Knipe African Pygmies (English)€¦ ·...
Transcript of Knipe African Pygmies (English)€¦ ·...
“African Pygmies”
I originally decided to do my project on the political history of Cameroon. After traveling to my post in Lomié and learning a bit about the local people, however, I became interested in learning more about one particular group there – the Pygmies. I realized that not only would I enjoy researching this group more than the political history of Cameroon, but it would also be a more interesting and unique presentation for my fellow stagaires. Here is what I discovered: The term “pygmy” is used for a variety of ethnic groups characterized by short stature and who live across the globe. The best know pygmy groups are the Mbenga, Mbuti, and Twa groups of central Africa and the so-‐called “Negritos” of Southeast Asia. Other groups fitting the term also live in Australia, Papua New Guinea, and Brazil. Anthropologists actually define “pygmy” as any group whose adult men grow to less than 150 cm (about 4 feet 11 inches) in average height. Among the ancient Greeks, Homer described a similarly sized people reputed to live in India and parts of East Africa (now Ethiopia), and Aristotle wrote of “a race of dwarfish men… in caves underground.” The etymology of the word is originally derived from Greek – via Latin – and corresponded to a measurement of the distance between the elbow and the knuckles. Needless to say, the term is generally considered pejorative. Most people who fit the description prefer to be called to by the name of their ethnic group or tribe, especially
considering that many of these groups share little in common besides their height and comparative isolation. In Africa, pygmies live in several different ethnic groups throughout Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda, Angola, Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, the DRC, the Republic of Congo, the CAR, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and Cameroon. There are at least a dozen pygmy groups in Africa, and many of them are ethnically unrelated to one another. The best-‐known African groups are the Mbenga (including the Aka and Baka tribes) of the western Congo basin, who speak Bantu and Ubangian languages; the Mbuti (including the Efé, Asua, and Kango tribes) of the Ituri Rainforest, who speak Bantu and Central Sudanic languages; and the Twa of the Great Lakes area, who speak Bantu, Rundi, and Kiga languages.
It is estimated that there are between 250,000 and 600,000 pygmies living in the Congo rainforest alone. Although pygmies are typically forest people, the Twa groups often live in open swamp or desert. Most pygmy communities are hunter-‐gatherers and live at least partially on the wild products of their environment. Many also trade with neighboring farmers to acquire cultivated foods and other material items. Increasingly, pygmy groups are adopting the farming techniques of their African neighbors and are becoming less and less dependent on the hunter-‐gatherer techniques of their ancestors. The cultural identity of most pygmy groups, however, is still very closely tied to the rainforest, as are their spiritual and religious views. Most groups’ music and dance styles reflect this reverence and remain an important aspect of pygmy life in Africa. There has been a fair amount of research on the genetic characteristics of different pygmy groups, and though there are differing hypotheses as to the reason for their comparatively
short stature, there are some complementary theories. One theory suggests that their limited height is a genetic adaptation to low ultraviolet light levels. Under the constant cover of the dense jungle flora, their skin might absorb relatively little vitamin D, thereby limiting the calcium uptake necessary for bone growth and maintenance. Other explanations include a limited level of calcium in the rainforest food and soil, adaptations to the need to move through the thick jungle or to the heat and humidity, or rapid reproductive maturation due to early mortality. Yet another theory suggests that pygmies are smaller simply because they do not experience the growth spurt typical in most adolescent humans. Regardless of the contributing factors, their short stature and relative inexperience with the “modern” world has made them the frequent target of frequent discrimination, marginalization, and violence. Throughout history, pygmies have been viewed as inferior both by colonial authorities and the local Bantu tribes of central Africa. Under Belgian colonial rule, for example, the colonizers exported pygmy children to zoos throughout Europe, including to the United States for the 1907 World’s Fair. Another man named Ota Benga was displayed at the Bronx Zoo in New York City amongst monkeys and other so-‐called “native forest creatures.” In Africa, pygmies are often evicted from their land and given the lowest paying jobs. Most African governments do not consider pygmies as citizens and they are usually refused identity cards, deeds to land, health care and schooling. The increase in deforestation due to logging and mining interests in the Congo, the DRC, the CAR, Gabon, and Cameroon, in particular, have greatly added to their marginalization. By forcing them out of their traditional homelands and into local villages and cities, they are often looked down upon or abused by the dominant culture. In some cases, such as in Rwanda and the DRC, the abuse is extremely violent. Certain groups, such as Rwanda’s Hutus, have attempted to eradicate the pygmy and take the resources of the forest as a military conquest. In the Congo, where pygmies make up five to ten percent of the population, some live as slaves to Bantu masters. That nation, in particular, is highly stratified between these two major ethnic groups. Even though the pygmies are responsible for much of the hunting, fishing and manual labor in the jungle villages, pygmies and Bantus alike say pygmies are often paid only occasionally in cigarettes, used clothing, or with nothing at all. As a result of increased pressure from UNICEF and human rights activists, however, a law that would grant special protections to pygmy people was recently introduced and is currently awaiting a vote by the Congolese parliament. In Cameroon, there are estimated to be around 5,000 pygmies belonging to the Baka tribe. As you can tell by the map, the Baka make up the vast majority of pygmies in Cameroon. When I was in Lomié for my site visit, I had the opportunity to meet one family of Baka, where they introduced me to their farm. GeoAid, the NGO with whom I will be working in Lomié, has done a fair amount of outreach, education, and advocacy on their behalf. GeoAid arranged for the farmland to be cleared, they donated seeds, they set up farming classes with a local expert, and they taught them bookkeeping practices. These Baka now live off
the produce from the farm instead of foraging for their food on a daily basis and sell what they don’t eat to the locals. Besides a diet of vegetables, most of which are the same as the local Bantu diet (such as yam, fruit, manioc, maize, and palm oil), the Baka eat insects such as caterpillars, termites, and termite larvae. Many Baka also eat crab, shrimp, fish, and the occasional crocodile egg that they are able to catch in or around fresh water. They then carry the foodstuffs back to camp in baskets and panniers, where they are shared according to principles of reciprocity and mutual assistance. For the most part, the food is eaten immediately or within a few days from the gathering, as the Baka do not use preservation methods. Needless to say, food gathering in the rainforest is one of the most important activities for the survival of the group. For catching larger animals, the Baka use bows and crossbows with poisoned arrows. The Greater Spot-‐nosed Monkey (Cercopithecus nictitans), Red-‐tailed Monkey (Cercopithecus ascanius), and mantled guereza (Colobus guereza) are rare but more delectable feasts. More common bushmeat meals consist of antelope, blue duiker (Cephalophus monticola), tree pangolin, giant forest rat (Cricetomys emini), and the forest mouse. Most of these animals are caught using traps. In Baka society, men and women have fairly defined roles. Women build the huts, or mongulus, and dam small streams to catch fish. When they roam the forest, the women carry their few possessions and follow their husbands. Baka men have the more prestigious task of hunting and trapping. The Baka have no specific marriage ceremonies, but evidence suggests that marriages are contracted during the hunting season, when men are able to prove their hunting abilities by bringing game home to their potential in-‐laws. Unlike some of their Bantu neighbors, the Baka do not practice polygamy.
Traditional Baka houses are built using the sticks, branches and leaves of the forest. They are usually small and igloo-‐shaped. As they traded and interacted with Bantus over the years, however, their houses and living conditions more closely resembled those of the
Bantu. In these photos, for example, these Baka have used rugs instead of palm branches as a roof. It is also not uncommon today to see Baka living in small houses made of clay bricks, similar to their rural Bantu neighbors. The Baka religion is animist. They worship a forest spirit known as Jengi (or Djengi or Ejengi) whom they perceive as a parental guardian figure. Every successful hunt is followed by a dance known as 'Luma', where homage is paid to the forest spirit with drumming, singing, and dancing. One of the Bakas’ most important traditional ceremonies is a long and secret rite of initiation celebrating the passage of a boyhood into adulthood. Little is known about the specifics of the ceremony, as the Baka keep the details secret. It is known, however, that the the week-‐long ritual takes place in a special hut deep in the forest where they eat and sleep very little. The initiation ends with a ritual where boys come face to face with the Spirit of the Forest which "kills" them and brings them back to life as adults. Baka also practiced traditional medicine that is related to these religious beliefs. I mentioned earlier that music and dance are a large part of daily life for the Baka. The Baka, in particular, are well known for their unique style of music. Traditional Baka music consists of singing that resembles yodeling accompanied by the forest harp and water drum. They use songs for specific events and activities as well as for entertainment. Some of their vocal stylings have even been interpreted by modern musicians. Herbie Hancock, for example, interpreted Baka vocals in his famous song ‘Watermelon Man’. Thankfully, there are efforts to protect and promote Baka and other pygmy traditions and ways of life. There are individuals and organizations that have recorded and catalogued their music, language, and other facets of pygmy life, for example. The forces of globalization and international corporations who find value in the dense African forests, however, remain a major threat to the traditional pygmy way of life. As deforestation strips them of their traditional homeland and as they mix with other African ethnic groups, their way of life is pushed further and further into obscurity. Some of these changes are inevitable, I believe, but some of them are not. I’ll be living in a place where the Baka population is quite large, and I’ll likely be working with them on farming techniques and other income-‐generating activities. I hope that as part of that work I will learn more about this unique group of people and how to help ease the negative influences of globalization.
Andrew Knipe