Knipe African Pygmies (English)€¦ ·...

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“African Pygmies” I originally decided to do my project on the political history of Cameroon. After traveling to my post in Lomié and learning a bit about the local people, however, I became interested in learning more about one particular group there – the Pygmies. I realized that not only would I enjoy researching this group more than the political history of Cameroon, but it would also be a more interesting and unique presentation for my fellow stagaires. Here is what I discovered: The term “pygmy” is used for a variety of ethnic groups characterized by short stature and who live across the globe. The best know pygmy groups are the Mbenga, Mbuti, and Twa groups of central Africa and the socalled “Negritos” of Southeast Asia. Other groups fitting the term also live in Australia, Papua New Guinea, and Brazil. Anthropologists actually define “pygmy” as any group whose adult men grow to less than 150 cm (about 4 feet 11 inches) in average height. Among the ancient Greeks, Homer described a similarly sized people reputed to live in India and parts of East Africa (now Ethiopia), and Aristotle wrote of “a race of dwarfish men… in caves underground.” The etymology of the word is originally derived from Greek – via Latin – and corresponded to a measurement of the distance between the elbow and the knuckles. Needless to say, the term is generally considered pejorative. Most people who fit the description prefer to be called to by the name of their ethnic group or tribe, especially

Transcript of Knipe African Pygmies (English)€¦ ·...

Page 1: Knipe African Pygmies (English)€¦ · short!stature,!there!are!some!complementary!theories.!One!theory!suggests!that!their! limited!height!is!a!genetic!adaptation!to!low!ultraviolet!light!levels.!Under

“African  Pygmies”    

 I  originally  decided  to  do  my  project  on  the  political  history  of  Cameroon.  After  traveling  to  my  post  in  Lomié  and  learning  a  bit  about  the  local  people,  however,  I  became  interested  in  learning  more  about  one  particular  group  there  –  the  Pygmies.  I  realized  that  not  only  would  I  enjoy  researching  this  group  more  than  the  political  history  of  Cameroon,  but  it  would  also  be  a  more  interesting  and  unique  presentation  for  my  fellow  stagaires.      Here  is  what  I  discovered:    The  term  “pygmy”  is  used  for  a  variety  of  ethnic  groups  characterized  by  short  stature  and  who  live  across  the  globe.  The  best  know  pygmy  groups  are  the  Mbenga,  Mbuti,  and  Twa  groups  of  central  Africa  and  the  so-­‐called  “Negritos”  of  Southeast  Asia.  Other  groups  fitting  the  term  also  live  in  Australia,  Papua  New  Guinea,  and  Brazil.    Anthropologists  actually  define  “pygmy”  as  any  group  whose  adult  men  grow  to  less  than  150  cm  (about  4  feet  11  inches)  in  average  height.  Among  the  ancient  Greeks,  Homer  described  a  similarly  sized  people  reputed  to  live  in  India  and  parts  of  East  Africa  (now  Ethiopia),  and  Aristotle  wrote  of  “a  race  of  dwarfish  men…  in  caves  underground.”  The  etymology  of  the  word  is  originally  derived  from  Greek  –  via  Latin  –  and  corresponded  to  a  measurement  of  the  distance  between  the  elbow  and  the  knuckles.      Needless  to  say,  the  term  is  generally  considered  pejorative.  Most  people  who  fit  the  description  prefer  to  be  called  to  by  the  name  of  their  ethnic  group  or  tribe,  especially  

Page 2: Knipe African Pygmies (English)€¦ · short!stature,!there!are!some!complementary!theories.!One!theory!suggests!that!their! limited!height!is!a!genetic!adaptation!to!low!ultraviolet!light!levels.!Under

considering  that  many  of  these  groups  share  little  in  common  besides  their  height  and  comparative  isolation.    In  Africa,  pygmies  live  in  several  different  ethnic  groups  throughout  Rwanda,  Burundi,  Uganda,  Angola,  Botswana,  Namibia,  Zambia,  the  DRC,  the  Republic  of  Congo,  the  CAR,  Equatorial  Guinea,  Gabon,  and  Cameroon.    There  are  at  least  a  dozen  pygmy  groups  in  Africa,  and  many  of  them  are  ethnically  unrelated  to  one  another.  The  best-­‐known  African  groups  are  the  Mbenga  (including  the  Aka  and  Baka  tribes)  of  the  western  Congo  basin,  who  speak  Bantu  and  Ubangian  languages;  the  Mbuti  (including  the  Efé,  Asua,  and  Kango  tribes)  of  the  Ituri  Rainforest,  who  speak  Bantu  and  Central  Sudanic  languages;  and  the  Twa  of  the  Great  Lakes  area,  who  speak  Bantu,  Rundi,  and  Kiga  languages.    

                                   

 It  is  estimated  that  there  are  between  250,000  and  600,000  pygmies  living  in  the  Congo  rainforest  alone.  Although  pygmies  are  typically  forest  people,  the  Twa  groups  often  live  in  open  swamp  or  desert.    Most  pygmy  communities  are  hunter-­‐gatherers  and  live  at  least  partially  on  the  wild  products  of  their  environment.  Many  also  trade  with  neighboring  farmers  to  acquire  cultivated  foods  and  other  material  items.  Increasingly,  pygmy  groups  are  adopting  the  farming  techniques  of  their  African  neighbors  and  are  becoming  less  and  less  dependent  on  the  hunter-­‐gatherer  techniques  of  their  ancestors.  The  cultural  identity  of  most  pygmy  groups,  however,  is  still  very  closely  tied  to  the  rainforest,  as  are  their  spiritual  and  religious  views.  Most  groups’  music  and  dance  styles  reflect  this  reverence  and  remain  an  important  aspect  of  pygmy  life  in  Africa.    There  has  been  a  fair  amount  of  research  on  the  genetic  characteristics  of  different  pygmy  groups,  and  though  there  are  differing  hypotheses  as  to  the  reason  for  their  comparatively  

Page 3: Knipe African Pygmies (English)€¦ · short!stature,!there!are!some!complementary!theories.!One!theory!suggests!that!their! limited!height!is!a!genetic!adaptation!to!low!ultraviolet!light!levels.!Under

short  stature,  there  are  some  complementary  theories.  One  theory  suggests  that  their  limited  height  is  a  genetic  adaptation  to  low  ultraviolet  light  levels.  Under  the  constant  cover  of  the  dense  jungle  flora,  their  skin  might  absorb  relatively  little  vitamin  D,  thereby  limiting  the  calcium  uptake  necessary  for  bone  growth  and  maintenance.  Other  explanations  include  a  limited  level  of  calcium  in  the  rainforest  food  and  soil,  adaptations  to  the  need  to  move  through  the  thick  jungle  or  to  the  heat  and  humidity,  or  rapid  reproductive  maturation  due  to  early  mortality.  Yet  another  theory  suggests  that  pygmies  are  smaller  simply  because  they  do  not  experience  the  growth  spurt  typical  in  most  adolescent  humans.      Regardless  of  the  contributing  factors,  their  short  stature  and  relative  inexperience  with  the  “modern”  world  has  made  them  the  frequent  target  of  frequent  discrimination,  marginalization,  and  violence.  Throughout  history,  pygmies  have  been  viewed  as  inferior  both  by  colonial  authorities  and  the  local  Bantu  tribes  of  central  Africa.  Under  Belgian  colonial  rule,  for  example,  the  colonizers  exported  pygmy  children  to  zoos  throughout  Europe,  including  to  the  United  States  for  the  1907  World’s  Fair.  Another  man  named  Ota  Benga  was  displayed  at  the  Bronx  Zoo  in  New  York  City  amongst  monkeys  and  other  so-­‐called  “native  forest  creatures.”      In  Africa,  pygmies  are  often  evicted  from  their  land  and  given  the  lowest  paying  jobs.  Most  African  governments  do  not  consider  pygmies  as  citizens  and  they  are  usually  refused  identity  cards,  deeds  to  land,  health  care  and  schooling.  The  increase  in  deforestation  due  to  logging  and  mining  interests  in  the  Congo,  the  DRC,  the  CAR,  Gabon,  and  Cameroon,  in  particular,  have  greatly  added  to  their  marginalization.  By  forcing  them  out  of  their  traditional  homelands  and  into  local  villages  and  cities,  they  are  often  looked  down  upon  or  abused  by  the  dominant  culture.      In  some  cases,  such  as  in  Rwanda  and  the  DRC,  the  abuse  is  extremely  violent.  Certain  groups,  such  as  Rwanda’s  Hutus,  have  attempted  to  eradicate  the  pygmy  and  take  the  resources  of  the  forest  as  a  military  conquest.  In  the  Congo,  where  pygmies  make  up  five  to  ten  percent  of  the  population,  some  live  as  slaves  to  Bantu  masters.  That  nation,  in  particular,  is  highly  stratified  between  these  two  major  ethnic  groups.  Even  though  the  pygmies  are  responsible  for  much  of  the  hunting,  fishing  and  manual  labor  in  the  jungle  villages,  pygmies  and  Bantus  alike  say  pygmies  are  often  paid  only  occasionally  in  cigarettes,  used  clothing,  or  with  nothing  at  all.  As  a  result  of  increased  pressure  from  UNICEF  and  human  rights  activists,  however,  a  law  that  would  grant  special  protections  to  pygmy  people  was  recently  introduced  and  is  currently  awaiting  a  vote  by  the  Congolese  parliament.    In  Cameroon,  there  are  estimated  to  be  around  5,000  pygmies  belonging  to  the  Baka  tribe.  As  you  can  tell  by  the  map,  the  Baka  make  up  the  vast  majority  of  pygmies  in  Cameroon.  When  I  was  in  Lomié  for  my  site  visit,  I  had  the  opportunity  to  meet  one  family  of  Baka,  where  they  introduced  me  to  their  farm.  GeoAid,  the  NGO  with  whom  I  will  be  working  in  Lomié,  has  done  a  fair  amount  of  outreach,  education,  and  advocacy  on  their  behalf.  GeoAid  arranged  for  the  farmland  to  be  cleared,  they  donated  seeds,  they  set  up  farming  classes  with  a  local  expert,  and  they  taught  them  bookkeeping  practices.  These  Baka  now  live  off  

Page 4: Knipe African Pygmies (English)€¦ · short!stature,!there!are!some!complementary!theories.!One!theory!suggests!that!their! limited!height!is!a!genetic!adaptation!to!low!ultraviolet!light!levels.!Under

the  produce  from  the  farm  instead  of  foraging  for  their  food  on  a  daily  basis  and  sell  what  they  don’t  eat  to  the  locals.      Besides  a  diet  of  vegetables,  most  of  which  are  the  same  as  the  local  Bantu  diet  (such  as  yam,  fruit,  manioc,  maize,  and  palm  oil),  the  Baka  eat  insects  such  as  caterpillars,  termites,  and  termite  larvae.  Many  Baka  also  eat  crab,  shrimp,  fish,  and  the  occasional  crocodile  egg  that  they  are  able  to  catch  in  or  around  fresh  water.  They  then  carry  the  foodstuffs  back  to  camp  in  baskets  and  panniers,  where  they  are  shared  according  to  principles  of  reciprocity  and  mutual  assistance.  For  the  most  part,  the  food  is  eaten  immediately  or  within  a  few  days  from  the  gathering,  as  the  Baka  do  not  use  preservation  methods.  Needless  to  say,  food  gathering  in  the  rainforest  is  one  of  the  most  important  activities  for  the  survival  of  the  group.      For  catching  larger  animals,  the  Baka  use  bows  and  crossbows  with  poisoned  arrows.  The  Greater  Spot-­‐nosed  Monkey  (Cercopithecus  nictitans),  Red-­‐tailed  Monkey  (Cercopithecus  ascanius),  and  mantled  guereza  (Colobus  guereza)  are  rare  but  more  delectable  feasts.  More  common  bushmeat  meals  consist  of  antelope,  blue  duiker  (Cephalophus  monticola),  tree  pangolin,  giant  forest  rat  (Cricetomys  emini),  and  the  forest  mouse.  Most  of  these  animals  are  caught  using  traps.      In  Baka  society,  men  and  women  have  fairly  defined  roles.  Women  build  the  huts,  or  mongulus,  and  dam  small  streams  to  catch  fish.  When  they  roam  the  forest,  the  women  carry  their  few  possessions  and  follow  their  husbands.  Baka  men  have  the  more  prestigious  task  of  hunting  and  trapping.  The  Baka  have  no  specific  marriage  ceremonies,  but  evidence  suggests  that  marriages  are  contracted  during  the  hunting  season,  when  men  are  able  to  prove  their  hunting  abilities  by  bringing  game  home  to  their  potential  in-­‐laws.  Unlike  some  of  their  Bantu  neighbors,  the  Baka  do  not  practice  polygamy.      

 

   Traditional  Baka  houses  are  built  using  the  sticks,  branches  and  leaves  of  the  forest.  They  are  usually  small  and  igloo-­‐shaped.  As  they  traded  and  interacted  with  Bantus  over  the  years,  however,  their  houses  and  living  conditions  more  closely  resembled  those  of  the  

Page 5: Knipe African Pygmies (English)€¦ · short!stature,!there!are!some!complementary!theories.!One!theory!suggests!that!their! limited!height!is!a!genetic!adaptation!to!low!ultraviolet!light!levels.!Under

Bantu.  In  these  photos,  for  example,  these  Baka  have  used  rugs  instead  of  palm  branches  as  a  roof.  It  is  also  not  uncommon  today  to  see  Baka  living  in  small  houses  made  of  clay  bricks,  similar  to  their  rural  Bantu  neighbors.      The  Baka  religion  is  animist.  They  worship  a  forest  spirit  known  as  Jengi  (or  Djengi  or  Ejengi)  whom  they  perceive  as  a  parental  guardian  figure.  Every  successful  hunt  is  followed  by  a  dance  known  as  'Luma',  where  homage  is  paid  to  the  forest  spirit  with  drumming,  singing,  and  dancing.  One  of  the  Bakas’  most  important  traditional  ceremonies  is  a  long  and  secret  rite  of  initiation  celebrating  the  passage  of  a  boyhood  into  adulthood.  Little  is  known  about  the  specifics  of  the  ceremony,  as  the  Baka  keep  the  details  secret.  It  is  known,  however,  that  the  the  week-­‐long  ritual  takes  place  in  a  special  hut  deep  in  the  forest  where  they  eat  and  sleep  very  little.  The  initiation  ends  with  a  ritual  where  boys  come  face  to  face  with  the  Spirit  of  the  Forest  which  "kills"  them  and  brings  them  back  to  life  as  adults.  Baka  also  practiced  traditional  medicine  that  is  related  to  these  religious  beliefs.    I  mentioned  earlier  that  music  and  dance  are  a  large  part  of  daily  life  for  the  Baka.  The  Baka,  in  particular,  are  well  known  for  their  unique  style  of  music.  Traditional  Baka  music  consists  of  singing  that  resembles  yodeling  accompanied  by  the  forest  harp  and  water  drum.  They  use  songs  for  specific  events  and  activities  as  well  as  for  entertainment.  Some  of  their  vocal  stylings  have  even  been  interpreted  by  modern  musicians.  Herbie  Hancock,  for  example,  interpreted  Baka  vocals  in  his  famous  song  ‘Watermelon  Man’.    Thankfully,  there  are  efforts  to  protect  and  promote  Baka  and  other  pygmy  traditions  and  ways  of  life.  There  are  individuals  and  organizations  that  have  recorded  and  catalogued  their  music,  language,  and  other  facets  of  pygmy  life,  for  example.  The  forces  of  globalization  and  international  corporations  who  find  value  in  the  dense  African  forests,  however,  remain  a  major  threat  to  the  traditional  pygmy  way  of  life.  As  deforestation  strips  them  of  their  traditional  homeland  and  as  they  mix  with  other  African  ethnic  groups,  their  way  of  life  is  pushed  further  and  further  into  obscurity.      Some  of  these  changes  are  inevitable,  I  believe,  but  some  of  them  are  not.  I’ll  be  living  in  a  place  where  the  Baka  population  is  quite  large,  and  I’ll  likely  be  working  with  them  on  farming  techniques  and  other  income-­‐generating  activities.  I  hope  that  as  part  of  that  work  I  will  learn  more  about  this  unique  group  of  people  and  how  to  help  ease  the  negative  influences  of  globalization.        

Andrew  Knipe