited, printed film.This schematic provides a graphicdescription of the close

communication between lab andcinematographer that produces asatisfactory final print. Next is afictional narrative about the productionof a film for television thatdemonstrates the behind-the- sceneslaboratory work that keeps aproduction on schedule. Last is a

day-to-day schedule, from shooting torelease print, of this hypotheticalproduction.

Now, let's describe our show. Thisweekly one-hour series is produced bya major studio that has a networkcontract requiring the production of 24

episodes. The show routinely includespractical location photography (dayand night). Six to seven days offilming are common for each episode.

Here's how the laboratory fits intothe production.

The production company'sexposed 35 mm negative may be at

the studio's camera department by7:00 p.m. A truck from the laboratorypicks up the negative along with thoseof several other productions. Often,the truck makes several tripsthroughout the evening.



The first batch of negatives arrives bylab truck, is sorted by the directionson the film cans (priorities, etc.), andprepared for processing. The rolls areprocessed and sent to negativeassembly where the out-take negativeis removed and stored forsafekeeping. Rolls (approximately

1,000 ft) of negatives are assembled.The rolls are ultrasonically cleanedand printed at exposure values thathave been derived through a"fine-tuning" of timing informationobtained early in the productionseason or daily on the laboratory'selectronic color analyzer. The dailyprint is developed and screened by thelaboratory customer representative,usually between 6:00 and 9:00 a.m.The print is projected full aperture atapproximately 120 ft/min (32 framesper second) so any film, camera, or

laboratory problems can be seen. Thedaily prints are communicated to theproduction company's editors by 9:00a.m. for syncing with the sound trackthat has been transferred from1/4-inch magnetic tape to 35 mmmagnetic film. At 1:00 p.m. thedirector and other productionpersonnel screen the synced dailieson double-system projectors.

The laboratory won't be involvedin this particular episode in the seriesfor about 2 weeks (sometimes longer,depending on the activities of theproduction company). During this

time, the studio is editing, dubbingand mixing sound, and preparingoptical effects.

The next job is to assemble allelements and generate the finalcomposite print for this episode, if aprint is requested. (it is usually a low-contrast print.) The print is thentransferred to videotape for airing. Onmost television productions, theprogram is edited from the negativedirectly to videotape for airing. If thedirect-transfer system is used,intermediates on film, master positive

and/or duplicate negative will only bemade if there is a long-term need or

Example of Possible Day-to-Day Schedule of the Production

Starting on Event Duration

Preproduction 1-6 weeks.Depends on how many locations to bescouted and/or how many sets to beconstructed.

Days 0-6 Production Photography-6 days.

Day 2 Postproduction 2-8 weeks.

Laboratory operations begin duringshooting and include processing thenegative, daily printing, cutting theworkprint into sequences, makingoptical effects, adding stock footageand sound effects, making t itles, anddubbing (voice, sound effects, andmusic). Optical effects are scheduledwhenever the individual sceneelements are available. Several labsmay be involved in some phase ofthese operations.

Day 12 First Cut Includes action and dialogue only, inrough sequences. No opticals, titles,

sound effects, although some opticalsand titles are being made.

Day 24 Final Cut Workprint.More precisely edited into final form.Some opticals but no titles or soundeffects.

Days 25-31 Negative Cut Music composed and scored, soundeffects made, opticals and titlesprepared, editing finished. Cameranegative physically cut to conform tofinal cut of the workprint. Dupenegatives spliced in where there areopticals and title negative footageadded.

Day 32 Dubbing 1-3 days.All sound materials (live music,recorded music, voice, sound effectssuch as gunshots, footsteps, etc.)combined into a composite magneticsound track. Magnetic track transferredto optical track.

Days 34-36 First Trial Film shows aesthetic defects in someareas. Needs tightening and polishing,slight recutting. Some elementsmissing in titles.

Day 37 Answer Print 35 mm

Contains everything.

Note: Location shooting can extend this time frame by months.



Figure 63Helical path of film through a single rack- and-tank assembly

Figure 64This type of wiper-blade squeegee assembly is used on some processors.

the production will be aired incountries other than the UnitedStates or Canada. Direct transfersfrom the North American NTSCvideo system do not produceoptimum results on other videosystems worldwide.

The final phase begins withclose communications between theproduction company's negativecutter, postproduction personnel, andthe laboratory. The laboratory mayreceive the edited negative when onlypartially complete, to start cueing thescenes for electronic or other colortiming. Other elements of theproduction, such as dissolves, fades,and titles (optical effects), are usuallycreated by an independent opticalhouse.

When a composite negative is

ready and a print is requested, allelements are then scene-to-sceneevaluated on the color electronicanalyzer; printed using theelectronically derived information:and processed.

The answer print is thenscreened by representatives of theproduction company for finalapproval. If the negative waselectronically edited for directtransfer, the composite is screenedover a closed-circuit video system.

Film-to-Video Transfer

When a negative is transferreddirectly to videotape by way of aTelecine transfer unit, the image iselectronically changed to a colorpositive image. During this operationthe scanner operator (colorist) mustbe sure the equipment will produceoptimum results. This is usually donewith an Eastman product, TelecineAnalysis Film (TAF). The TAF is anobjective tool for initial setup andcentering of the color-grade controlson a telecine before transfer ofimages from motion picture film to

video. Kodak provides TAF as abenchmark and tool for achievingoptimum color-timing control. TAFprovides a well characterized andwidely used test target. After usingTAF for setup, the operator is able totransfer many scenes without majorequipment adjustment.

Telecine Analysis Film originates onEASTMAN EXR Color Negative Film. Aframe of TAF contains an 8-color bartest pattern, a neutral-density gray scale,and a neutral-density gray (LAD)surround. Sequential red, green, andblue exposures are made; the film is run

through the camera three times for thiscolor- separation technique.

The colors represent typicalsaturated colors that are encountered inmotion picture production. TAF colorbars will not match electronicallygenerated color bars, but phaserelationships should be about the same.For more information about TAF, seeKodak Publication No. H-9, TAF Users Guide.

Laboratory Operat ions

_______________________ Important when selecting film-too oftenoverlooked-are the processingrequirements for a given film and theprinting needs for the whole production.One way to better appreciate thesophisticated technology that turns yourexposed camera film into goodprojection film is to understand theprocesses and equipment in the modernfilm laboratory. In this section, we willdescribe the operations and equipmentinvolved in processing and printing yourfilm.

Processing EquipmentThe modern motion picture laboratoryuses the continuous processor, amachine that provides the most efficientway of handling long lengths of film. inessence, the continuous processormoves film through the appropriatesequences of developers, fixers, stopbaths, washes, and dryer at a carefullycontrolled speed. The processor alsocontrols solution temperature andagitation to produce optimum results forthe particular kind of film being

processed.

Construction of Containers. Glass,polyethylene, 316 stainless steel,hasteloy C, and titanium are thematerials most commonly used in theconstruction of containers for mixing,storing, and using photographicsolutions.

Not all metals are suitable. Tin,copper, and their alloys may causeserious chemical fog or rapid oxidationwhen used with developers. Do not usealuminum, zinc, or galvanized iron withdevelopers, bleaches or fixing baths.

Transport Design. The film follows ahelical path by moving on partially ortotally submerged banks of rollers throughthe various solutions (Figure 63).Squeegees (Figure 64) or wipers locatedbetween the different tanks remove mostof the liquid from the film surface. Themost common method of moving filmthrough a processor is by friction betweenthe rotating spools and the base side ofthe film. The other major method ofmoving film is by sprockets incorporatedon the spools which engage the filmperforations.



The film path through the processor'swet sections permits only the baseside of the film to contact the rollers.In this way, the emulsion is protectedfrom possible physical damage thatmight occur if the soft, wet emulsioncame in contact with the plastic spoolsurfaces. However, in some

processing machines, there may beemulsion-side rollers. These areusually undercut in the image areaand are designed to contact only theedges or perforation area of the film.Some rollers have ridges that touchonly the edges of the film; other rollersare flat and covered with "soft-touch"tires for uniform film support acrossthe roller width that prevent scratchingof the support in the image area(Figure 65).

Time and Temperature. Inblack-and-white processing, time andtemperature will vary among motionpicture laboratories according to thetype of film being processed. Eachlaboratory selects the appropriatedevelopment times and temperaturesfor the films being processed in a

particular machine and with aparticular formula. This isaccomplished by producing atime-gamma curve, as discussed onpage 37.

For all films, specifiedtemperature tolerances, particularlythose for the developers, are critical.Developer tolerances of ±0.3ºC(±0.5ºF) are typical. Appreciabledeviation from these limits results inspeed and color balance changes.Many motion picture laboratories havefound it feasible, in terms of

consistent quality, to control thedeveloper temperature to within ±0.15ºC (± 0.25ºF), or even less.Process ECN-2 requires that thedeveloper temperature be held within±0.1ºC (±0.2ºF).

Controlling processing time isalso more critical with color films thanwith black-and-white films becauseany changes that occur in coloremulsions may not be equal in alllayers. Improper color reproductioncan result from speed shifts, contrastchanges, increased fog, etc., in any ofthe layers. A good lab adheres closely

to the exact processing specificationsfor the particular equipment andmaterials.

Agitation. If exposed photographicmaterials are placed in a developerand allowed to develop without anysolution movement, the developingaction soon slows because thechemicals in contact with the filmsurface become exhausted and arenot replaced. If the film or the solutionis agitated, however, fresh solution iscontinually brought to the emulsion

surface, and the developmentcontinues.

An equally important effect ofagitation is prevention of unevendevelopment that may result in anonuniform density that could makethe film look streaky. If there is noagitation, the exhausted solution,loaded with development by-products,may flow slowly across the emulsion

from dense areas to less dense areasand produce uneven streaks. Agitationkeeps the solution uniform throughoutand avoids uneven development. Incolor processing, proper agitation isespecially critical during the initialdevelopment step. The recommendedagitation techniques will vary,depending upon the process andequipment being used. The movementof the film as it passes through thedeveloper solution is not usuallysufficient to create adequate agitation.

Mechanical SpecificationsIf film is to be processed satisfactorilyas it moves through the machine, itmust be immersed in solutions of thecorrect temperature for the properlength of time. In addition, processingsolutions must be adequatelyreplenished and filtered, andsufficiently agitated. Theserequirements are commonly called themechanical specifications.

Usually, the only valid majorprocessing change made from the"normal" is for the purpose of forceprocessing (for more camera speed).

This involves increasing the timeand/or temperature of the developerfor negative, or first developer forreversal film.

The time that film is immersed ina particular solution depends upon thelength of the film path in each tankand the machine speed. Generally,time is fixed by the number of rollersper rack and the number of racksthreaded in a tank. Usually, you canchange individual rack times byrethreading the rack or using a rackequipped with an adjustable lower

shaft assembly.

Figure 65Roller undercut in image area and roller with soft-touch tire installed



Temperatures on mostprocessors are controlledautomatically, often to within ±0.1ºCbut can usually be adjusted manuallyto accommodate any desiredtemperature changes. The laboratoryalso keeps a highly accuratethermometer available to

double-check the processortemperature gauges.

Process Control

The degree of development in anegative-positive process or firstdevelopment in a reversal process isthe most important factor indetermining the final image quality.Careful control is crit ical at this point.Development is affected by thetemperatures and chemicalcomposition of the developer (or first

developer), the time of contactbetween the film and the solution, andthe degree of agitation. The otherprocessing steps are also affected bythe same factors.

When all is well with the process, theoutput from the continuous processorwill be good pictures. While you canevaluate these pictures subjectively bysimply looking at them, the mostaccurate evaluation is an objectivemeasurement. Sensitometric controlstrip density values, when plotted ingraphic form, give an operator

objective information about thecondition of the process. Thesemeasurements are made before,during, and after a processing run formaximum control of quality.

The operator also checks the physicaloperation of the machine periodicallyto ensure good results. A quality tabobserves the following practices in thephysical control of a process:

• Use of correct processingtemperatures, which are checked

often. Thermometers andtemperature-controlling devicesare calibrated periodically toassure that the instruments are

operating properly. Thetemperatures of all solutions arekept within specification tominimize dimensional changes inthe emulsion.

• Use of recommended processingtimes. Machine speed is checked

by carefully measuring the time ittakes for a given length of film topass a specific point. Knowing itis possible to use an incorrectprocessing time when a machineuses different thread-ups fordifferent film stocks, the carefullaboratory checks the solutiontimes every time there is athreading change. Consider that,for black-and-white negative orpositive processes, one might runmany films having varieddevelopment times through

Developer D-96 in the course of afew hours.

• Use of the recommendedreplenishment rates. Accuratereplenishment increases theuseful life of solutions to a greatextent by replacing ingredientsthat are depleted; it alsomaintains the process at aconstant, efficient level. Toprevent serious out-of-controlsituations and chemical waste,laboratories routinely check theaccuracy of their replenisherdelivery systems.

• Labs keep an accurate dailyrecord of conditions affecting theprocess, including developertemperature, amount of filmprocessed, volume of replenisheradded, and identification numbersof control strips processed atparticular times.

Force Processing

A camera operator may elect to shootfilm at a higher exposure index (EI)than the film's rating, thus

underexposing the film, to obtainusable footage under low-lightconditions.

The film turned into the lab for forceprocessing is usually underexposed bya known degree. This underexposurecan be compensated for in the firstdeveloper in a reversal process andthe developer in a negative process inone of the following ways:

• Increase developer temperature.• Increase film immersion time.

• Increase both the developertemperature and the immersiontime.

Based on control strip readingsobtained from trials, slight time ortemperature adjustments may berequired to produce the desired pictureresults. Before force processing isused for regular production work,check out the particular film andprocess to see if the results meet

expectations. Whether time ortemperature (or both) are adjusteddepends on how easily the changesfrom the normal mechanicalspecifications can be made in theprocessor.

What changes (aside from increasedfilm speed) can be expected as aresult of force processing? Forceprocessing adds significant flexibility,but picture quality will not equal that onormally exposed film put through anormal process.

The sensitometric effect of forceprocessing a negative can be anincrease in the overall density,increased speed, contrast, and fog.However, force processing alsocontributes to an increase in thegranularity of the negative, and theincreased graininess of projectedprints may be objectionable,particularly in 16 mm format. In mostcases, force processing improves thequality of prints made from anunderexposed negative, although thequality obtained never reaches that of

a normally exposed and normallyprocessed negative.



Processes

Black-and-White Negative or Positive Processes

Step What happens

Developer Develops the exposed silver halide to metallic silver. Time andtemperature control are especially important at this stage for optimumimage quality.

Stop Bath(optional)

Stops the action of the developer carried over by the film, and cleansthe developer from the film.

Wash Cleans the developer from the film and stops developer action, butmore slowly than a stop.

Fixer Removes undeveloped silver halide from the emulsion.Wash Removes the fixer from the film.Dryer Dries the film for windup and subsequent projection or printing.

Black-and-White Reversal Processes

Step What happens

First Developer Develops the exposed light-sensitive silver-halide crystals to metallicsilver (a negative image). Time and temperature control are critical at

this stage in determining the effective film speed. Deliberate increaseof time, temperature, or both is called forceprocessing.

Wash Cleans the first developer from the film.Bleach Dissolves and removes the metallic-silver negative image produced in

the first developer but does not affect the remaining silver halide.Wash Removes excess bleach from the film.Clearing Bath Removes the last of the bleach and prepares the film for the following

steps.Re-exposure Renders the remaining si lver-hal ide crystals developable.Second Developer Develops the silver halide exposed in the re-exposure step to a

positive metallic-silver image.Wash Removes the second developer.Fixer Removes any undeveloped silver-halide grains.Wash Removes fixer from the film.

Dryer Dries the film for windup and subsequent projection or printing.



Color Negative or Positive Processes

Step What happens Process

Prebath The rem-jet antihalation backing is conditioned.Rem-jet Removal The softened backing is removed from the film

and flushed away.Developer Develops the exposed silver halide and reacts

with the color coupling agents in the film to createdye layers along with a silver image. Time andtemperature control are especially important foroptimum image quality.

Stop Bath Stops the action of the developer carried over bythe film, and removes the developer from the filmsurface. ECN, ECP

Wash Removes excess stop bath.Fixer Removes undeveloped silver halide from the

emulsion.Wash Removes excess fixer.Persulfate BleachAccelerator*

Prepares the film for action of persulfate bleach.

Bleach (Ferricyanide,UL, ML or Persulfate)

Converts the metallic-silver image formed by thedeveloper into silver halide again.

Wash Removes excess bleach.Sound-track Developer Converts the silver halide sound-track area into

metallic-silver ECP onlyWash Removes excess sound-track developerFixer Removes silver halide formed in the bleach from

the emulsion.Wash Removes fixer from the film.Final Rinse Anti-bacterial rinse and wetting agent. Prepares

film for drying.ECN, ECP

Dryer Dries the film for windup and subsequentprojection or printing.

* For this step, use only with persulfate bleach.



Color Reversal Processes

Step What happens Process

First Developer Develops the exposed light-sensitive silver-halide crystals to a black-and-white negativesilver image. This critical step determines howlight or dark (the effective speed of the film) thefinal pictures will be. Times longer ortemperatures higher than normal will increasethe effective film speed (exposure index). Whenthese items are deliberately increased, it isknown as force processing.

VNF-1, RVNP

First Stop Stops action of the first developer carried overby the film; also helps to control emulsionswelling during the next step.

Wash Removes the acid stop solution from the film.Sound Fixer Removes undeveloped silver halide from sound-

track area.Print films withdouble-applicated

Hypo Eliminator Aids in removing sound fixer from film. sound.Wash Washes sound fixer and Hypo Eliminator from

film.VNF-1

Color Developer This is a multipurpose solution. It contains areversal agent that chemically exposes, or fogs,the remaining silver halide in the film so that itcan be developed. The color developer thendevelops the chemically fogged silver halideand reacts with the color coupling agents in thefilm to create positive dye images and silverimages in the appropriate layers of the film.

VNF-1, RVNP

Second Stop Stops action of the color developer carried overby the film and reduces emulsion swelling.

Persulfate BleachAccelerator*

Prepares the film for action of persulfate bleach VNF-1, RVNP

Wash Removes the acid stop solution or bleachaccelerator from the film.

Bleach Converts the metallic-silver image from both thefirst developer and color developer into silverhalide again. Bleaches use either persulfate orferricyanicle† to effect the conversion.

Wash Removes bleach from the film.Sound-trackRedeveloper

Converts silver halide in sound-track area tometallic-silver Print films with

double-applicatedRinse Removes redeveloper from the sound-track

area.sound

Fixer Dissolves the silver-halide salts and removesthem from the film.

Wash Washes fixer from the film.Stabilizer Stabilizes the dye images and promotes

uniform drying.

VNF-1, RVNP

Dryer Dries the film for windup and subsequentprojection or printing.

* For this step, use only with persulfate bleach.

† Not for use in Process RVNP.



Processing Solutions

Mixing Solutions. When solutionsare made up, the constituents must bedissolved in a specific sequence toavoid undesirable reactions and tofacilitate complete mixing. Kodakformulas are arranged so that the

ingredients are named in the order inwhich they should be dissolved unlessthe directions specifically state someexception to this rule. When solutionsare made from packaged preparationsor from bulk, follow the instructionssupplied very carefully, observing allprecautionary information on chemicalcontainers and in the instructions.

Agitating Solutions. Proper agitationduring mixing dissolves the chemicalsquickly without introducing excessiveair into the solution. Developers are

particularly prone to oxidations; a fewminutes of violent agitation mayweaken the developer noticeably andproduce compounds that can stain thefilm. On the other hand, insufficientagitation may permit the chemicals tosettle at the bottom of the mixingvessel and form a hard cake that doesnot readily dissolve.

The solution is stirred thoroughlyafter the addition of the final volume ofwater because the concentratedsolution at the bottom of the vessel isdenser than water and tends to remainat the bottom if it is not thoroughlymixed.

Cleanliness. Thoroughly clean allmixing apparatus, pumps, andtransport lines immediately after useto prevent the formation ofincrustations which may dissolvewhen a new solution is mixed. Ideally,you should use a separate mixingvessel for each solution. If severalsolutions are mixed consecutively inthe same vessel, the careful lab willprepare them in the order in whichthey are used in processing. Traces of

developer in a bleach or fixing bathwill have little or no effect, but smallquantities of bleach or hypo in adeveloper may cause adversephotographic results.

Do not mix chemicals, particularlythose in the form of light powder, inthe darkroom or in places wheresensitized goods are handled becausethe chemical dust becomes airborneand settles on benches and tabletops.As a result, spots and stains couldappear on processed film. Chemical

dust can also settle on the surfaces ofother processing solutions and causecontamination. For this reason, equipsolution storage tanks with dustcovers.

Storage Conditions. Thetemperature of processing- solutionstorage is important. Developers, inparticular, oxidize rapidly at elevatedtemperatures with a resultant loss inactivity and an increased propensityfor staining. A developer that can besafely stored for 1 or 2 weeks at 180

to 21ºC (65º to 70ºF) may beunsatisfactory in a few days if storedat 32º or 35ºC (90º or 95ºF). (Kodakliquid concentrate developers are quitestable in the original sealed package.)

Storage at low temperatures alsocan be undesirable. Someconcentrated solutions crystallizerapidly at temperatures below 13ºC(55ºF) and redissolve with greatdifficulty or not at all, even whenheated. Additionally, repeatedchanges in temperature may shortenthe life of many photographicsolutions.

Floating lids and dust coversprevent contaminants from enteringsolutions and help to minimizeoxidation and evaporation from thesurface of the solutions. Evaporationresults in more concentrated andoveractive solutions. The temperaturedrop associated with evaporation cancause precipitation of some lesssoluble solution constituents.

Physical Handling. Photographicchemicals and processing solutions,like all other chemicals, should be

handled with care. Professionallaboratories observe well-establishedsafety precautions scrupulously toprotect both the operators and the filmentrusted to their care.

EcologyOver the years, Kodak has producedfilms, papers, and chemicals thathave reduced the environmentalimpact of photoprocessing. Today, wecontinue our efforts to further reducechemical usage.

Most countries have passed laws

to regulate air emissions, wastewaterdischarges, and solid-waste disposal.In the United States, these laws areenforced by Federal and StateEnvironmental Protection Agenciesand by local authorities. For specificinformation on local regulations,contact your director of public works.

If you have questions concerningchemical handling, or environmentalconcerns, write to your regional Kodakoffice.

Silver Recovery. The highest

concentration of silver is found in thefixer of a negative, positive, or colorreversal process and in the bleach ofa black-and-white reversal process.Lesser amounts are found in othersolutions.

Silver recovery has severaladvantages: (1) cleaner waste water;(2) economy-the recovered silver isvaluable, and, in some situations,recovery of the silver permits moreefficient use of the fixing bathchemicals; and (3) conservation ofsilver essential to the photographicindustry.

There are three common methodsof recovering silver from photographicprocessing solutions: metallicreplacement, electrolytic plating, andchemical precipitation. A fourthmethod, ion exchange, is findingincreasing application in removingsilver from wash waters. You can usethese procedures singly or incombination, depending upon which ismost suitable for the particular needsof the user. The choice of the systemand the size of the equipment isgenerally related to the amount and

kind of film being processed and theavailability of space and chemicalcontrol equipment.



Metallic Replacement: The KODAKChemical Recovery Cartridgesfunction by chemically replacing thesilver in solution with iron. Since itsintroduction, the metallic replacementmethod of reclaiming silver hasgained wide-spread acceptance due toits advantages over other methods:low initial cost, simple nonelectrical

installation, high efficiency, minimumspace requirements, and littlemaintenance. This silver recoveryprocess uses two simple nonmovingpieces of equipment: a KODAKChemical Recovery Cartridge, and theKODAK Circulating Unit, Type P. Thisequipment efficiently removesvaluable silver from used fixing baths,certain silver-bearing stop baths,stabilizers, and wash water.

Although the apparatus isprimarily designed to remove silverfrom the overflow streams of

automatically replenished processingsystems, it is equally acceptable foruse with batch-replacement orhand-processing systems. Anotherbenefit of KODAK Chemical RecoveryCartridges is that they do not generatecombustible or explosive gases suchas hydrogen during the recoveryprocess.

Electrolytic Plating. When largeamounts of fi lm are being processed,an electrolytic silver-recovery systemmay be more economical. With thismethod, silver is removed from fixing

baths by passing controlled directcurrent between a cathode and ananode hung in the solution. Silver isdeposited on the cathode in the formof nearly pure silver plate. Thecathodes are removed periodically,and the silver is stripped. This methodis relatively clean, may allow reuse ofthe fixing bath, and yields si lverhaving a high degree of purity.

Chemical Precipitation: Thedichromate bleach in theblack-and-white reversal process is

not suitable for the metallicreplacement or electrolytic platingmethods of silver recovery. Silver isrecovered from this bleach byprecipitation with sodium chloride. Thetechnique has not been popularbecause of the odor and the difficultyin handling the silver chloride sludge.

Ion Exchange: Ion exchangetreatment of wash water from

photographic processes is the mosteconomical method presentlyavailable for reducing silver toconcentrations of less than 0.5 mg/L.An ion exchange installation usuallyconsists of three columns. Two of thecolumns are used in series while thethird is being regenerated or is onstandby. A holding tank is used to

allow pH adjustment of the washwater entering the columns. Ionexchange resins are placed incolumns to adsorb the silverthiosulfate complex. When the resin inthe first column is nearly saturatedwith silver, the column is taken outand regenerated. The second columnis moved into the first position and thestandby column is moved into thesecond position. The saturatedcolumn is treated with eitherammonium thiosulfate or sodiumchloride solutions to remove the silver

from the resin. The regeneratingsolution, containing 10 or more g/L ofsilver is passed through an electrolyticcell to recover the silver and recyclethe regenerating solution.

More detailed informationcovering silver recovery can be foundin KODAK Publication No. J-21,CHOICES Choosing the Right Silver-Recovery Method for Your Needs.

Disposal of Processing Wastes

Sewers. Direct discharge of untreatedprocessing effluents to receivingwater, or to surface drains or stormsewers that discharge directly toreceiving waters, is not recommendedor lawful.

Septic Tanks. Septic tanks arebiological systems, but are notrecommended for disposal ofphotographic processing wastes.Septic tanks may not degrade wastessufficiently They are generallydesigned for small volumes, produceodorous products, cannot be installed

in all locations, and may contaminateground waters.

Lagoons. Aerated lagoons have beenused successfully by some processorsto pretreat their wastes to lower theoxygen demand before dischargingthem into a municipal treatmentsystem.

An aerated lagoon is not apractical solution for many

processors, however, because a largearea of land is required. Incompletedegradation of wastes, unpleasantodors, and contamination of groundwaters may also occur. However, ifthe lagoon is large enough, is aeratedand has either an impervious liner oris constructed in an area of suitablegeologic structure, it may be

satisfactory. Check the overflow tomake certain that it does notcontaminate the stream into which itflows.

Biological Treatment Plants.Compared to the effluents from manyother commercial wastewaterdischargers, the effluents fromphotoprocessors are relatively low involume. Because photographicprocessing chemicals respond well tobiological treatment, they are normallynot considered to be objectionable to

sewage -treatment systems.In the U.S., several environmentaregulations have been passed by theFederal government that have apotential impact on photoprocessinglabs. These laws are enforced by theEnvironmental Protection Agency(EPA).

Of these regulations, the one thathas the greatest impact on mostphotoprocessing labs today is theClean Water Act. This law establisheslimits on the discharge of materialsthat the EPA has identified aspollutants. Photoprocessing labs may

be required to have a permit todischarge wastewater directly to apublicly owned treatment works.Discharging to receiving bodies ofwater, such as rivers, lakes, streams,oceans, etc., or to septic systems orleach fields requires a permit.Photoprocessing labs are unlikely tomeet the requirements for a permitwithout pretreating the waste.

Most photoprocessing facilitiesdischarge their overflows and washwater to a public treatment plant. Theyestablish limitations on discharge

based on EPA guidelines and theability of the plant to treat theindustrial and domestic waste itreceives. These limitations arecompiled in a sewer code. Manylocalities consider anyphotoprocessing lab as an industrialuser, which requires that it obtain apermit for chemical discharge andcomply with the sewer code.



For additional information onwaste disposal, see KODAKPublication No. J-55, Disposal and Treatment Of Photographic Effluent-In Support of Clean Water. Informationis also available from motion Pictureand Television Imaging offices.

Bleach Reconstitution andRegeneration. The regeneration andreconstitution of ferrocyanide- andpersulfate bearing bleaches, wherepractical, is recommended both as anenvironmental control measure andfor economic reasons. The usualmethod involves collecting the tankoverflow and regenerating it toreplenisher strength with the requiredchemicals. This method requires verygood analytical control, and is detailedin the Manual for Processing EASTMAN Color Films, Module 5,

Chemical Recovery Procedures(KODAK Publication No. H-24).

Dichromate bleach is used byprocessors of Kodak black-and-whitereversal film products. Its potentialeffect on bacteria in a waste-treatmentplant may warrant its destructionbefore it leaves the processinglaboratory. By mixing the dichromatebleach with other processing solutionsthat are alkaline and that containreducing agents such as thiosulfate,some of the chromium precipitates astrivalent chromium hydroxide. Thismixture can then be removed in aprimary treatment plant.

Often, both chromium and silverare precipitated from dichromatebleach. When this is done, thesolution is fil tered and the sludgecontaining silver chloride andchromium hydroxide is sent to arefinery for recovery of the metals.

Water Conservation. Significantquantities of water are essential tophotographic processing; therefore,the more efficient laboratoriesexamine

Their processes and practices forways to use it economically Althoughyou won't save much by reducing thevolume of water needed for makingprocessing solutions, you can save byreducing the many gallons of waterthat can be wasted in the washing

process without any real benefit. Byemploying some or all of the followingtechniques, labs can reduce watervolume with litt le risk of endangeringthe quality of washing: reusing coolingor heating water, countercurrentwashes, controlled wash-water flow,spray-rack control, squeegees,

reverse osmosis, increased watertemperature, and salt baths.

More detailed information on thissubject is presented in KODAKPublication No. J-53, The Use of Water in Photographic Processing.

Technica l Ass istanc e

From Kodak

_______________________

The above chemical recoveryprocedures are presented mainly assuggested outlines. Because of theindividualities of processinglaboratories and of changingtechnologies, we suggest that eachprocessing lab contact their localKodak Motion Picture and TelevisionImaging products sales andengineering representative (SER)when that laboratory considers any ofthese recovery procedures. Your SERwill be pleased to assist you inobtaining and implementing currenttechnology.

Mot ion Pict ure Fi lm

Cleaning

_______________________

Film cleaning should include theremoval of dust and other looseparticles, gritty dirt, and oil mottle. Dirtcan lead to varied film base andemulsion scratches.

For occasional cleaning and forsmall volumes, use a simple cleaningmethod of moistened pads containinga solvent, not water. If you have never

cleaned film before, it is wise to try thetechnique on some expendable filmand check the results with amagnifying glass.

Several liquid fi lm cleaners arehazardous or even flammable. Mostfilm cleaners are toxic or restricted;

check your local environmentalregulations before you use them.Follow all directions closely Be sure toprovide adequate ventilation and avoidprolonged or repeated skin contact.

If you must l iquid-clean aprojection print, it must be relubricatedprior to being restored to service.

Non-Solvent CleaningA "dry" method of cleaningincorporates a specially developedmaterial that picks up dirt, dust, hairand other unwanted particles from thefilm by contact with one or more"Particle Transfer Rollers" (PTR). The

PTR is made from an inertpolyurethane-with no adhesives,silicones or leachable plasticizers andis environmentally sound, unlike theliquids. It has a 95% average cleaningefficiency and can itself be cleanedwith water. It is available from FPCInc., 6677 Santa Monica Blvd.,Hollywood CA 90038. Phone213-465-0609. Figure 66 shows aPTR on a Lipsner Smith cleaningmachine.

A laboratory with suitablecleaning machines and proper

techniques can best clean largequantities of film. For moreinformation on film cleaning, refer toKODAK Publication No. H-23, The Book of film Care.

Figure 66PTR mounted on a Lipsner Smith cleaning machine



Motion Picture Printing

_______________________

Printers

Continuous-Contact Printer. In itssimplest form, printing consists ofexposing the raw stock from an 11original" or "printing master" to formthe image using a light source toproduce the exposure. When theimage size of the print is the same asthat of the original (i.e., 35 mm to 35mm, 16 mm to 16 mm), the printing isusually done in a continuous-contactprinter.

The large printing sprocketadvances both the original and theprint film at a constant rate past thelight source. The original and print

films are usually positionedemulsion-to-emulsion with the lightpassing through the original andexposing the stock to be printed.Depending on the application, thesecontact printers may operate up tothousands of feet per minute.

Step-Contact Printer. Step-contactprinters advance both negative andprint films through the printer gate withan intermittent motion and shuttersimilar to that of a camera.Close-fitting register pins position the

two films with extreme accuracy duringexposure, and a pressure plate at theprinting gate assures film flatness.Because of the complexity of themachine and the precision of filmregistration achieved, the speed of astep-contact printer is relatively low (21/2 to 40 feet per minute). Stepcontactprinters are precision instruments usedfor making color separations andspecial-effects printing that mayrequire several passes of the raw stockthrough the printer (for travelingmattes, master positives, and colorintermediates, etc.). Generally, they

are designed for roomlight operation tomake the necessary operator controleasier.

Figure 67Schematic of a subtractive contact printer

Figure 68A continuous contact additive panel printer



Step-Optical Printer. The step-opticalprinter combines the precision of astep-contact printer with opticalflexibility Like the step-contact, thestep-optical printer finds its main usein the production of intermediates andspecial effects.

Whenever the image size of theprint is different from that of theoriginal or certain special effects aredesired, an optical printer is used. Theoptical printer can be thought of as aprojector on one side and a camera onthe other. The image produced by theprojector is focused at the plane of thefilm in the camera gate. A schematicof an optical printer used for reducing35mm to 16mm is shown below.Optical printers can be quite complex,providing such effects as blowups,reductions, skip frames, anamorphiccompression, zooms, mattes, etc.

Continuous-Optical Printer. Theseprinters are used for high-volumereduction printing. Like a continuous-contact printer, the exposure is madethrough a slit, thus necessitatingexactly matched relative film speeds.This is obtained by mounting both thesprocket driving the original Film andthe one for the print film on the sameshaft. The different diameters of thetwo sprockets provide the properfilmspeed ratio. The light path fromoriginal to print is U-shaped as a result

of using the same shaft to drive bothfilms. The addition of image-dividinglenses or prisms permits multirankprinting.

Wet-Gate PrintingOne of the most troublesome problemsencountered by motion picturelaboratory personnel are scratches(digs, abrasions, cinch marks, etc.)sometimes encountered on film fromwhich prints must be made. Thesescratches print through to the releaseprint and degrade the quality of theprojected picture by introducing image

elements that have no relationship tothe originally photographed scene.

Figure 69An optical printer

Figure 70Wet-gate printing



A scratch on the support of anegative film acts as a diffuser thatscatters light. Light from the printerpasses essentially in straight linesthrough the undamaged portion of thesupport and emulsion of the original.When light strikes the scratch, it isscattered and displaced from the

straight-line path, reducing the light onthe receiving emulsion.

Scratches on the support of anegative film printed onto positive filmusually produce more objectionableeffects on the screen than scratcheson reversal originals printed ontoreversal print films. This is becausescratches on the support of negativefilms appear white on the positive filmand are generally of lower densitythan any other white in the picture. Inreversal printing, scratches on thesupport of the original appear black on

the screen print and generally tend toblend in better with the picture.Scratches on the emulsion side of

negative films present anothersituation. Shallow emulsion scratcheson a black-and-white negative willappear white on the positive film.Emulsion scratches that penetrate tothe support on a black-and-whitenegative will print black. Scratches onthe emulsion side of color negativefilms may appear colored on the print,depending upon how deep the scratchis and whether image-bearing layershave been disturbed.

When base scratches exist, a"wet" or "liquid" gate is used tominimize or eliminate their effect,depending on severity In a wet gate,liquid having a refractive index closeto that of the film base is applied tothe original. The liquid fills in thescratches and reduces the lightscatter. Wet-gate printing is applicableto any of the printing configurations,step or continuous, contact or optical.Wet printing is of l ittle or no benefit toemulsion-side scratches.

Printing Operations

Image Orientation: Choosing aDuplicating Method. The orientationof the image on the final print is animportant consideration in choosing aduplicating method. Camera originalfilm is normally exposed with theemulsion side facing the lens of thecamera. When the Film is processed,the image reads correctly through thebase side of the film. If a typicalemulsion- to -emulsion contact print ismade, the resulting print will readcorrectly through the emulsion side ofthe film. When several stages ofemulsion-to-emulsion contact printingare involved, the image orientationchanges with each successive stage.

In the case of 35mm prints, theimage orientation has beenstandardized. American National

Standard PH22.194-1984 specifies,"The photographic emulsion shall beon the side of the film which facesaway from the projector lens," (i.e.,the image reads correctly through theemulsion side of the film). This isbecause 35mm productions utilize anegative camera original contactprinted to produce prints.

In 35mm production, the properorientation is obtained when prints aremade by contact printing the original,or in going through a master positive-to-duplicate negative-to-printduplicating system. When a duplicatenegative is made directly from a print,the image orientation must bechanged. This may best be done byoptical printing through the base of theprint. Some laboratories change theorientation by contact printing throughthe base, which results in a noticeableloss of sharpness.

Sixteen mill imetre film started asan amateur medium, using reversalcamera original film that wasprojected after processing. Therefore,the emulsion had to be toward theprojection lens for the image to readproperly on the screen. AmericanNational Standard ANSI/SMPTE

IOM-1985 states, "For originalreversal film, the emulsion side shallbe toward the projection lens. Forprints, the emulsion position isdependent upon the process ofpreparation; however, the preferredposition for most uses, includingtelecine, is also emulsion side towardthe projection lens." This permitsintercutting of prints and originalswithout requiring a change of focusduring projection.

Image orientation is important forintercut materials because of the need

to refocus either the printer or theprojector (both picture and soundoptics) each time the imageorientation changes. Failure to refocuswill result in an unsharp picture andloss of frequency response in thesound.

In 16 mm, the preferredorientation results when the cameraoriginal is projected, or contactrelease prints are made using aninternegative or duplicate negative.Contact prints made directly from thecamera original, or using the masterpositive -to -duplicate negative-to-prin

duplicating system will have to beshown with the emulsion away fromthe lens for the image to read correctlyon the screen. Contact printingthrough the base to change orientationin 16 mm usually results inunacceptable loss of sharpness.

Black-and-White Printing. Black-and-white printing practices areessentially the same as color printingpractices. However, the lack of suchconsiderations as color balance,saturation, etc., make black-and-white

printing a less complex operation thancolor printing. The printing flowchartsshow some common methodsemployed by laboratories in producingblack-and-white motion picture prints.



Color Printing. A contact printer,with provisions for scene-to-scenedensity and color-balance changes,is required for color printing. Anoptical printer is needed to makereductions or enlargements, whereappropriate. If it is necessary tocreate separation negatives or

positives for extended keepingpurposes, a step-contact printer isrequired to provide precision inpositioning each successive frameof film. Certain kinds of specialeffects may also require astep-optical printer.

The desire for high-volumeproduction in laboratories has ledto the use of multirow perforationformats to minimize handling.These systems for producing twoor four rows of pictures on 16 mmor 35 mm raw stock requirespecially designed equipment. Withthe advent of video techniques, thedemand for these formats isminimal.The printing systems shown inFigures 71 to 74 represent those ingeneral use at laboratories;however, they do not include allprocedures currently used.Because they are onlyphotomechanical reproductions,these charts are meant to serve asguides to the printing systems andare not intended for use inevaluating picture quality with

respect to color balance,saturation, contrast, sharpness, orgraininess. For loose-leaf chartsand detailed descriptions of theprinting systems, see KODAKPublication No. H-25, Motion Picture Prints from Color Originals.

Note: A change in image size requires optical printing. Where reduction stages are called for, it is best – in order to obtain the highest definition in the final print – to postpone reduction until the latest practicalstage.



Additive and Subtractive PrintingWhenever color printing is involved,the printer or lamphouse must be ableto control the red, green, and bluecomponents of the white-light source.Two methods of control are commonlyused: additive and subtractiveprinting.

In a subtractive printer, colorcorrection (changing the relativeamounts of red, green, and blue light)is achieved by inserting colorcorrecting filters in the light pathbetween the tight source and theprinting aperture. Overall lightchanges (intensity changes) are madeeither by a variable aperture or aneutral density fi lter. Subtractiveprinting is sometimes used for"release" printing (making multipleone-light prints after an answer printhas been approved) because there are

no scene-to-scene color changes.Printing requiring any scene-to-scenecolor corrections is not practical on asubtractive printer.

The particular filter packs you usefor subtractive printing will dependupon the characteristics of the opticalsystem of the printer, the lampvoltage, etc. The filter pack is usuallycomposed of color compensating(CC) filters.

Unwanted absorption in the dyesof such filters may modulate exposureof other layers to a lesser, butsignificant, degree. This makesprecise exposure control a morecumbersome operation than it is in awell-designed additive printer.

The most popular printing methodis additive printing. Instead of a singlelight source with color- correctingfilters, three separate colored sources- red, green, and blue - are combinedto form the light source that exposesthe film. Modern additive printersseparate white light from atungsten-halogen bulb into its red,green, and blue components by usinga set of dichroic mirrors.

These mirrors can be made togive sharp cutoffs at specifiedwavelengths and high efficiency inregions of the spectrum they areintended to reflect.

You can also combine them withcertain KODAK WRATTEN Filters togive the required spectral bands. Thisallows independent (and oftenautomatic) control of each of theprimary colors using neutral densityfilters and electromechanical lightvalves. The red, green, and blue

beams are then recombined andfocused at the printing aperture.Usually, provision is made for theinsertion of a filter (such as anultraviolet-absorbing KODAKWRATTEN Filter No. 2B) in therecombined beam.

You can control theelectromechanical light valvesmanually or automatically. Themanual control used to set the tightvalve is usually called the TRIMsetting and is used for overall colorcorrection, for example, when

changing print emulsions. Aperforated paper tape (Figure 75) isused for automatic control of the lightvalves, called the TAPE setting.

The paper tape, which can beread through a high-speed reader,handles scene-to-scene colorcorrection quickly and effectively.Consequently, almost allintermediates and answer printsare printed on additive printers,while one-light release prints maybe printed on either an additive ora subtractive printer.

Color Timingin printing color originals onto colorprint films, a difference in overallprinting exposure as small as 1 printerlight (0.025) can be detected in printcomparisons. The variations, both inoverall printing exposure and colorbalance that can be tolerated for a

particular scene, however, depend onthe scene composition, the subjectmatter, the brightness range of thescene, and whether a deliberatedeparture from neutral balance isdesired.

Color timing demands considerableexperience in printing a wide variety ofscenes and careful observation ofscenes along with careful observationof the results obtained in the finalpicture. In order to "calibrate theeyeball," it is helpful to make a series

of picture tests on the equipment usedfor production printing. These tests,which are kept for reference, show theeffects on the print of small changesin overall exposure and color balance.

Figure 75Perforated paper tape



It is possible to estimate roughlythe photographic effect of a givencolor-balance change in the printer byobserving a test print through selectedcombinations of color balances.

Even though each scene may beacceptable in itself, further

modification in the scene-to-scenetiming may be required when a givenscene is assembled with others. Suchchanges are often necessary toovercome adaptation effects resultingfrom observation of the sceneimmediately preceding the scene inquestion when the print is projected.Often, you can decide these changesonly after looking at the first trial print.

The most effective way tocolor-time any material is to use anelectronic color analyzer. Thisinstrument displays a positive video

image of the original color negative,color reversal, intermediate, or print,and allows the operator to select colorprinting information.

Additive Timing. As describedbefore, the red, green, and blue lightvalves in the additive printer can beadjusted automatically using theperforated paper tape. The TAPEvalues usually run 1, 2, 3 . .. up to 50for each primary color and are calledprinter "points" or printer "lights." Theaddition of a printer point adds 0.025Log Exposure, so adding 12 printer

points adds a stop (0.30 LogExposure) of exposure. The standardprinter setup for a laboratory is usually25-25-25 for the red, green, and blueTAPE settings. If the original to beprinted was a stop heavier in densitythan the laboratory's "standard"original, the TAPE setting might be37-37-37, allowing a one-stopexposure to compensate for the denseoriginal.

Differences in the types of filmsbeing printed can be accounted for bychanging the TRIM, or manual red,

green, and blue settings. The TRIMsettings can also be changed to adjustfor emulsion crossovers and to makeminor day-to-day printer controladjustments.

The TAPE settings tell the printerwhat red, green, and blue valvesettings to use for a scene, and thecueing system tells the printer when tomake the change. The cueing systemto trigger the TAPE can use a varietyof methods such as a microprocessor

and a frame-count cueing (FCC)system.

Subtractive Timing. Scene-to-scenetiming of color originals is seldomdone on continuous subtractiveprinters because of the difficulty inmaking fi lter changes.

On most continuous subtractiveprinters, one printer light (diaphragm)is equal to 0.05 Log Exposure, and thelight is used to make an equalexposure change in all three emulsionlayers. The color-compensating filters

are used to make an exposure changein each layer.

Motion Picture Laboratory Controlof Color Duplication

Motion picture laboratories balanceseveral sources of variability inproducing consistent, high-qualityprints through the two-stage masterpositive and duplicate -negativeduplicating system. A paper publishedin the October 1976 issue of theSMPTE Journal (Vol. 85, No. 10),entitled "A Simplified Motion PictureLaboratory Control Method forimproved Color Duplication" by JohnP. Pytlak and Alfred W. Fleischer,outlines a method for achievinghigh-quality prints based upon theconcept of LAD-Laboratory AimDensity See Kodak Publication No.H-61, LAD -Laboratory Aim Density For more information.

In the past, direct printinginformation has been of little value toa cinematographer since it has usuallybeen reported in terms of numbers onan arbitrary printer scale. In the LAD

control method of reporting cameraexposure, the printer is adjusted sothat the LAD standard negative patchwith its specified densities prints to adensity of 1.0 END on the print nearthe center of the printer scale (e.g.,25-25-25). This printer exposure isconsidered standard. The difference inprinter lights (1 printer light = 0.025Log H) from this standard, necessaryto produce a good print, is a reliableand reproducible measure of the

printing characteristics of thenegative. The printing characteristic ofa master positive or duplicate negativecan also be uniquely specified by thetiming difference in printer lights forthe LAD standard balance.

The LAD control method provides

a simple and repeatable method ofsetting the calibration controls on anelectronic color analyzer to correlatewith the results obtained in printing.The printing exposure required for anyprinting original can be easilydetermined by viewing the film on anelectronic color analyzer setup usingthe LAD method.

The specific Laboratory AimDensity (LAD) values for different filmproducts are listed on datasheetspublished by Kodak. Contact yourKodak Motion Picture and Television

Imaging engineering representative fodetails.

High Resolution ElectronicIntermediate Duplicating SystemSpecial effects play an important rolein the storytelling process of motionpicture films. The use of specialeffects has increased rapidly with theadvances made by the leadingcompanies and individuals in the field.Historically, these effects areproduced with the use of film andoptical printing equipment.

Eastman Kodak Company andothers have developed electronicsystems to handle all the stepsnecessary to yield a finished opticaleffect. This system has a muchshorter finishing time and providesoverall improved quality.



To create a standard blue-screencomposite shot using film productsand optical methods may take days orweeks. An electronic system could dothe same task in one day, and thequality, with the use of a very high-quality intermediate film product, willbe better because it will not suffer

optical generation losses. This is notto say that traditional film duplicatingmethods will no longer be used.Electronics will enable the morecomplicated optical systems to befaster and more cost effective.

Applications. The electronicsintermediate system, with the use offilm, if properly implemented, couldenhance the following:

Feature Films: There will be -newcreative possibilities that up until now

have been impractical.

Television: The electronics systemmay allow programs that are nowfinished on videotape to be finished onfilm, then released on a medium thatis a standard worldwide-film.

Scene Salvage: Scenes that are nowconsidered unsuitable because ofunwanted artifacts, such as wires ormicrophones, can be salvaged. Colorcorrection is quite simple.

Restoration: Scratch removal andrestoration of blotches, damagedframes, and more, are possible.

Stock Shots: The electronics systemwill result in improved quality forbackground composite uses.

Sound-Track PrintingAn "optical recorder" is the instrumentthat transfers the audio informationfrom an electrical signal to an opticalimage. There are two main types ofphotographic sound recorders: thosethat use a combination of a mask anda moving-mirror galvanometer, and

those that use a light valve.The recorder's function is to place

a uniform exposure over theappropriate area of the film. Using agalvanometer, the exposure is madewith a narrow beam of l ight whosewidth is made to vary in accordancewith the audio signal. In Figure 76,the light path is from the lamp to thefilm. The lamp, through thecondenser, uniformly il luminates themask. The

mirror on the moving-mirrorgalvanometer reflects the lighttransmitted by the illuminated mask.This light is imaged by the lens onto anarrow rectangular slit. Finally, thelight beam passing through the slit isimaged by the lens onto the film. Thesystem is adjusted so that half of the

aperture is illuminated through themask when no signal is present. Aninput audio signal causes thegalvanometer to oscillate. Theoscillation causes the reflected imageof the mask on the aperture to beraised or lowered, thereby varying thewidth of the illuminated portion of theaperture.

Figure 76Schematic of a galvanometer-type sound-track recorder



A light valve recorder (Figure77) operates on a similar principlebut replaces the mask andgalvanometer with two or moremetallic ribbons. The metallicribbons are positioned in the fieldof a strong magnet, and the audiocurrent is passed through them. Aforce is always exerted on acurrent-carrying conductor locatedin a magnetic field. This force is

proportioned to the current andalters the separation of the ribbonsin accordance with the audiosignal.

The variable-area sound tracksproduced by these recorders aremade up of dense and clear areas.In an ideal track, the dense partsare completely opaque and theclear parts completely clear. If thedense part is not opaque, there is aslight loss in the signal-to noiseratio. However, the clarity of theminimum density (D-min) portionsof the track is much moreimportant; the volume output isreduced rapidly as the D-min rises,and if the D-min is grainy,additional noise is produced.

An ideal variable-area trackhas perfectly sharp edges betweenthe dense and clear areas. Inreality, if an exposure is madethrough a narrow slit composed oftwo knife edges, the light willspread under the edges, causingsome exposure (Figure 78). Thisexposure produces density inaccordance with the fi lm'scharacteristic curve. Thus, the

image recorded is larger than thesurface over which the light wasincident.

When the sound negative isprinted onto the print stock, theprint exposure is proportional to thenegative density. If the negativeand print densities are properlybalanced, the final printtransmittance is proportional to theoriginal exposure (Figure 79).Thus, a two-step system is self-compensating for the effects of theimage spread. Aside fromproduction considerations, this self-compensation or “image-spreadcancellation," is the majorphotographic reason for using atwo-step system for printingphotographic sound tracks.

Figure 78Image spread

Figure 79Image spread compensation

Figure 77Schematic of a light-valve recorder



Appendix

______________________________________________________

ANSI Standards

_______________________

The dimensional aspects of motionpicture film - location and size of thepicture image, sound track,perforations, etc. - are some of themost completely standardizedtechnical areas in the world. Thisaccounts for the long-acceptedinternational exchange of films and

the usual provision that films,cameras, projectors, and otheraccessory items are interchangeable.This almost universalinterchangeability has come aboutthrough many years of effort byprofessional and technical groupsthroughout the world who recognizedthe benefits to the user.

Usually the standards areintended to make sure that parts of anoverall system fit and that particularitems are interchangeable. Hence, thestandards tend to allow the greatest

tolerances , or greatest variability, thatwill be just acceptable. They do notnecessarily relate to the quality of theitems; this is a matter for eachmanufacturer to determine.

Most countries have nationalstandardizing bodies. in the UnitedStates (and some other countries)compliance or conformity is entirelyvoluntary in some countries,compliance or conformity to nationalstandards is mandatory.

During recent years, theorganization for international

Standardization (ISO) has been activein the promotion of internationalexchange of projects and, whenpossible, reconciling differencesamong national standards. This groupissues recommendations that reflectthe consensus of most of theindustrial nations of the world. To theextent that it is practical, standards inthe United States and ISO Recommendations generally agree.

In the United States, AmericanNational Standards Institute (ANSI),1430 Broadway, New York, NY 10036,(212) 642-4900, publishes ournational standards for a wide range ofindustries and products. The Societyof Motion Picture and TelevisionEngineers (SMPTE), 595 W.Hartsdale Avenue, White Plains, NY10607, (914) 761-1100, overseesstandards in the field ofcinematography (PH22). Motionpicture standards, therefore, originateand are drafted by the engineeringcommittees of the Society. Theadministrative procedures requiremany reviews to provide technicaladequacy and to be sure that all

groups that may have an interest -manufacturers, distributors, vendors,users, and the general public-have achance to be heard. Thus, American National Standards , when issued,represent a national consensus. Allstandards, both ISO and ANSI, mustbe reviewed for withdrawal,reaffirmation, or revision every 5years.

In addition, the SMPTE issuesRecommended Practices in cases

where general guidance is desirablebut the subject matter, for somereason, is not suitable as a formalstandard. EASTMAN Motion PictureFilms are carefully manufactured tosuit the user's needs and generallyconform to appropriate ANSI Standards, SMPTE Standards , andRecommended Practices .

The list of Standards andRecommended Practices on thefollowing pages shows currentlyavailable items that may interestreaders of this book. Designers,engineers, and manufacturers who areinterested in specific dimensionsshould consult appropriate standardsdocuments for detailed information.The following list is reproduced withthe permission of the Society ofMotion Picture and TelevisionEngineers. You can obtain ANSI Standards from either ANSI orSMPTE. Recommended Practices canbe obtained from SMPTE.

Index to SMPTE-SponsoredAmerican National Standards and

SMPTE Standards, Recommended

Practices, and EngineeringGuidelinesIndividual copies of approvedstandards, practices, and guidelinesand loose-leaf binders containing aset of all SMPTE sponsoreddocuments may be purchased fromSociety Headquarters.



Subject No. Journal

Audio

Photographic Record

Super8 SMPTE 182-1990 Apr. 1991

Control and Data RP 118-1983R1989

Mar. 1984

Spectral Response RP 109-1982

R1987

May 1983

16 mm SMPTE 41-1989 Jan. 1990

2 -Track SMPTE 204-1987 Sept. 1987

Control and Data RP 114-1983R1989

Jan. 1984

Signal-to-Noise Ratio PH22.211M-1984 July 1984

35 mm SMPTE 40-1991 Dec. 1991

2-Track SMPTE 203-1987 Sept. 1987

Control and Data,Release Prints

RP 115-1983 R1989 Jan. 1984

Camera Negatives RP 116-1990 Sept. 1990

ReproductionCharacteristic

SMPTE 214M-1984 Apr 1985

Signal-to-Noise Ratio PH22.211M-1984 July 1984

Magnetic Record

Super 8 SMPTE 164-1988 Nov. 1988

Control and Data RP 117-1989 Apr 1990

RecordedCharacteristic

SMPTE 209M-1991 Oct. 1991

Sync Pulse EG 7-1989 Nov. 1989

16 mm 100 mil SMPTE 112-1989 Jan. 1990

200 mil SMPTE 97-1989 Feb. 1990

Center Position SMPTE 218M-1985 Dec. 1985

Head Gaps, 2 Records SMPTE 210M-1990 Apr 1991


SMPTE 213M-1984 Jan. 1985

35 mm 2, 3, 4 and 6Records

SMPTE 86-1991 Oct. 1991

4-Track Release SMPTE 137-1988 Sept. 1988

Data Tracks, LowDispersion

RP 137-1986 Aug. 1986(withdrawnOct. 1991*)


PH22.208M-1984 Dec. 1984

4-Track StripedRelease Prints

SMPTE 216-1985R1991

June 1985

70 mm SMPTE 185-1987 June 1987

Recorded Characteristic SMPTE 217-1985R1991

June 1985

Acoustic Noise Levels,Dubbing Stages

EG 14-1987 Aug. 1987

Camera NoiseMeasurement, FieldMethod

EG 16-1987 June-1988

Subject No. Journal

Channel Assignments

Multichannel to 2Channel

RP 147-1987 Dec. 1987

2 Channel to 2 Channel RP 150-1988 Aug. 1988

Cross Modulation RP 104-1987 Sept. 198

Dialog Recording Level EG 15-1987 Aug. 1987

Electroacoustic Response,Control Rooms andTheatres

PH22.202M-1984 Dec. 1984May 1991

Masters for Transfer to16 mm

EG 17-1987 June-198

Intermodulation Distortion RP 120-1983R1989

July 1984

Noise Levels, Theatres andReview Rooms

RP 141-1990 June 199

Photoelectric Output Factor SMPTE 183M-1985R1991

Dec. 1985

Polarity for Analog RP 134-1986 June-198

Post-Production RecordingLevel

EG 9-1985 Dec. 1985

Record Test Position RP 140-1986R1990

Jan. 1987

Stereo, Transfer of 2-Channel

EG 23-1990 Feb. 1991

Test Films

Audio, Use of EG 13-1986 Mar. 1987

Basic Parameters EG 12-1986 Mar. 1987

Use and Care RP 45-1972R1987

Aug. 1972

Time and Control Code

24, 25 and 30Frames/sec.

RP 136-1990 June 199

Binary User Groups RP 135-1990 June 199

Stripe

Super8 SMPTE 161-1986 Nov. 1986

Super 8 on 16 mm

(1-3) SMPTE 176-1988 Nov. 1988

(1-4) SMPTE 162-1986 Nov. 1986Super 8 on 35 mm (5R) SMPTE 163-1986 Dec. 1986

16 mm on 30 mil SMPTE 101-1988 Dec. 1988

50 mil SMPTE 127-1989 Feb. 1990

100 mil SMPTE 87M-1985 Nov. 1985

35 mm 4-Track Release PH22.177-1990 Mar 1991

70 mm 6-Track Release SMPTE 221-1987 May 1987

Film Dimensions

8 mm, Perforated Super 8,

1R SMPTE 149-1988 Mar 1988

16 mm, Perforated Regular 8,

2R-1500 SMPTE 239-1989 Aug. 1989


(1-3) SMPTE 151-1987 Aug. 1987

(1-4) SMPTE 168-1986 Feb. 198716 mm, 1R SMPTE 109-1986 July 1986

16 mm, 2R SMPTE 110-1986 July 1986


2R-1664 (1-0) SMPTE 169-1986R1991

Feb. 1987

5R SMPTE 165-1988 Aug. 1988

35 mm, Perforated 16 mm,

3R (1-3-0) SMPTE 171-1986 Dec. 1986



Subject No. Journal


2R SMPTE 73-1987 Aug. 1987

35 mm, BH SMPTE 92-1986 Aug. 1986June 1991†

35 mm, CS-1870 SMPTE 102-1986 Jan. 1987

35 mm, DH-1870 SMPTE 237-1988 June 1988

35 mm, KS SMPTE 139-1986 Jan. 198765 mm, KS SMPTE 145-1988 Apr. 1988


KS-1870 SMPTE 119-1988 Aug. 1988

Film Usage, Camera

35 mm SMPTE 219M-1985 May 1985

Film Usage, Projector

Regular 8 SMPTE 232M-1987 Nov. 1987

16 mm SMPTE 10M-1985 Apr. 1986

35 mm SMPTE 194-1991 Oct. 1991

Image Areas and Film Usage, Camera

Regular 8 SMPTE 231-1989 Sept. 1989

Super8 SMPTE 157-1988 Jan. 198916 mm SMPTE 7-1988 Feb. 1989

Super 16 SMPTE 201M-1988 Sept. 1988

35 mm SMPTE 59-1989 Sept 1989Sept. 1990†

65 mm SMPTE 215-1990 Apr. 1991

Image Areas, Printer

Super 8 on 16 mm

(1-3) SMPTE 181-1985 Feb. 1986

(1-4) SMPTE 153-1985 Nov. 1985

Super 8 on 35 mm SMPTE 179-1985 Feb. 1986

16 mm Contact (positive fromnegative and reversal)

SMPTE 48-1989 Oct. 1989

16 mm to 35 mm EnlargementRatio

RP 66-1987 May 1988

Super 16 to 35 EnlargementRatio

SMPTE 210M-1988 Sept. 1988

35 mm to 16 mm Prints andDupe Negatives

RP 65-1987 May 1988

35 mm Release Picture-SoundContinuous Contact

SMPTE 111-1988 Feb. 1989

Image Areas and FilmUsage, Projectable

8 mm Release Prints RP 56-1990 Nov. 1990

Regular 8 SMPTE 234-1987 Nov. 1987

Super8 SMPTE 154-1988 Jan. 1989

16 mm SMPTE 233-1987 Oct. 1987Sept. 1990†

16 and 35 mm

TV Review Room SMPTE 148-1991 Dec. 199135 mm PH22.195-1984 Oct. 1984

Stereo Prints SMPTE 257 Dec. 1991†

70 mm SMPTE 152-1989 Dec. 1989

Subject No. Journal

Television

Alignment Color Bar Signal EG 1-1990 Oct. 1990

Density, Films and Slides RP 46-1990 Dec. 1990

Digital Control Interface

Electrical and MechanicalCharacteristics

SMPTE 207M-1984 June 1984June 1991†

Bit-Parallel SMPTE 125MRP 125-1984 Sept. 1991Apr 1985Sept. 1991

Control Message Architecture RP 138-1986 Sept. 1986June 1991

Supervisory Protocol RP 113-1983 June 1984June 1991†

Tributary Interconnection RP 139-1986 Sept. 1986June 1991†

HDTV 1125/60 Signal SMPTE 240M-1988 Sept. 1989

Illuminator for Test PatternTransparencies

RP 72-1977R1988

June 1977

Image Area

16 mm Film PH22.96-1982 Dec. 1982Dec. 1991

35 mm Film PH22.95-1984 Aug. 1984

Dec. 1991†Review Rooms SMPTE 148-1991 Dec. 1991

Slides and Opaques SMPTE 94-1985 Oct. 1985Dec. 1991†

Interface, 3-Channel Parallel SMPTE 253 Aug. 1990†

Analog HDTV RP 160-1991 Sept. 1991

Key Signals RP 157-1990 Jan. 1991

Monitors

Color Temperature RP 37-1969R1982

Sept. 1969

Colorimetry RP 145-1987 Nov. 1987

Electroacoustic Response SMPTE 222M-1987 May 1987

Setting of White for RP 71-1977 June 1977

Reference Signal, 525-Line RP 154 Jan. 1990†

Review Room Screens RP 41-1983 May 1984

Sept. 1991Scanning, Film Transfer to TV EG 25-1991 Sept. 1991

2 X 2 Slide Mount RP 9-1986R1990

Nov. 1986

Test Patterns

Alignment RP 27.1-1989 July 1989

Cameras, Telecine RP 27.7-1987 Jan. 1988

Linearity RP 38.1-1989 June 1989

Mid-Frequency Response RP 27.5-1989 Aug. 1989

Picture Steadiness RP 27.4-1985 Jan. 1986

Registration RP 27.2-1989 July 1989

Safe Areas RP 27.3-1989 Aug. 1989



Subject No. Journal

Television Recording andReproduction

Audio Channel Assignments,

AES/EBU Inputs EG 26-1991 Sept. 1991

Channel Allocation, Stereo RP 142-1986 Apr 1987

Device Control Elements EG 19-1988 Mar 1989

Edit Decision ListsStorage RP 132-1985

R1989May 1986

Transfer RP 146-1987 Nov. 1987

Polarity, Stereo Signals RP 148-1987 Dec. 1987

Tape Care and Handling RP 103-1982R1987

Oct. 1982

Time and Control Code SMPTE 12M-1986 June 1986

Recording Requirements RP 101-1991 Aug. 1991

Vertical Interval - LongitudinalRelationship

RP 159-1991 July 1991

Helical Scan

Raw Stock,

Reference Tape SMPTE 26M-1989 June 1989

Receiver/Monitor TestTapes

Types E, G and H RP 96-1988 Nov. 1988

Reels, 1-in SMPTE 24M-1985 July 1985

Tape, 1-in SMPTE 25M-1989 June 1989

Type B, 1-in

Basic Parameters SMPTE 15M-1987 Aug. 1987

Carrier Frequencies andPreemphasis

RP 84-1987 July 1987

Dropout RP 121-1988 Sept. 1988

Frequency Response andOperating Level

SMPTE 17M-1987 Aug. 1987

Record Dimensions SMPTE 16M-1987 Aug. 1987

Reference Tapes

Video and Audio RP 107-1988 Sept. 1988

Record Dimensions SMPTE 30M-1989 July 1989

Recorder ParametersSMPTE 29M-1989

July 1989

Time and Control Code

RecordingRequirements

RP 93-1989 Apr 1990

Tracking-Control Record RP 83-1987 July 1987

Type C, 1-in

Alignment Tapes andProcedures

EG 24 Nov. 1990†

Basic Parameters V98.18M-1983 Nov. 1983Nov. 1990†

Dropout RP 121-1988 Sept. 1988

Frequency Response andReference Level

SMPTE 20M-1985 July 1985 Nov.1990†

Record Dimensions V98.19M-1983 May 1984Nov. 1990†

Recorder Parameters RP 86-1985 Aug. 1985

Reference Tapes

Record Dimensions V98.28M-1983 Dec. 1983(withdrawnJuly 1991*)

Recorder Parameters V98.27M-1983 Dec. 1983(withdrawnJuly 1991*)

Tracking-Control Record RP 85-1985 Aug. 1985

Subject No. Journal

Type D-1, 19 mm

Audio Control Words,

Decoding RP 161-1991 Dec. 1991

Audio Levels and Indicators RP 155-1990 May 1991

Bar Code Labeling RP 156-1990 Jan. 1991

Cue, Time and Control

Code Records

SMPTE 228M Mar 1986†

Helical Data and ControlRecords

SMPTE 227M Mar 1986†

Magnetic Tape SMPTE 225M Mar. 1986†

Nomenclature EG 21 July 1990†

Tape Cassette SMPTE 226M Mar 1986†

Tape Record SMPTE 224M Mar 1986†

Transport GeometryParameters

EG 10 Mar 1986†

Type D-2,19 mm

Audio Levels and Indicators RP 155-1990 May 1991

Bar Code Labeling RP 156-1990 Jan. 1991

Cassette SMPTE 226M Mar 1986†

Cue, Time and ControlCode

SMPTE 248M July 1990†

Helical Data, ControlRecords SMPTE 247M July 1990†

Index of Documents EG 22 July 1990†

Nomenclature EG 21 July 1990†

Records SMPTE 245M July 1990†

Representation of NTSCEncoded Signal

SMPTE 244M July 1990†

Tape SMPTE 246M July 1990†

Tape Transport EG 20 July 1990†

Type E, 3/4-in

Carrier Frequencies,Preemphasis, Audio andControl Signals

RP 87-1991 Aug. 1991

Cassette Dimensions SMPTE 22M-1986R1991

Apr 1987

Record Dimensions SMPTE 21M-1986R1991

Apr 1987

Small Cassette SMPTE 31M-1989 Dec. 1989

Type F, 1/2-in

Carrier Frequencies andPreemphasis

RP 88-1986 Oct. 1986(withdrawnDec. 1991

Records and Parameters SMPTE 23M-1986 Aug. 1986July 1991*

Type G, 1/2-in

Carrier Frequencies,Preemphasis, Audio andControl Signals RP 119-1984 Nov. 1984

(withdrawnJune 1991*

Cassettes and Tape SMPTE 35M-1991 Dec. 1991

Records V98.34M-1984 Nov. 1984(withdrawnNov. 1991



Subject No. Journal

Type H, 1/2-in

Carrier Frequencies,Preemphasis, Audio andControl Signals

RP 112-1983R1988

Feb. 1984

Records V98.32M-1983 Feb. 1984

Tape and Cassette V98.33M-1983 Feb. 1984

Type L, 1/2-inBasic System, TransportGeometry Parameters

RIP 144-1987 Feb. 1988Apr. 1990†

Records SMPTE 229M-1987 Feb. 1988Apr-1990†

Tapes and Cassette SMPTE 238M Sept. 1991†

Video, Audio, Time and Control

Code and Tracking Control SMPTE 230M-1987 Feb. 1988Apr. 1990†

Type M, 2 1/2-in

Basic System, TransportGeometry Parameters

RP 158-1991 Nov. 1991

Electrical Parameters SMPTE 251M-1991 Nov. 1991

Pulse Code ModulationAudio

SMPTE 252M-1991 Nov. 1991

Records SMPTE 249M-1991 Nov. 1991

Tapes and Cassettes SMPTE 250M-1991 Nov. 1991

Quadruplex

Audio 2 Level/Response RP 102-1991 Aug. 1991

Dropout Detection RP 47-1985R1989

Sept. 1985

Headwheel and Guides RP 36-1989 June 1989

Leader SMPTE 256M Feb. 1991†

Monochrome V98.2-1982 Dec. 1982(withdrawnSept. 1991*)

Color V98.9-1983 Sept. 1983(withdrawnSept. 1991*)

Modulation Practices RIP 6-1985 Sept. 1985

Patch Splices RP 5-1988

R1989

Dec. 1988

Records, Characteristics ofAudio

SMPTE 3-1986 Oct. 1986

Record Dimensions, Video,Audio and Tracking Control

SMPTE 6-1988 Oct. 1988

Record, Tracking Control RP 16-1988 Dec. 1988

Reels,

2-in SMPTE 5-1989 Nov. 1989

1/2-in SMPTE 14-1988 July 1988

Speed SMPTE 4-1989 Nov. 1989

Spools, Cartridge SMPTE 13-1988 July 1988

Labels RP 60-1991 Aug. 1991

Tape Dimensions SMPTE 1-1991 Apr 1991

Tape Vacuum Guide RP11-1984R1989

Feb. 1985

Tape Usage, Cartridge/ Cassette Spools

EG 6-1982R1987

Mar 1983

Subject No. Journal

Test Tapes

Multifrequency

15 in/s SMPTE 8-1989 May 1989

7.5 in/s SMPTE 11-1989 May 1989

Video Frequency, 15 in/s,HB

RP 43-1988 Nov. 1988

Vertical Interval Signal RP 57-1974

R1985

Jan. 1975(withdrawn1990*)Jan. 1991

Test Materials

Medical Diagnostic Imaging RP 133-1991 June 1991

Photographic

Regular 8 Registration RP 19-1987 Mar 1988

Super 8 Registration RP 32-1987 Apr. 1988

16 mm Buzz-Track RP 67-1989 Oct. 1989

Flutter RP 70-1989 Feb. 1990

Projector Alignment RP 82-1990 Sept. 199

Registration RP 20-1987 Mar. 1988

Scanning Beam RP 81-1989 Jan. 1990

Sound Focusing RP 63-1989 Sept. 198

Sound Projector RP 18-1991 July 1991

35 mm Buzz-Track RP 68-1984 May 1985

Flutter RP 97-1987 Oct. 1987

Projector Alignment RP 40-1971R1977

Aug. 1971May 1982

AnamorphicAttachments

RP 110-1988 Oct. 1988

Scanning Beam RP 69-1989 Oct. 1989

Sound Focusing RP 64-1987 Oct. 1987

Theatre Test RP 35-1990 Nov. 1990

70 mm Projector Alignment RP 91-1987 Apr. 1988

Magnetic

Super 8 Azimuth Alignment RP 61-1989 Sept. 198

Flutter RIP 62-1989 Feb. 1990

MultifrequencyRP 92-1990

May 1991

16 mm Azimuth Alignment RP 78-1983 Sept. 1984

Flutter RP 76-1983 Sept. 1984

Multifrequency RP 90-1979 Jan. 1980

35 mm Azimuth Alignment RP 77-1987 June 1987

4-Track RIP 80-1987 June 1987

Flutter RP 75-1989 Mar 1990

4-Track RP 79-1989 Jan. 1990

Multifrequency RP 127-1985 Feb. 1986

4-Track RP 143-1990 June 1991

70 mm Multifrequency RIP 128-1985 Feb. 1986



Subject No. Journal

MISCELLANEOUS

Camera Equipment

Space Environment EG 8-1984R1989

Jan. 1985

Mounting Connections SMPTE 220-1985 Jan. 1986

Cartridge, Super 8 Camera

Notches SMPTE 166-1988 Mar 1988

Silent

50 Ft.

Model I

Aperture, Profile,Pressure Pad, FilmPosition

SMPTE 159.2-1986 Sept. 1986

Camera RunLength, Perfor-ation Cut-Out,End-of-Run Notch

SMPTE 200M-1988 Mar 1989

Cartridge,Cartridge-CameraInterface, Take-Up

Core Drive

SMPTE 159.1-1986 Sept. 1986

Model II

Cartridge,Cartridge-CameraFit, Core

SMPTE 190M-1988 Apr 1989

Film Length,Camera Run

SMPTE 188M-1988 Apr 1989

Position SMPTE 189M-1988 Apr 1989

Speed, ColorBalance,Identification

SMPTE 191M-1988 Apr 1989

Sound

50 Ft.

Model I

Aperture, Pressure

Pad, Film Position

SMPTE 198-1986 Mar 1987

Camera-RunLength, Perfor-ation Cut-Out,End-of-Run Notch

SMPTE 200M-1988 Mar 1989

Cartridge,Cartridge-CameraInterface, CoreDrive

SMPTE 197-1986 Mar 1987

Pressure PadFlatness, ApertureProfile

SMIPTE 199-1986 Mar 1987

200 Ft.

Model I

Aperture, Profile,Film Position,

Pressure Pad,Flatness

SMPTE 206-1988 Mar 1989

Camera-RunLength, Perfor-ation Cut-Out,End-of-Run Notch

SMPTE 200M-1988 Mar 1989

Cartridge,Cartridge-CameraInterface, CoreDrive

SMPTE 205-1988 Feb. 1989

Subject No. Journal

Conference

Audio Reinforcement EG 4-1982R1987

Mar 1983

Projector EG 3-1989 Nov, 1989

Cores for Raw Stock FilmSMPTE 37M-1987 Dec. 1987

Density Measurements

Calibration of Densitometers RIP 15-1988 July 1988

Spectral Diffuse SMPTE 117M-1985 Oct. 1985

Edge Identification

35 mm Manufacturer-PrintedLatent Image

SMPTE 254 July 1991†

35 mm Release Prints RP 152-1989 May 1990

Edge Numbering

16 mm Film PH22.83-1990 Apr. 1991

16 mm Release Prints RIP 54-1974R1989

July 1974

Emulsion Orientation

Print Winding RIP 39-1970R1987

Apr 1970

Raw Stock Winding SMPTE 75M-1988 Dec. 1988

Film Length, 8 mm CameraSpool

(25-ft Capacity) SMPTE 143-1988 Apr 1988

Image Quality

70,35,16 mm EG 5-1989 June 1990

Jump and Weave

70,35,16 mm RP 105-1989 July 1990

Leaders

Preprint, 8 mm RIP 49-1986R1990

Oct. 1986

Universal PH22.55-1983 Sept. 1984

Lenses

Focus Scales, 16 and 8 mm

Cameras SMPTE 74-1988 June 1988

Lens Mounts

16 and 8 mm Cameras SMPTE 76-1985 May 1985

35 and 70 mm Projection. SMPTE 243-1989 Aug. 1989

Lubrication, Print

16 and 8 mm RP 48-1990 Aug. 1990

35 mm RIP 151-1989 May 1989

Nomenclature

Cartridge/Cassette RP 58-1974R1990

Jan. 1975

Film SMPTE 56-1991 Dec. 1991



Subject No. Journal

Notching

Scene Change, 35 mm RP 53-1983R1988

Apr 1984

Raw Stock

Identification SMPTE 184M-1987 June 1987

Container Edge EG 2-1990 Oct. 1990

Reels

Regular 8 SMPTE 236-1987 Jan. 1988

Super8 PH22.16OM-1990 Mar 1991

75 mm Diameter SMPTE 212M-1984R1990

Jan. 1985

16 mm SMPTE 235-1987 Jan. 1988

35 mm Shipping SMPTE 192-1985 Jan. 1986Oct. 1990†

35 and 70 mm SMPTE 241-1989 Oct. 1989

Reversal Color

Film Speed SMPTE 146M-1986R1991

Aug. 1986

Safety Film SMPTE 223M-1985 Apr 1986

Screens

Gain

Determination RP 94-1989 Mar. 1990

Installation RP 95-1989 July 1990

Luminance

Drive-in Theatres RP 12-1988 Oct. 1988

Indoor Theatres SMPTE 196M-1986 Oct. 1986

Measurement RP 98-1990 Aug. 1990

Review Rooms, 8 mm RP 51-1990 May 1991

Television RP 41-1983 May 1984Sept. 1991*

Slides and Film Strips RP 59-1986R1990

Dec. 1986

Sensitometric Strips RP 14-1988 July 1988

Shutter Efficiency RP 153-1989 May 1990

Spindles

Super 8 Projector RP 50-1985R1990

Nov. 1985

16 mm Camera RP 24-1989 Dec. 1989

16 mm Projector RP 34-1989 Dec. 1989

35 mm Rewind RP 21-1987 Jan. 1988

Subject No. Journal

Splices

16 and Regular 8

Projection Tape RP 130-1990 Dec. 1990

Transverse Cemented RP 149-1988 Aug. 1988

Super8

Cemented RP 122-1983

R1988

July 1984

Tape RP 123-1983R1988

July 1984

35, 16 mm and Super 8Magnetic Tape

RP 129-1985R1990

Apr 1986

70,65 and 35 mm RP 111-1989 May 1989

Spools

8 mm, 25-ft Capacity SMPTE 107-1987 Dec. 1987

Double 8, 100-ft Capacity SMPTE 173-1988 May 1988

16 mm, Daylight-Loading, 50-to 400-ft Capacity

SMPTE 174-1988 Mar 1988

Sprockets

Regular 8 RP 73-1977R1988

Jan. 1978

Super8 RP 55-1974R1989

Jan. 1975

16 mm RP 74-1977R1988

Jan. 1978

35 mm SMPTE 242-1988 Oct. 1988

Storage

Edit Decision Lists RP 132-1985R1989

May 1986

Motion-Picture Films RP 131-1985 May 1986 J1991†

Studio Lighting

Pivot and Holders RP 124-1984R1989

Nov. 1984

Synchronization

Sound-Picture RP 25-1984R1989

June 1985

Tension

35 mm Systems RP 106-1982R1987

Oct. 1982

Theatre DesignEG 18-1989 June 1990

Unsteadiness

High-Speed Camera RP 17-1964R1987

May 1964

______________ R = Reaffirmed* Withdrawal notice† Proposal‡ Proposed technical revision



Glossary

____________________________________________________________

Acetate (cellulose triacetate)A slow burning safety basematerial used for motion picture

films. Also, in sheet form, foroverlay cells.

Additive ColorColor mixture by the addition oflight of the three primaries, red,green, and blue.

Aerial Image or Virtual ImageAn image focused by aprojection lens near a field orrelay lens. A camera lens is thenused to form a real image on thefilm from the aerial image. A celor another material can beplaced at the aerial imagelocation to combine it with theaerial image on film.

AgitationKeeping various solutions inmotion while developing film.Agitation is necessary to achieveeven solution action, oruniformity, and temperatureconsistency.

Anamorphic LensDesigned for wide-screen movie

photography and projection. Alens that produces a "squeezed"image on film in the camera.When projected on a screenusing an appropriate lens toreverse the effect, the imagespreads out to lifelikeproportions.

AnimationThe technique of synthesizingapparent mobility from inanimateobjects or drawings through themedium of cinematography. Theterm is also used for the

sequence of drawings made tocreate the movement, and forthe movement itself when seenon the screen.

Animation CameraA motion picture camera withspecial capability for animation

work, which usually includesframe and footage counters, theability to expose a single frameat a time, reverse-filmingcapability, and parallax-freeviewing.

Answer PrintThe first print of the cut negativeoffered by the laboratory to theproducer for acceptance. It isusually studied carefully todetermine whether changes arerequired prior to printing thebalance of the order.

Antihalation ProtectionA dark layer coated on or in thefilm to absorb light that wouldotherwise be reflected from thebase back into the emulsion.See Halation .

Aperture(1) Lens: The orifice, usually anadjustable iris, which limits theamount of light passing througha lens. (2) Camera: In motionpicture cameras, the mask

opening that defines the area ofeach frame exposed. (3)Projector: In motion pictureprojectors, the mask openingthat defines the area of eachframe projected.

Aspect Ratio (A. R.)The proportion of picture width toheight. A. R. for ProjectionPrints.

Average GradientA measure of contrast of aphotographic image,

representing the slope of aportion of a characteristic curve.

Balance StripeA magnetic stripe on theopposite edge of the film fromthe magnetic sound track.

BaseThe transparent support onwhich the photographic emulsion

of a film is coated.

Base Plus FogDensity of the film support plusthe silver or dye produced by theeffects of the developer Pertainsonly to an unexposed portion ofthe film. See Minimum Density .

Bipack FilmingThe running of two filmssimultaneously through acamera or optical printer, eitherto expose both or expose onethrough the other, using the onenearest to the lens as a mask.Often used in special effectswork to combine live action withanimated images.

Blackbody RadiatorA light source which has acontinuous, smooth spectraldistribution.

Blooping InkUsed to opaque the section of apositive film splice in a soundtrack; to reduce the noise

created as the splice passesover the projector sound head.

Blowup (part of frame)In transferring an image bymeans of an optical printer, it ispossible to enlarge a properlyproportioned fraction of theoriginal image to full frame sizein the copy, or to enlarge anentire frame to a larger format.

BoomA long, adjustable arm used toposition a microphone during

production.

Bounce LightLight that is reflected toilluminate a subject indirectly.

Broad LightSoft, floodlight-type ofillumination unit; usually notfocusable.



BucklingThe effect of shrinkage of theoutside edges of film.

Burn-InThe photographic doubleexposure of a title or other

subject matter over previouslyexposed film.

Camera FilmA product intended for originalphotography.

Catalog Number (CAT No.)Identifies a particular product.

CelA transparent sheet of celluloseacetate or similar plastic servingas a support or overlay fordrawings, lettering, etc., in

animation and title work.

Characteristic CurveA curve showing the relationbetween the exposure of aphotographic material and theimage density produced afterprocessing.

ClawMechanism used in mostcameras and projectors to movethe film intermittently.

Coated Lens

A lens covered with a very thinlayer of transparent material thatreduces the amount of lightreflected by the surface of thelens. A coated lens usuallytransmits more light than anuncoated lens at the same f -stop, because of less flare.

Color BalanceColor as seen on a print.

Color CorrectionAlteration of tonal values ofcolored objects or images by theuse of filters, either with cameraor printer. The alteration isaccomplished by means of colorcompensating (CC) filters or bycolor printing (CP) filters, or lightvalves.

Color SensitivityThe portion of the spectrum towhich a film is sensitive. Theability of the eye or photographicstock to respond to variouswavelengths of light. Sometimesconfused with Spectral

Sensitivity. See Panchromatic and Orthochromatic .

Color TemperatureThe color quality - expressed indegrees Kelvin (K) - of the lightsource. The higher the colortemperature, the bluer the light;the lower the temperature, theredder the light. Reducing ColorTemperature.

CompositeA single piece of film bearingboth picture and matching

sound.

ConformTo match the original film to thefinal edited workprint.

Contact PrintA print made by exposing thereceiving material while it is incontact with a negative orintermediate. Images in the printwill be the same size as those inthe original but with a reversedleft-to-right orientation, asviewed through the base.

ContrastThe brightness range of thelighting on a subject or thescene.

Control StripA strip of film that has beenexposed to a stepped densityscale under tightly controlledconditions. Such strips areprocessed with regularproduction films and comparedwith a reference strip using atransmission densitometer as acheck on the quality of theprocess.

CoreA cylinder on which film iswound for transport and storage.

Correction FiltersA medium enabling a colorchange.

Countercurrent WashWash water that is flowingthrough several interconnectedtanks in the opposite direction tothe film travel. The inlet pipe isusually situated near the bottomof the tank and the overflow at

the waterline near the filmentrance area.

CouplerA chemical incorporated in theemulsion of color film stockswhich produces a dye imageassociated with the developedsilver image.

CRIColor Reversal Intermediate Filmand process.

Cross-Modulation Test

(Cross Mod)A test method for determiningthe optimum print densityrequirements for a variable areasound track.

CurlThe departure from the flatnessof photographic film. Curltowards the emulsion side isreferred to as "positive curl"; curltowards the base side is"negative curl.”

Cyan

Blue-green color, thecomplement of red.

Dailies (Rushes)At one time, an untimed one-light first print, made withoutregard to scene-to-scene colorbalance, from which the actionand exposures are checked.Today, most laboratories colorbalance all dailies.

DatasheetA publication giving technicaldetails of a specific film product.

DefinitionThe clarity or distinctiveness withwhich detail of an image isrendered.

DensitometerAn instrument for measuring theoptical density of a non-opaquematerial.



DensityThe light-stopping characteristicsof a film or filter It is thelogarithm of the opacity ofdeveloped photographic film.Visual density is measurementof density approximating the

sensitivity of the human eye.Printing density is measurementapproximating sensitivity of printstock. A film sample thattransmits one-half of the incidentlight has a transmittance of 0.50,or 50 percent, and a density of0.30.

Depth of FieldThe distance range between thenearest and farthest objects thatappear in acceptably sharpfocus. Depth of field depends onthe lens opening, the focal

length of the lens, and thedistance from the lens to thesubject.

Depth of FocusThe distance range over whichthe film plane could be locatedinside the camera and still havethe subject appear in sharpfocus; often misused to meandepth of field.

DeveloperA solution used to turn the latentimage into a visible image on

exposed films.

DiaphragmAn adjustable opening mountedbehind or between the elementsof a lens used to control theamount of light that reaches thefilm. Openings are usuallycalibrated in f -numbers.

DissolveAn optical or camera effectwhere two scenes overlap. Onescene fades out, the new scenefades in.

D Log H CurveThe curve showing the relationbetween the logarithm of theexposure and the resultantdensity on processed film, SeeCharacteristic Curve .

Double-System SoundThe recording of sound on audiotape and picture on film, that canbe synchronized in a laterprocess.

Dubbing

The addition of sound (eithermusic or dialogue) to a visualpresentation through a re-recording process, whichprepares a complete sound track(usually magnetic) that can betransferred to, and synchronizedwith, the visual presentation.

DupeA copy negative, short forduplicate negative.

Edge Numbers(Key Numbers/Footage

Numbers) Sequential numbersprinted along the edge of a stripof film by the manufacturer todesignate identification.

EdgewaxingEnables smoother transport ofprocessed film through aprojector.

EditingThe process of assembling,arranging, and trimming thedesired shots and sound tracksto the best advantage of the

desired end product.

EmulsionA thin coating of light-sensitivematerial in which the image isformed.

Emulsion SideThe side of the film base coatedwith emulsion.

Equivalent Neutral Density(END)In a color film, expresses each ofthe three density numbers in theamount of gray that eachcomponent can form.

ESTAR BaseThe trade name applied to thepolyethylene terephthalate filmbase manufactured by Kodak.

Existing LightAvailable light. Strictly speaking,existing light covers all naturallighting from moonlight tosunshine. For photographicpurposes, existing lightrepresents the light that is

already on the scene or projectand includes room lamps,fluorescent lamps, spotlights,neon signs, candles, daylightthrough windows, outdoorscenes at twilight or inmoonlight.

ExposureThe quantity of light allowed toact on a photographic material; aproduct of the intensity(controlled by the lens opening)and the duration (controlled bythe shutter opening and frame

rate) of light striking the film.

Exposure Index (EI)A number assigned to a camerafilm that expresses the relativesensitivity to light (speed) of thatmaterial. The exposure indexesare based on the film emulsionspeed, a standard exposuretechnique, and specificprocessing solution.

Exposure LatitudeThe range of camera exposure,from underexposure to

overexposure, that will produceacceptable pictures from aspecific film.

Exposure MeterAn optical or photoelectricaldevice designed to ascertain theamount of light falling on asubject for the purpose ofdetermining the correct exposureof the film.

Exposure SettingThe lens opening selected toexpose the film.



FadeExposure of motion picture filmeither in the camera or duringsubsequent operations, so that,for a fade-in , starting with noexposure and extending for apredetermined number of

frames, each successive framereceives a systematically greaterexposure than the framepreceding it, until full normalexposure for the scene has beenattained. From this frame on,successive frames receiveidentical exposure for theremainder of the take. Theprocedure is reversed in thecase of fade-outs .

FastUsed to describe film havinggreat enough sensitivity to light

that it can form usable images atlow or very low light levels. Canalso apply to processing andoptical components. See Speed .

FieldThe portion of the scene in frontof the camera represented withinthe limits of the camera apertureat the focal plane. Area of fieldthus varies with focal length oflens and camera subjectdistance. In television, one oftwo complete sequences ofraster lines forming an image.

Fill LightLight used to soften shadows,especially to reduce lightingratio.

FilmA photographic emulsion coatedon a flexible transparent plasticbase.

Film NumberAn identification code numbergiven to every film product.

Film PerforationSymmetrical high precision holespunched at regular intervalsalong the length of film to acceptthe pins, pegs, or sprockets ofthe drive system as the film istransported through the camera,projector, or other equipment.

FilterA piece of glass, gelatin, or othertransparent material used overthe lens or light source toemphasize, eliminate, or changethe color or density of the entirescene or certain elements in the

scene.

Fixing Bath (Hypo)A solution that removes anynonexposed silver-halidecrystals in the film. In addition,with color films, the silver isremoved from the exposed area,leaving only the image-formingdyes.

Flashing (Fogging)Technique for lowering contrastby giving a slight but uniformexposure to a film before

processing.

FlutingThe effect of swelling of theoutside edges of the film.

f -NumberA number used to indicate thesize and light passing ability ofthe lens opening. Common f -numbers are fl 1.4, fl 2.0 , fl 2.8,fl 4.0, fl 5.6, fl 8, fl 16, and fl 22.The larger the f -number, thesmaller the lens opening. In thisseries, fl 1.4 is the largest lens

opening and fl 22 is the smallest.Each f -number is 0.30 Log Hdifferent. These numbersindicate the ratio of the focallength to the aperture in anoptical system. See Stop and T- stop .

Focal LengthThe distance from the opticalcenter of a lens to the point atwhich parallel rays of lightpassing through it converge (thefocal point).

Focal PlaneThe area in space on whichparallel rays of light refractedthrough a lens focus to formsharp images.

Focus(1) The point where parallel raysof light refracted by a given lensappear to meet. (2) The degreeof clarity of an image refractedthrough a lens onto a screen ora film emulsion.

FoggingDarkening or discoloring of anegative or print or lightening ordiscoloring of a reversal materialcaused by (1) exposure tononimage-forming light to whichthe photographic material issensitive, (2) overdevelopment,(3) outdated film, or (4) storageof film in a hot, humid place. SeeFlashing .

Force ProcessingIncreasing the development time

or the processing temperaturesof a film to increase its effectivespeed (raising the EI).

Forehardened FilmAny of the films designed forhigh-temperature processing.

FormatThe size or aspect ratio of amotion picture frame.

fpmFeet per minute, expressing thespeed of film moving through a

mechanism.

fpsFrames per second, indicatingthe number of images exposedper second.

FrameOne individual picture on a pieceof motion picture film.

Frame CounterAn indicator which shows theexact number of framesexposed.

GammaThe measure of contrast of aphotographic image,representing the slope of thestraight-line portion of thecharacteristic curve.



GateThe mechanism for a camera orprojector for advancing film.Also, loosely, the camera orprojector aperture.

Graininess

The subjective sensation of arandom pattern apparent to aviewer seeing small local densityvariations in an overall uniformdensity area.

GranularityThe objective measurement,with a transmission densitometerhaving a small aperture, of thelocal density variations that giverise to the sensation ofgraininess.

Gray Card

A tool used in photography. SeeNeutral Test Card .

H&D CurveThe curve showing therelationship between exposureand density, named after Hurter& Driffield, pioneers in the studyof sensitometry. SeeCharacteristic Curve .

HalationUnwanted exposure surroundinga photographic image caused bylight scattered within the

emulsion or reflected from thebase.

HalideCompound with a halogen, suchas chlorine, bromine, iodine.

Haze FiltersThese filters provide varyingdegrees of blue light and greenlight absorption.

Head-RecordingOn a tape recorder, printer, orprojector, an electromagnetacross which the tape or film isdrawn and which magnetizes thecoating on the tape base duringrecording.

Hertz (Hz)Unit of frequency; 1 Hz = 1 cycleper second.

HighlightsVisually the brightest, orphotometrically the mostluminant, areas of a subject. Inthe negative image, the areas ofgreatest density; in the positiveimage, the areas of least

density.

HMI LightsMetal halide lamps arefundamentally mercury arcs withmetal halide additives to adjustthe color balance. Usually ratedat approximately 5400 K. Fordaylight-balanced films.

Hypo (Fixer)The name for fixing bath madefrom ammonium or sodiumthiosulfate, other chemicals, andwater; often used as a synonym

for fixing bath.

IlluminantThe source of light used toproject the film image or thesource of light used to exposethe film, such as anincandescent (tungsten) bulb.

Image SpreadAn image recorded larger thanthe surface over which the lightwas incident.

Image Structure

Measurement of the capacity ofan emulsion to record detailfaithfully.

Incident LightThe light from any source.

InfraredNonvisible radiation from thelong wavelength portion of thespectrum.

InterlockA synchronous presentation ofthe workprint and the soundtrack (on separate films) bymeans of a mechanical orelectrical drive between theprojector and the soundreproducer.

Intermittent MovementThe mechanism of a camera,printer or projector by whicheach frame is held stationarywhen exposed and thenadvanced to the next.

InternegativeA color negative made from areversal color positive or masterpositive.

InterpositiveAny positive duplicate of a filmused for further printing.

ipsInches per second.

KDegrees Kelvin, the unit of thecolor temperature scale.

Key LightThe main illumination on thesubject.

LaboratoryAn establishment organized andequipped to provide services forfilm processing, duplication, andother film services.

Laboratory FilmFilm products, not intended fororiginal photography, butnecessary to complete the

production process.

Latent ImageThe invisible image registeredon a photographic emulsion dueto the reaction produced in theemulsion by exposure to light.

Latent Image Edge NumberingImages placed on the edge offilm products in manufacturingthat become visible afterdevelopment.

LeaderA length of film at the beginningand end of a film foridentification and handling andfor transporting film through aprocessing machine. Also, blackfilm used for spacing inconforming A&B negatives andworkprints.



LensIn optics, any transparentsystem by which images may beformed through the lightrefracting properties of curvedsurfaces.

Light Balancing FilterMakes minor color balanceadjustments to the light reachingthe film. See Color Balance .

Lighting Contrast RatioRelationship between key lightsand fill lights.

Light MeterAn instrument that aids in thedetermination of the propercamera exposure setting, SeeExposure Meter .

Light PipingLight striking the edge of filmand traveling along the base toexpose the emulsion.

Light ValveDevice for controlling intensityand color quality of light onadditive prints; on sound-trackrecorder.

LubricationTo reduce friction, required onprocessed print film for optimumtransport and projection life.

LuminanceThe measured value ofbrightness; the reflected lightmeasured on motion picturescreens. Luminance ratio.

LuxA metric measure of illuminationapproximately equal to 10 foot-candles (1 lux = 10.764 fc).

Machine SpeedThe rate at which film movesthrough the processor,expressed in feet or metres perminute.

MagazineA lightproof container whichholds raw film stock that is beingtransported through a motionpicture camera, optical printer, orprocessor.

MagentaBlue-red; the complementarycolor to green.

Magnetic Tape / Magnetic FilmUsually 1/4-inch plastic audiotape that has been coated with

particles that can bemagnetized. As used on taperecorders. In film use, it is alsoused in various formatscompatible with super 8, 16 mm,35 mm and 70 mm films.

Magnetic TrackAudio material recorded on afilm or tape that has been coatedwith a magnetic recordingmedium.

MasterBeing or relating to a material

from which duplicates are made.

Master Positive (Interpositive)An intermediate made from anegative and from which aduplicate negative is made.

MatteAny opaque material used toprevent an exposure. Anobstruction to all or part of thefield of view. See Traveling Matte .

Maximum Density (D-max)

The portion of the shoulder ofthe characteristic curve wherefurther increases in exposure onnegative film or decreases inexposure on reversal film willproduce no increase in density.

Mechanical SpecificationsThe physical characteristics of aprocess that are designed toproduce optimum results whenused with specific film andchemical combinations, Theseinclude temperature, solutionimmersion times, replenisherrates, recirculation pump rates,filtration, agitation levels, andother pertinent information.

Minimum Density (D-min)The constant density area in thetoe of the characteristic curvewhere less exposure on negativefilm or more exposure onreversal film will produce noreduction in density. In black

white film, this area issometimes called base plus fog .

Modulation-Transfer FunctionCurveA graph which describes a film'scapacity to reproduce complexspatial frequencies. Themeasurements indicate theeffect on the image of lightdiffusion within the emulsion.

NegativeThe term "negative" is used todesignate any of the following (in

either black-and-white or color);(1) the raw stock specificallydesigned for negative images,11; (2) the negative image; (3)negative raw stock that has beenexposed but has not beenprocessed; or (4) processed filmbearing a negative image.

Negative ImageA photographic image in whichthe values of light and shade ofthe original photographedsubject are represented ininverse order.

Note: In a negative image,light objects of the originalsubject are represented by highdensities and dark objects arerepresented by low densities. Ina color negative, colors arerepresented by theircomplementary color.

Negative-Positive Process isany photographic process inwhich a positive image isobtained by development of alatent image made by printingfrom a negative.

Neutral Density FiltersTo reduce intensity of light.



Neutral Test CardA commercially prepared card:One side has a neutral 18-percent reflection that has theappearance of medium gray.The other side has a neutralreflection of 90 percent and has

the visual appearance of starkwhite.

Nitrate FilmA photographic film with acellulose nitrate base which isunstable and can be a firehazard. Not used for any Kodakor Eastman films since 1951-52,but may be present in storagevaults.

NomographFor calculating the effect of afilter on color temperature.

Optical EffectsThe alteration of a motion picturescene, commonly introduced induplication, including fades,dissolves, and wipes, as well asmany more involved effects.

Optical Sound TrackA sound track in which thesound record takes the form ofarea variations in a non-pictorialphotographic image, also calledphotographic sound track."Optical recorder" transfers

magnetic sound to an opticalimage.

Optimum Print DensityThe desired screen quality.

OriginalAn initial photographic image orsound recording - whetherphotographic or magnetic - asopposed to some stage ofduplication.

Origination FilmCamera product used in theinitial stage of production. SeeCamera Film .

Orthochromatic (Ortho) FilmFilm that is sensitive to only blueand green light.

OverexposureA condition in which too muchlight reaches the film, producinga dense negative or a washed-out reversal.

Pan

A horizontal rotational movementby the camera.

Panchromatic (Pan) FilmBlack-and-white film which issensitive to all colors in tones ofabout the same relativebrightness as the human eyesees in the original scene. Filmsensitive to all visiblewavelengths.

Peak DensityWavelength of maximumabsorption. See Color

Correction .

Perforation(s)A hole. A means of transportingfilm. See Film Perforation .

Persistence of VisionA time-lag effect betweenmomentary visual stimulation ofthe eye and cessation ofresponse to that stimulation.

PhotocellDevice for converting variationsof light intensity into electrical

signals.

PinA component of a camera orprinter mechanism that engageswith a perforation to secure thefilm at the time of exposure, or toadvance the film for the nextexposure.

PitchThe distance from the bottomedge of one perforation to thebottom edge of the next.

Polarizing FilterTransparent material used tosubdue reflections and controlbrightness of the sky.

Positive FilmFilm intended primarily formaking an image opposite of anegative for viewing.

Positive ImageThe processed image resultingfrom the negative printingexposure made on positive film.The positive image looks like theoriginal scene.

PrintA positive picture, usuallyproduced from a negative image.Print Films .

Printer LightsOn additive printers, incrementalsteps.

Printer PointsAn increment of light-intensitychange. See Printer Lights .

PrintingCopying motion picture images

by exposure to light energy.

Printing FlowchartsDiagram of printing sequencesshowing the steps that can beused to produce a projectionprint.

ProcessingA procedure during whichexposed photographic film orpaper is developed, bleached,fixed, and washed to produceeither a negative image or apositive image. Description of

negative/positive processes;description of reversalprocesses.

ProductionThe general term used todescribe the processes involvedin arranging for and making allthe original material that is thebasis for the finished motionpicture.

ProjectionThe process of presenting animage by optical means andtransmitted light for visualreview. Causes of projectionnoise; projection damage to film.

Push ProcessingA means of increasing theexposure index of film. SeeForce Processing .



RacksA combination of the film rollers,or spools, drive assemblies,rods, frame mechanism, andother pertinent hardware that isput together to make a spiralpath of specific length for film

that is to be immersed in aprocessing tank.

RasterThe lines forming the scanningpattern of a television system.

Raw StockMotion picture film that has notbeen exposed or processed.

ReciprocityThe relationship between lightintensity and exposure time withrespect to the amount of

exposure received by the film.Reciprocity Law: Exposureequals Intensity of light strikingthe emulsion multiplied byexposure Time (E = IT).Reciprocity Effect: phenomenonby which the effect of therelationship between exposuretime and light intensity is not aconstant or linear one.

Reduction PrintingThe process of photographicallyproducing and recording asmaller image - usually on a

smaller film format - from alarger image.

Release PrintA composite print made forgeneral distribution andexhibition.

Rem JetAn antihalation and antistaticlayer on the back of the filmbase which is removed duringprocessing.

Resolving PowerAbility to visually distinguishrepetitive detail. Capacity of anemulsion to record fine detail.

ReticulationCracking or distorting of theemulsion during processing,usually caused by widetemperature, chemical-activity orpH differences between thesolutions. Exhibits a net-like

appearance.

Reversal FilmA film which, after exposure, isprocessed to produce a positiveimage that has the samecomposure as the viewed scene.

RMSRoot-Mean-Square. Thismathematical term is used tocharacterize deviations from amean value. The term "standarddeviation," which is synonymous,is also used. See Granularity .

Rough CutA preliminary trial stage in theprocess of editing a film. Shots,scenes, and sequences are laidout in approximate relationship,without detailed attention to theindividual cutting points.

SafelightA darkroom light fitted with afilter to absorb light rays to whichfilm is sensitive.

Safety Film

A slow-burning film as definedby ANSI PH1.25-1989. "Safetybase film," and "polyester basefilm" are synonymous with"safety film."

Scanning BeamIn television, the regularmovement of a spot of light orelectron beam producing theraster in a television system. Inmotion picture projection, anarrow slit of parallel rays of lightthat scans the optical soundtrack.

ScratchesNon-photographic blemishes onthe film emulsion or base. SeeWet Gate Printing .

SensitivityThe capacity to respond tostimulation. The ability of aphotographic emulsion to form alatent image when exposed tolight.

SensitometerAn instrument used to makereproducible exposures onphotographic materials forprocessing and manufacturingcontrol.

Sensitometric CurveA graph of the relationshipbetween the amount of exposuregiven a film and itscorresponding density afterprocessing. See Characteristic Curve .

SensitometryThe science of measuring theresponse of photographicemulsions to light.

SharpnessVisual sensation of theabruptness of an edge. Clarity.

ShotA single run of the camera.

ShoulderThe high-density portion of theCharacteristic Curve.

ShutterIn a motion picture camera, oroptical printer, the mechanicaldevice that shields the film fromlight at the aperture during thefilm advance portion of theintermittent cycle. Also, a similardevice in projectors for cuttingoff the projection light during thetime the film is advancing at theaperture.

Silver RecoveryReclaiming the silver fromprocessing solutions. Primarilyfrom the fix.

Single-Frame ExposureThe exposure of one frame ofmotion picture film at a time, inthe manner of still photography.Commonly used in animationand time-lapse.



Single-System SoundThe simultaneous recording ofsound and picture on the samefilm during the original shooting.

SlittingProcess by which a film roll is

split into narrower widths.

Slow MotionAction on the screen slower thanthe action that wasphotographed. The effect isproduced by shooting at a higherframe rate than that used in theprojector.

Sound Effects (Foley)Sound from a source other thanthe tracks bearing synchronizeddialogue, narration, or music;sound effects commonly

introduced into a master track inthe re-recording step, usuallywith the idea of enhancing theillusion of reality.

Sound TrackThe portion of a length of filmreserved for the sound record, orany recording so located. Also,any length of film bearing soundonly. Distortion from imagespread.

Special EffectsAny shot unobtainable by

straightforward motion pictureshooting techniques. Includesshots requiring multiple-imagemontages, split screens,vignetting, models, etc.

Spectral DistributionRange and proportion ofwavelengths radiated by aparticular illuminant.

Spectral-Dye-Density CurveA graph: (1) of the total densityof the three dye layers measuredas a function of wavelength, and(2) of the visual neutral densitiesof the combined layers similarlymeasured.

Spectral SensitivityThe relative sensitivity of aparticular emulsion to specificbands of the spectrum within thefilm's sensitivity range.Sometimes confused with ColorSensitivity.

Specular DensityComparing only the transmittedlight that is perpendicular to thefilm plane with the normalincident light, analogous tooptical printing and projection.

Speed(1) Inherent sensitivity of anemulsion to light. Representedby a number derived from afilm's characteristic curve.Relationship between speed andgraininess. Manufacturing tests

of speed. (2) The largest lensopening (smallest f -number) atwhich a lens can be set. A "fast"lens transmits more light andhas a larger opening and betteroptics than a "slow" lens.

SpliceThe joint between two pieces offilm.

SplicerA mechanical device for holdingfilm in alignment and with thecorrect sprocket hole alignment

during the operations required in joining two pieces of film.

SpoolA roll with flanges on which filmis wound for general handling.

StockGeneral term for motion picturefilm, particularly beforeexposure.

StopThe relationship between thefocal length of a lens and theeffective diameter of its aperture.An adjustable iris diaphragmpermits any ordinaryphotographic lens to be used atany stop within its range.Sometimes used synonymouslywith f -number as in "f -stop" Aunit of exposure change.

Stop Frame (hold frame)An optical printing effect in whicha single-frame image is repeatedto appear stationary whenprojected. Also, cameraexposure made one frame at atime rather than by continuous

running.

Straight-linePortion of the CharacteristicCurve where the slope does notchange because the rate ofdensity change for a given logexposure change is constant orlinear.

StripPart of a wide roll ofmanufactured film slit to its finalwidth for motion picture use.

StripeA narrow band of magneticcoating or photographic sound-developing solution applied to alength of motion picture film.

Subtractive ColorThe formation of colors by theremoval of selected portions ofthe white light spectrum bytransparent filters or dye images.

SynchronizationThe positioning of a sound trackso that it is in harmony with, and

timed to, the picture portion ofthe film.

Time-Fog CurvePlot of the rate of fog growthagainst a series of developmenttimes.

Time-Gamma CurveA plot of the rate of gammachange over a series ofdevelopment times. Used todetermine optimum developmenttime for black-and-whitenegative or positive film.

Time-Lapse MovieA movie that shows in a fewminutes or a few seconds,events that take hours or evendays to occur; accomplished byexposing single frames of film atfixed intervals.



ToeThat portion of the characteristiccurve where the slope begins toincrease gradually with constantchanges in exposure. SeeMinimum Density .

ToneThat degree of lightness ordarkness in any given area of aprint; also referred to as value.Cold tones (bluish) and warmtones (reddish) refer to the colorof the image in both black-and-white and color photographs.

Transfer Characteristics. SeeModulation-Transfer Curve .

Traveling Matte(1) A matte film which travels

through a printer in contact withthe printing film to preventexposure in certain areas. (2)Involves a technique forcombining two or more separateimages, moving in relation toeach other, on a finished motionpicture film so that each imageoccupies a portion of each framewithout overlapping the otherimage.

T-stopA lens marking which indicatesthe true light transmission of thelens at a given aperture insteadof the approximate lighttransmission indicated by the

conventional f -stop marking. Seef-Number or Stop .

Tungsten LightLight produced by an electricallyheated filament, having acontinuous spectral distribution.

Ultraviolet RadiationRadiation at the shortwavelength end of the spectrum,not visible to the eye. It producesfluorescence in some materials,The effects are more easilyregistered on film than visually.

Some unwanted ultravioletradiation can be controlled byfilters.

UnderexposureA condition in which too littlelight reaches the film, producinga thin negative or a dark reversalor print.

Variable-Area Sound TrackOptical sound record in whichthe modulations are representedby the varying width of theimage.

Visual DensitySpectral Sensitivity of thereceptor which approximatesthat of the human eye.

Wet Gate PrinterSpecial printer where film isimmersed in liquid with refractiveindex close to the film base,which minimizes the effect offine scratches on the film base.

WindingDesignation of the relationship ofperforation and emulsion

position for film as it leaves aspool or core.

WorkprintAny picture or sound-track print,usually a positive, intended foruse in the editing process toestablish, through a series oftrial cuttings, the finished versionof a film.



More In fo rmat ion

_____________________________________________________________________

For more information on Kodakproducts, in the U.S.A., call the KodakInformation Center at 1-800-242-2424from 8 a.m. to 9 p.m. (eastern

standard time), Monday throughFriday.

Kodak has many publications toassist you with information on Kodakproducts, equipment, and methods.

You can order the following

publications directly from Kodakthrough the order form in KODAKPublication No. L- 1, KODAK Index to

Photographic Information . To obtain acopy of L-1, send your request with $1to Eastman Kodak Company, Dept.412L, Rochester, NY 14650-0532,

U.S.A.Order film datasheets from therequest form in the back of this book.

Indexes and Sources

L-1 KODAK Index to Photographic Information

General Production

H-2 Cinematographer's Field Guide-Motion Picture Camera Rims H-5 EASTMAN Films for the Cinematographer H-23 The Book of Mm Care H-25* Motion Picture Prints from Color Originals R-27 KODAK Gray Cards

S-16 KODAK Projection Calculator and Seating Guide for Single- and

Multi-image Presentations H-61 LAD-Laboratory Aim Density

ProcessingH-24 Manual for Processing EA EASTMAN Color Dims J-4 Safe Handling of Photographic Chemicals

J-4S* Prevention of Contact Dermatitis in Photographic Work

J-21 CHOICES- Choosing the Right Silver-Recovery Method for Your Needs

Filtration

B-3 Handbook of KODAK Photographic Filters

K-4 How Safe is Your Safe Safelight?

Ecology

J-55 Disposal and Treatment of Photographic Effluents-In Support of Clean Water

Specific ApplicationsAC-24 Tropical Photography

C-9 Photography Under Arctic Conditions

H-9 TAF User's Guide

*A single copy is free from Eastman Kodak Company, Dept. 412L, Rochester, NY 14650-0532.



Books of Specia l

Interest

_______________________

The Book of Film Care (H-23)

This book from Kodak is written forthe worldwide motion picture filmcommunity who have made film partof their (and our) everyday lives. itcovers just about every aspect ofstorage, preservation, handling andmaintenance, projection, restoration,and rejuvenation of motion picturefilm. in addition, the appendices coveraspects of ESTAR Base and cellulosenitrate film bases, ANSI IT9.1 andANSI IT9.11 on archival film storage,a method of desiccating film, as wellas a comprehensive list of film

journals and periodicals, and a

reference and bibliography section.Anyone who appreciates the

motion picture art or who makes a

living working with film or who simplyshoots footage at family gatheringsand wants to know how to take care oftheir films, will want a copy of The Book of Film Care . This book providesan important single source oftechnical data and practical ideas forextending the useful life of

films-whoever and wherever you are!

Cinematographer's Field GuideMotion Picture Camera Films (H-2)Now you can take many pages of vitalmotion picture camera filminformation with you wherever yougo-just slip it in your shirt pocket orcamera bag. This new fifth edition ofKodak's Cinematographer's Field Guide has the data you need on allEASTMAN Motion Picture CameraFilms ... completely organized in one

hardcover book. Code numbers,exposures, processors, illumination,filters-the facts on films are right at

your fingertips! in the section on FilmTips and Techniques, you'll find ideason forceprocessing; hints on how tomake your films last longer; how tomake people look good when youshoot for TV; and a list of equipmentand accessories you and your crewneed to survive when you shoot on

location. Another section explains filmpackaging and tells you how todecipher film label codes. You'll alsorind out how to make ordering easierthe next time you need raw stock fromKodak. And if you ever want moretechnical or film order information, allyou have to do is refer to the guide'slist of Kodak people worldwide whocan answer your questions.Cinematographer's Field Guide - you'lluse it again and again whether you'rea student, instructor, camera operatordirector, or AV manager. it's bound for

easy carrying and pocket sized foreasy access.

Kodak Films

Documents

Transcript of Kodak Films